Foundations of Curriculum

1. Philosophical Foundations
Educators, teachers, educational planners and policy makers must have a philosophy or strong belief
about education and schooling and the kind of curriculum in the teachers classrooms or learning
environment. Philosophy of the curriculum answers questions like: What.are schools for? What subjects
are important? How should students learn? What methods should be used? What outcomes should be
achieved? Why?

The various activities in school are influenced in one way or another by a philosophy. John Dewey
influenced the use of learning by doing", he being a pragmatist. Or to an essentialist, the focus is on the
fundamentals of reading, writing and arithmetic, the essential subjects in the curriculum.

There are many philosophies in education but we will illustrate only those as presented by Ornstein and
Hunkins in 2004.

A. PERENNIALISM

Aim: To educate the rational person, cultivateintellect

Role: Teachers assist students to think with reason (critical thinking: HOTS)

Focus: Classical subjects, literary analysis Curriculum is enduring

Trends: Use of great books (Bible, Koran Classics) and Liberal Artsh

B. ESSENTIALISM

Aim: To promote intellectual growth of learners to become competent

Role: Teachers are sole authorities in the subject area.

Focus: Essential skills of the 3Rs; essential subjects

Trends: Back to basics, Excellence in education, cultural literacy

C. PROGRESSIVISM

Aim: Promote democratic social living

Role: Teacher leads for growth and development of lifelong learners

Focus: Interdisciplinary subjects. Learner-centered. Outcomes-based

Trends: Equal opportunities for all, contextualized curriculum, Humanistic education

D. RECONSTRUCTIVISM

Aim: To improve and reconstruct society Education for change

Role: Teacher acts as agent of change and reforms

Focus: Present and future educational landscape

Trends: School and curricular reform, education, Collaboration and Convers Standards and
Competencies

2. Historical Foundations
Where is curriculum development coming from? The historical foundations will show to us the
chronological development along a time line. Reading materials would tell us that curriculum
development started when Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) wrote the book The Curriculum. Let us see how
each one contributed to curriculum development during his own time. Here are eight among the many
whom we consider to have great contributions.

FRANKLIN BOBBIT

He started the curriculum development movement. Curriculum as a science that emphasizes student’s
needs.

Curriculum prepares learners for adult life.

Objectives and activities should group together when tasks are clarified.

WERRET CHARTER

Like Bobbit, he posited that curriculum is science and emphasizes students' needs.

Objectives and activities should match. Subject matter or content relates to objectives.

WILLIAM KILPARTICK

Curicula are purposeful activities which are child-centered.

The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. He introduced this project method
where teacher and student plan the activities.Curriculum develops sOCial relationships and smal1group
instruction

HARROLD RUGG

Curriculum should develop the whole child. It ischild-centered.With the statement of objectives and
related learning activities, curriculum should produceoutcomes.He emphasized social studies and
suggested that the teacher plans curriculum in advance.

HOLLIS CASWELL

Curriculum is organized around social functioneof themes, organized knowledge and learner'sinterest.

Curriculum, instruction and learning are interrelated.

Curriculum is a set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around social functions and
learnersinterests.

RALPH TYLER

Curriculum is a science and an extension of school's philosophy. It is based on students' needsand

interest.

Curriculum is always related to instruction.

Subject matter is organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values.

The process emphasizes problem solving.

Curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists.

HILDA TABA

She contributed to the theoretical and pedagogical foundations of concepts development and critical
thinking in social studies curriculum.

She helped lay the foundation for diverse student population.

PETER OLIVA

He described curriculum change as a cooperativeendeavor,Teachers and curriculum specialist constitute

the professional core of planners.Significant improvement is achieved through group activity.

3. Psychological Foundation of Curriculum

Psychology provides a basis to understand the teachingand learning process. It unifies elements of the
learning process. Questions which can be addressed by psychological foundations of education are: How
should curriculum be organized to enhance learning? What is the optimal level of students' participation
in learning the various contents of the curriculum? In this module, we shall consider three groups of
learning theories: behaviorism or association theories; cognitive-information processing theories and
humanistic theories (Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004).

Let us review some theories in learning related to theseclusters of learning theories.

3.1 Association and Behaviorism

IVAN PAVLOV

He is the father of the classical conditioningtheory, the S-R theory.

The key to learning is early years of life is to train them what you want them to become.S-R Theory is a
foundation of learning practice called indoctrination.
EDWARD THORNDIKE

championed the connectionism theory.

He proposed the three laws of learning:

Law of readiness

Law of exercise

Law of effect

Specific stimulus has specific response.

ROBERT GAGNE

He proposed the hierarchical learning theory.

Learning follows a hierarchy.

Behavior is based on prerequisite conditions.

He introduced tasking in the formulation of objectives.

3.2 Cognitive Information Processing Theory

Theories of Jean Piagetom

Cognitive development has stages from birth to maturity.

Sensorimotor stage (0-2), preoperationa (2-7), concrete operations stage (7-11) and anal stageformal
operations (11 - onwards).

Keys to learning

Assimilation (incorporation of new experience)

Accommodation (learning modification and

adaptation)

Equilibration (balance between previous and

later learning)

LEV VYGOTSKY

Cultural transmission and development stage.

Children could, as a result of their interaction with society, actually perform certain cognitiveactions
prior to arriving at developmental stage.

Learning precedes development.

Sociocultural development theory.

Keys to Learning:

Pedagogy creates learning processes that lead to development.

The child is an active agent in his oreducational process.

HOWARD GARDNER

Gardner's multiple intelligences

Humans have several different ways ofprocessing information and these ways are relatively
independent of one another.There are eight intelligences: linguistic, logico-mathematical, musical,
spatial, bodily/kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic

DANIEL GOLEMAN

Emotion contains the power to affect action.

He called this Emotional Quotient.

3.3 Humanistic Psychology

Gestalt Theory

Learning is explained in terms of "wholeness of the problem.

Human beings do not respond to isolated stimulibut to an organization or pattern of stimuli.

Keys to learning

Learning is complex and abstract.

Learners analyze the problem, discriminate between essential and nonessential data, and perceive
relationships.

Learners will perceive something in relation to the whole. What/how they perceive is related totheir
previous experiences.

ABRAHAM MASLOW

He advanced the Self-Actualization Theory.

Classic theory of human needs

A child whose basic needs are not met will not be interested in acquiring knowledge of the world.

He put importance to human emotions, based on love and trust.

Key to learning

Produce a healthy and happy learner who can accomplish, grow and actualize his or her human self.

CARL ROGERS

Nondirective and therapeutic learningHe established counselling procedures and

methods for facilitating learning.

Children's perceptions, which are highly individualistic, influence their learning andbehaviour in class.

Key to learning

Curriculum is concerned with process, notproduct, personal needs, not subject matter, psychological
meaning, not cognitive scores.

4.0 Social Foundations of Curriculum

Society as a source of change.

Schools as agents of change.

Knowledge as an agent of change.

EMILE DURKHEIM

Infuence of society and social context in education

Things that surround individuals can change, develop their behavior.

Considered two fundamental elements which are schools and civil society.

ALVIN TOFFLER

Wrote the book Future Shock

Believed that knowledge should prepare students for the future

Suggested that in the future, parents might have the resources to teach prescribed curriculum from
home as a result of technology, not in spite of it. (Home Sehooling)

Foresaw schools and students worked creatively, collaboratively, and independent of their age.
OTHER THEORISTS

Education as a means of shaping the person and society fhrough critical reflections and
"conscientization'

Teachers use questioning and problem posing approach to raise students consciousness

Emphasis on questioning problem posing and critical thinking

Major book: Pedagogy of the Oppressed, 1968

JOHN GOODLAD

Curriculum organized around needs of societyand the students

Reduce student conformity in classroomConstant need for school improvement

Emphasis on active learning and critical thinkingInvolvenment of students in planning curriculum

content and instructional activities

Need to align content with standards

Major book: A Place Called Schools, 1984; What

Are Schools For? 1989

WILLIAM PINAR

Broaden the conception of curriculum to enrich the practice.

Understand the nature of the educationalexperienceCurriculum involves multiple disciplines

Curriculum should be studied from a historical, racial, gendered, phenomenological, postmodern,

theological and international perspectives.

In summary, the foundation upon which curriculum is based are educational philosophies, historical
developments, psychological explanations, and societal influences. All of these foundations are
interrelated.