PLANNING HISTORY AND THEORY

RURAL - URBAN MIGRATION

Submitted to

Dr.Shashi Mehta

Submitted by

Nithya. A,

M.Plan (U & R).

Amity School of Architecture & Planning (ASAP)

Amity University,
Gurugram (Manesar)

Date: 28.12.2021

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 CONTENTS

1. Introduction
1.1 Types of Migration
2. Factors of Migration
2.1 The Push factors
2.2 The Pull factors
3. Indian scenario
3.1 Rural – Urban migration in India
3.2 Reasons for Rural – Urban
3.3 Impacts
3.4 Case study of Pune & Surat
3.5 Legal provisions for migrants in India
3.6 Regional initiatives taken
4. Recommendations
5. Conclusion
6. References

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1. INTRODUCTION
Migration process has been one of most dynamic human activities from the very beginning of
human life. During early days people used to move from one forest to another in search of
forest products. When most of people divorced forest life and adopted civilized life they
developed relationship with domesticated animals and fertile land. Afterwards, the nature of
mobility frequently changed. The people moved from early civilized area to other parts of
world, partly for agricultural purposes or for trade and partly for investigation. Migration of
the people to big cities takes from all the corners of the country with different social and
cultural background. When such people meet in cities and stop living together, a new
cosmopolitan culture develops, cities are, therefore, known as “melting pot of cultures”. Such
cultures are more liberal, impersonal, self centered and more materialistic. One important
facet of study on population is the study of migration arising out of various social, economic
or political reasons. For a large country like India, the study of movement of population in
different parts of the country helps in understanding the dynamics of the society better
The majority of migrants worldwide, about 763 million, move within their own
countries rather than abroad. A large share of migrants comes from rural areas. They move
from one rural area to another or from rural to urban areas. For many, migration is a way to
cope with unemployment, food insecurity, poverty, or vulnerability to climate change. For
others, it is an effective livelihood diversification strategy to adapt to the seasonality of
agriculture. In recent years, demographic forces, globalization and climate change have been
increasing the pressure to migrate both within and across countries.

1.1 TYPES OF MIGRATION :

1. Emigration: Leaving one country to move to another (e.g., the Pilgrims emigrated
from England).
2. Immigration: Moving into a new country (e.g., the Pilgrims immigrated to
America).
3. Return Migration: When groups of people move back to where they came from.
4. Seasonal Migration: When people move with each season (e.g., farm workers
following crop harvests or working in cities off-season).
5. External Migration: Moving to a new home in a different state, country, or
continent
6. Internal Migration: Moving to a new home within a state, country, or continent.
Under internal migration there is Urban to urban migration , rural to rural

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 migration , rural to urban migration and urban to rural migration : These
types of migration refer to the movement of people from one urban or rural area to
a different urban or rural area. (IOM Glossary,2011).Rural –Urban Migration is
the migration of people from rural to urban areas. It occurs in both developed and
developing countries. In developed countries, such flow of population began in
early 19th century, but has slowed down nowadays. In developing countries such
flow started in early 20th century and is getting faster as time goes by.

2. FACTORS OF MIGRATION
Figure 1: Factors of migration

Source: world economic forum

Figure 1 is explained in the following,

2.1 Push factors

They are those in their old place which force people to move. For example, there may be
civil wars in general in the country, but political or religious oppression, climate changes,
lack of jobs or simply poverty are all important push factors. (such as a food shortage,
war, flood, etc.)
Population pressure and land fragmentation: Having little access to land in a
predominantly agrarian society leaves the land-less with few alternatives to migration. In

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some Latin American countries access to land is so limited that nearly all poor young
people view migration as their main and perhaps only livelihood option. The PPA in
Ecuador tellingly states “The voices of poor people in Ecuador are voices of people on
the move, travelling to new places in hope of improving their circumstances”. Many
young people in the study sites of Asociacion 10 de Agosto, Voluntad de Dios, La Calera,
and Tumbatu and Tablas possessed no land at all and a majority migrated temporarily or
permanently to work in factories, farms, as domestics, or selling handicrafts. The situation
in parts of Cambodia is the same where there are reports of “a new and growing breed of
land- less workers which has led to increased migration from rural areas to cities and
other countries”
Drought: Drought is the classic “push” affecting millions of people especially in sub-
Saharan Africa and South Asia. In Africa the movement of people in a fragile and
challenging environment can be seen as one of the main characteristics and drivers of
history). Drought-prone Sahelian and Sudanese rural economies have strong traditions of
trade and labour migration. It is estimated that the population of Nouakchott in
Mauritania rose forty-fold between 1965 and the end of the 1980s because of prolonged
drought and loss of livelihoods It is likely that migration will become even more
important: a European Food Security Network study of employment and labour mobility
in Ethiopia notes that migratory labour is likely to play an increasingly important role as a
coping mechanism for food-insecure rural house- holds.
Water-logging: Water-logging can also be a trigger for migration. In parts of Pakistan,
the uncontrolled use of irrigation water has resulted in the waterlogging and salination of
lands. This has led to falling crop yields, which in turn has led to migration by poor
families.
River-bank erosion: In Bangladesh several districts are affected by river bank erosion
which has been an important driver of migration. According to a study conducted in the
late 1980s the number of people affected annually by river bank erosion in the delta areas
was 1 million (Rahman, 1991). The study found that roughly 11 per cent of the squatters
in Dhaka came from Barisal district and a further 31 per cent from Faridpur (both districts
are very prone to river bank erosion). A further 19 per cent of the rickshaw pullers were
from Barisal and 32 per cent from Faridpur. Recent studies also show that such areas have
high outmigration rates
Poor mountain and forest economies: In the poor mountainous areas of South Asia low
agricultural productivity, poor access to credit or other pre-requisites for diversification
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 and high population dens- ities create the conditions for outmigration. A recent increase
in migration has been reported from Uttaranchal by Mamgain (2003) as the fragile
mountain ecosystem cannot support increasing populations. The poor mountainous
districts of Nepal also have high rates of outmigration. More or less the same factors
create a push from many forested areas where population pressure has increased and CPR
based livelihoods have become unsustainable. The very high rates seen from forested
tribal areas of Madhya Pradesh in India are an example of this.
Apart from environmental push factors is the downsizing of public sector jobs and overall
stagnation in formal sector job creation. In MENA countries migration has been triggered
by a rapid growth of their labour forces, high rates of unemployment, and a heavy
reliance on the public sector for job creation 9 (which is now being downsized under
structural adjustment). Roughly 70 per cent of the poor in the MENA region live in rural
areas. Since the 1970s, the share of employment in agriculture has declined rapidly but
manufacturing and other industries have not increased proportionally creating a stream of
rural-urban migration in all MENA countries, leading to rapid urbanization and, in turn,
to the transformation of urban spaces into clusters of unemployed people.
2.2 Pull factors
They are factors in the target country which encourage people to move these include
peace and safety, a chance of a better standard of living in general as well as political and
religious freedom.(such as nicer climate, better food supply, etc.) The “pull”: often new
opportunities in urban-based industry and services: In the 1950s, development economists
viewed the demand for labour created by “growing modern industrial complexes” and the
gap in rural and urban wages as the main “pull” factor. There have since been many
models and debates on what motiv- ates people to migrate including theories of
“expected” as opposed to actual wage differentials. Other pull factors include the desire to
acquire skills or gain new experi- ences. In the case of voluntary migration of the poor for
economic reasons, the wage gap is probably the most important pull and the most
important recent determinants of this appear to be urbanization and the spread of
manufacturing.
Urbanization: Urbanization has been a major driver of internal migration in many
countries and has overtaken other factors in many Asian locations . Rates of urbanization
influence rural- urban wage differences: an increase in the demand for labour in urban
areas can push up urban wages and increase migration. Rural-urban differences in
average incomes increased in many South and East Asian countries during the 1990s,
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 especially in China and fell in most African countries (IFAD, 2001). Current ESCAP
projections are that urbanization rates in South and South-West Asia will soon exceed
other regions in Asia. Urbanization is progressing throughout Africa albeit more slowly:
in 1960, 18 per cent of the population lived in urban centres (i.e. in settlements with more
than 2,000 people). In 1990, the figure had increased to 34 per cent for Africa as a whole.

3. INDIAN SCENARIO
The latest government data on migration comes from the 2011 Census. As per the Census,
India had 45.6 crore migrants in 2011 (38% of the population) compared to 31.5 crore
migrants in 2001 (31% of the population). Between 2001 and 2011, while population grew
by 18%, the number of migrants increased by 45%. In 2011, 99% of total migration was
internal and immigrants (international migrants) comprised 1%.But India has been described
as a ‘reluctant urbaniser’. The rate of urbanisation increased from 17.3 per cent in 1951 to
31.2 per cent in 2011, representing just 2.3 per cent increase per decade. In 2011, rural to
urban migration contributed only about 18 per cent to the total urban increment of population.
This essentially highlights that urban centres in India have not been able to emerge as
magnets for creation of employment opportunities attracting rural people on a scale as seen in
China and South Korea.
Who is a migrant in india ?
 In the Census of India migration is enumerated on two bases (i)place of birth, if the
place of birth is different from the place of enumeration (known as life-time migrant);
(ii) place of residence, if the place of last residence is different from the place of
enumeration (known as migrant by place of last residence). As per 2011 census, out of
1,210 million people in the country, 455.8 million (about 37%) were reported as
migrants of place of last residence.
 National Statistical Office (NSO) – NSO uses the concept of ‘Usual Place of
Residence’ criteria to define migrants. If a person continuously stayed at least six
months or more in a place (village/town) other than the place of enumeration then at
the place of enumeration he/she will be considered as migrant.

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3.1 Rural – urban migration in india

About 450 million of 1.2 billion Indians migrated within the country, according to recently released
Census 2011 data. Of this, 78 million, or 15.6% of all domestic migrants, moved from rural to urban
areas. This is how their numbers have changed over 2001 and where they moved.

The number of migrants who moved from rural to urban areas stood at 52 million out of a total
population of 1.02 billion, as per the 2001 Census. Thus, the 2011 number of 78 million is a jump of
51%. The share of rural-to-urban migrants in the population rose from 5.06% in 2001 to 6.5% in
2011. Women outnumber men in making the rural-to-urban shift. Of the 78 million, 55% were
females and they outnumbered males in 554 of the 640 districts. The share of male rural-to-urban
migrants in the total male population rose from 4.6% to 5.7%; for females, the share rose from 5.5%
to 7.4%.

Migration pattern concentrated in some areas

There is a concentration of movement, partly because few districts have a principally urban construct
and partly because economic opportunities show geographical skews. In terms of the number of
rural-to-urban migrants received, the share of the top 25 districts was 31%. Six of these districts are
in Maharashtra, five in Delhi, four in Gujarat and three each in West Bengal and Tamil Nadu.
Beyond the metros, the top districts in terms of the number of such migrants are Surat in Gujarat,
Rangareddy in Telangana and Thrissur in Kerala.
Six districts have more than a million migrants who made the rural-to-urban move: Mumbai
Suburban, Surat, Thane, Pune, Bengaluru and Ahmedabad.

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Figure 2: Migration concentration

Figure 2 shows The flow of migrants into an area changes its population mix. For example, Daman, a
Union territory that has a small local population but is also an industrial zone, has migrants from
rural areas making up about 50% of its population. However, the share of rural-to-urban migrants is
over 20% in just 23 of the 640 districts (see map). In 374 districts, this figure is below 5%. Beyond
Union territories (UTs), Bilaspur in Chhattisgarh has the highest share of rural-to-urban migrants in
its population (39%).

INTER STATE MIGRATION

As of 2011, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar were the largest source of inter-state migrants while Maharashtra and
Delhi were the largest receiver states. Around 83 lakh residents of Uttar Pradesh and 63 lakh residents of
Bihar had moved either temporarily or permanently to other states. Around 60 lakh people from across India
had migrated to Maharashtra by 2011. Some of the prominent migrant recipient states are Maharashtra,
Gujarat, Delhi, Haryana, West Bengal. The migrants sending states are Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan,
Madhya Pradesh, Uttarakhand and Odisha. Uttar Pradesh was the state, which had the largest number of
net out-migrants from the state.

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 Figure 3 : Migration Corridors and its flow

Source: Migration Policy Institute, 2014 with additional routes from Kashyap, 2016

Figure 3 shows The significant migration corridors that emerge at the national level for rural –urban
migration are –

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan, Karnataka Maharashtra

Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Odisha. Madhya Pradesh Gujarat

Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Haryana, Uttarakhand Delhi

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Figure 4 & 5 shows the share of rural-urban migrants to total urban population in indian states and
their percentage of growth in years.

Facts of rural-urban migration in India

i. Every fifth person in Urban India is a migrant from rural areas

ii. Every seventh migrant (rural-urban) is in Maharashtra
iii. Arunachal Pradesh has the highest percentage of rural migrants
iv. Every second male migrated to urban areas for employment
v. Every second female migrated to urban areas due to marriage
vi. Every third rural-urban migrant has migrated in the last 10 years
vii. Every fourth rural-urban migrant is illiterate
viii. Three in every four rural-urban migrants are of working age (15-59 years)

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3.2 Reasons for migration
Figure 6 : Reasons for migration

Figure 7 : Reasons for intra-state migration

Sources: Census 2011; PRS.

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Figure 8 :Reasons for inter-state migration

Sources: Census 2011; PRS.

The figures are explained here ,

As of 2011, majority (70%) of intra-state migration was due to reasons of marriage and family with
variation between male and female migrants. While 83% of females moved for marriage and family,
the corresponding figure for males was 39%. Overall, 8% of people moved within a state for work
(21% of male migrants and 2% of female migrants).

Movement for work was higher among inter-state migrants- 50% of male and 5% of female inter-
state migrants. As per the Census, there were 4.5 crore migrant workers in
2011. However, according to the Working Group Report on Migration, the Census underestimates
the migrant worker population. Female migration is recorded as movement due to family since that
is the primary reason. However, many women take up employment after migrating which is not
reflected in the number of women moving for work-related reasons.

According to the Economic Survey, 2016-17, Census data also underestimates temporary migrant
labour movement. In 2007-08, the NSSO estimated the size of India’s migrant labour at seven crore
(29% of the workforce). The Economic Survey, 2016-17, estimated six crore inter-state labour
migrants between 2001-2011. The Economic Survey also estimated that in each year between 2011-
2016, on average 90 lakh people travelled for work.

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3.3 IMPACTS OF MIGRATION IN INDIA

In India, policies and programmes have largely been ineffective in providing any form of legal or
social protection to internal migrants. Regulations and administrative procedures exclude migrants
from accessing social protection and portability of entitlements is limited. Internal migrants lack
political representation; adequate housing and basic infrastructure; proper wages and job security;
integration with urban mainstream labour market; access to health and education facilities and are
vulnerable to exploitation and crime. Limited data on nature and scale of internal migration at regular
interval constrains designing of effective policies and programme. Census does not capture details of
short-term migrants. Figure 9: Impacts of migration

Source: world economic forum

ECONOMIC CONSEQUENCES

Migration from rural areas of Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Madhya Pradesh and Odisha to the rural
areas of Punjab, Haryana, Western Uttar Pradesh accounted for the success of their green revolution
strategy for agricultural development. Besides this, unregulated migration to the metropolitan cities
of India has caused overcrowding. Development of slums in industrially developed states such as
Maharashtra, Gujarat, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Delhi is a negative consequence of unregulated
migration within the country.

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Rapid population growth-Waves of immigrants from rural areas never stop.Very few people leave
the city.Therefore, there is a big net gain in population.Most immigrants are young adults.They know
little about birth control and family planning.The birth rate is very high.However, the death rate is
very low.Therefore, there is a big natural increase in population.

High unemployment -There is a great increase in population.Economic development is slow.The

increase of job is not fast enough.Many people are unemployed.High unemployment may lead to
social problems.

Demographic Consequences

Migration leads to the redistribution of the population within a country. Rural urban migration is one
of the important factors contributing to the population growth of cities. Age and skill selective out
migration from the rural area have adverse effect on the rural demographic structure. However, high
out migration from Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh and Eastern Maharashtra have brought
serious imbalances in age and sex composition in these states. Similar imbalances are also brought in
the recipients states.

Social Consequences

Migrants act as agents of social change. The new ideas related to new technologies, family planning,
girl’s education, etc. get diffused from urban to rural areas through them. Migration leads to
intermixing of people from diverse cultures. It has positive contribution such as evolution of
composite culture and breaking through the narrow considerations and widens up the mental horizon
of the people at large. But it also has serious negative consequences such as anonimity, which creates
social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals. Continued feeling of dejection may
motivate people to fall in the trap of anti-social activities like crime and drug abuse.

Horizon of the people at large. But it also has serious negative consequences such as anonymity,
which creates social vacuum and sense of dejection among individuals. Continued feeling of
dejection may motivate people to fall in the trap of anti-social activities like crime and drug abuse.

Conflicts between local people and migrants-They are different from each other in religion,
tradition,custom outlook, educational level, language, race, etc.Therefore, misunderstandings
arise.The local people do not want those outsiders:to share their facilities and services:to take away
their jobs;to bring along problems of congestion and pollution.Therefore, the local people do not like
the immigrants.The immigrants thus feel being looked down on and ill-treated.

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Shortage of facilities and services-Urban population increases too fast.The city government has
very limited resources.The number of facilities like electricity and water supply, and services like
schools and hospitals only increases very slowly.The facilities and services cannot meet the needs of
people.Life quality becomes poor.

Shortage of houses - Urban population increases too fast.The increase of houses is too slow.The
poor immigrants cannot afford good housing.The government is not fast enough to provide public
housing. Cottage areas or shanty towns appear and spread.The living conditions are very poor there

Feminisation of migration: Figures 7 & 8 shows that Migration (even excluding the marriage
migration) affects the status of women directly or indirectly. In the rural areas, male selective out
migration leaving their wives behind puts extra physical as well mental pressure on the women.
Migration of ‘women’ either for education or employment enhances their autonomy and role in the
economy. Migrant women and adolescent girls are more vulnerable to sexual harassment and abuse.
They are less paid and their economic contribution is not recognised. Children are the most
unrecognized and vulnerable groups among internal migrants. Migration delays school entry,
increases the dropout rate and forces early entry into labour market.

Issues faced by migrant labour

Article 19(1)(e) of the Constitution, guarantees all Indian citizens the right to reside and settle in any
part of the territory of India, subject to reasonable restrictions in the interest of the general public or
protection of any scheduled tribe. However, people migrating for work face key challenges
including: i) lack of social security and health benefits and poor implementation of minimum safety
standards law, ii) lack of portability of state-provided benefits especially food provided through the
public distribution system (PDS) and iii) lack of access to affordable housing and basic amenities in

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3.4 CASE STUDY OF PUNE & SURAT

CASE STUDY OF PUNE

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CASE STUDY OF SURAT :

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3.5 Legal Provisions for Migrants
Direct provision :
The Inter-State Migrant Workers Act, 1979. There is Poor implementation of protections under
the Inter-State Migrant Workmen Act, 1979 (ISMW Act)
The ISMW Act provides certain protections for inter-state migrant workers. Labour contractors
recruiting migrants are required to: (i) be licensed, (ii) register migrant workers with the government
authorities, and (iii) arrange for the worker to be issued a passbook recording their
identity. Guidelines regarding wages and protections (including accommodation, free medical
facilities, protective clothing) to be provided by the contractor are also outlined in the law.

In December 2011, a report by the Standing Committee on Labour observed that registration of
workers under the ISMW Act was low and implementation of protections outlined in the Act was
poor. The report concluded that the Central government had not made any concrete and fruitful
efforts to ensure that contractors and employers mandatorily register the workers employed with
them enabling access to benefits under the Act.

Indirect provisions are

1. The Building and Other Construction Workers’ (Regulation of Employment and Conditions
of Service) Act, 1996
2. The Contract Labour Regulation and Abolition Act, 1970
3. The Immoral Traffic (Prevention) Act, 1956
4. Codes of Wages, 2017
5. The Street Vendors (Protection of Livelihood and Regulation of Street Vending) Act, 2014
6. Protection of Children from Sexual Offences Act, 2012
7. Domestic Workers Welfare and Social Security Act, 2010

3.5 Regional Initiatives

Labornet: A social enterprise in Bangalore established an interface between informal workers and
employers. The enterprise has till now developed a database of 45,000 workers, and provide services
on financial inclusion, linkage with social security and welfare schemes to informal workers.

Ration Kruti Samiti: A network of civil society organisations of Maharashtra was instrumental in
passing of the government resolution which helped both inter and intrastate migrants in accessing
public distribution system.

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Aajeevika Bureau: Works with migrant communities at both source and destination. Few initiatives
taken are Shramik Sahayata evam Sandarbha Kendras, a network of walk-in resource centres for
migrant workers; Labour Line, a phone-based help line for workers; Issuance of ID proof; Skill
Development; Legal aid etc

Housing: The Aatma Nirbhar Bharat Abhiyaan also launched a scheme for Affordable Rental Housing
Complexes for Migrant Workers and Urban Poor to provide affordable rental housing units under
PMAY. The scheme proposes to use existing housing stock under the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban
Housing Mission (JnNURM) as well as incentivise public and private agencies to construct new affordable
units for rent. Further, additional funds have been allocated for the credit linked subsidy scheme under
PMAY for middle income group.

4.RECOMMENDATIONS

 Develop a comprehensive legal and policy framework on migration

 Enable evidence-based policy formulation
 Setting up of Migration Resource Centers and migration helplines
 Registration and issuance of identity proofs to migrants
 Portability of entitlements
 Financial and Political Inclusion
 Integration of migrants with urban main-stream labour market
 Inclusion through housing and social security
 Inclusive master plan ensuring migrants’ right to city

How can governments and other national and international organizations encourage rural
migration that benefits all actors?
The FAO Framework for Migration proposes four main actions to effectively address the
phenomenon of rural migration. These recommendations are:
1. Minimise the causes of migration and offer alternatives in rural areas, creating decent
employment opportunities and mitigating the impacts of climate change;
2. Facilitate rural mobility, developing agricultural migration plans and information campaigns for
migrants and promoting opportunities for cooperation between rural and urban areas.
3. Accentuate the benefits of migration, promoting the investment of remittances and highlighting
the usefulness of migration as an adaptation strategy to climate change;
4. Promote the well-being of migrants, providing support for their incorporation into host
communities.
With the deterioration of climatic and environmental conditions, the mechanization of work in the
field and the high rates of rural poverty, rural migration to cities will continue to be an important

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issue to address, because of its determining effects on the achievement of food security and rural and
urban sustainability.
The following figures show the framework for preparing the cities for migration
Figures 10 & 11 : Framework for Migration Preparedness

Source: World Economic Forum Future of Urban Development and Services Initiative

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Figures are explained here , Even though to minimize the rural to urban migration and to prevent the
move to cities the following are the some measures has to be taken by government and government
organizations. where migrants who acquire new skills, new money and new outlooks help transform
the institution. However, such volunteer return migration is likely to be attenuated to Nearly all
sectors employ migrant workers (including children) through a complex system of contractors and
agents who are well-positioned to exploit illiterate and poor workers. Where workers have become
more experienced and confident the hold of market intermediaries has weakened but in the absence
of effective employment exchanges for the poor, agents and contractors provide vital information
and job opportunities to people who would otherwise be unemployed in villages. The immediate
need is to change the policy level discourse on migration by reviewing key documents and policies
and moving away from theory and language which portrays migration as bad and something that
must be stopped. Other Asian countries have recognised the need to support migrant workers and
reduce their vulnerability by improving their access to education, housing and health programmes.
India needs to take similar steps urgently. Without such recognition and action large parts of the
population will continue to be excluded and this will compromise India’s prospects for poverty
reduction and reaching the Millenium Development Goals.

5.CONCLUSION

Migrant workers play an essential role in agri-food systems and ensuring food supplies. Fostering
rural-urban socio-economic linkages; enhancing and diversifying employment opportunities in agri-
food systems and green sectors, especially for women and youth; helping the poor to better manage
risks through social protection; and leveraging remittances for investments in the rural sector can be
effective strategies for improving livelihoods, increasing resilience and addressing the adverse
drivers of migration. At the same time, it is key to facilitate better mobility between rural and urban
areas, and between sectors of the economy to enhance the benefits of migration and its contribution
to agriculture, rural development and climate adaptation.

The covid-19 pandemic, and the consequent isolation measures and mobility restrictions, have
further heightened the urgency to address the issue of urban overpopulation and informal settlements
in central america, where there is a greater risk of contracting the illness, in addition to having
limited access to basic services. Encouraging the design of comprehensive policies that consider the
well-being of migrants in their migratory processes to cities, the effects of climate change and urban
overpopulation is a necessary strategy to promote sustainable rural and urban development

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Hence, rural-urban migration has crucial implications not only for rural, but also urban development
and sustainability. For example, current challenges such as urban overpopulation or the loss of
traditional crops and agrobiodiversity depend directly on rural migratory flows. To resolve these
issues, it is necessary to draw attention to their roots: the countryside and migration.

6.REFERENCES

 Afsar R. (2003)Dynamics of poverty, development and population mobility

 Census, 2011, Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, Ministry of Home
Affairs.

 Report of Working Group on Migration, Ministry of Housing and Urban Poverty

Alleviation, January 2017, http://mohua.gov.in/upload/uploadfiles/files/1566.pdf.

 Order No. 40-3/2020-DM-I (A), Ministry of Home Affairs, April 29,

2020, https://prsindia.org/files/covid19/notifications/4233.IND_Movement_of_Persons_April
_29.pdf.

 Migration and Its Impact on Cities | World Economic Forum. (n.d.). Retrieved January 4,
2022, from https://www.weforum.org/reports/migration-and-its-impact-on-cities

 Migration in India and the impact of the lockdown on migrants. (n.d.). Retrieved January 3,
2022, from https://prsindia.org/theprsblog/migration-in-india-and-the-impact-of-the-
lockdown-on-migrants

 Hogan, D. J., & Pinto da Cunha, J. M. (2001). Internal Migration: Developing Countries.
International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, 7733–7737.
https://doi.org/10.1016/B0-08-043076-7/02224-5

 Sangappa Sali, R. (2015). CAUSES AND CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION IN INDIA:

A SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE. Golden Research Thoughts

 What the rural to urban move says about migration. (n.d.). Retrieved January 4, 2022, from
https://www.livemint.com/news/india/what-the-rural-to-urban-move-says-about-migration-
1564424289751.html

 Mainstreaming rural migrants in urban India; towards creating inclusive cities policy
briefing,National Urban affairs.

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