Pre-Islamic Arabic Prose Literature & Its Growth

PG PROGRAMME
ISLAMIC STUDIES
Semester—I
IS18104CR
(ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN ISLAM)
DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR
IS18104CR
Copyright © Directorate of Distance Education, University of Kashmir
First Edition: 2020
ISBN:
Course Prepared by:

Dr. Mehraj-ud-Din Bhat
Assistant Professor, Islamic Studies
Islamic University of Science and Technology, Awantipora
Content Editing by:
Prof. Nasim Ahmad Shah
Department of Islamic Studies, University of Kashmir
Format Editing by:
Dr. Mohammad Dawood Sofi
Assistant Professor, Islamic Studies (Contractual)
Directorate of Distance Education, University of Kashmir
Coordinated by:
1. Dr. Mohammad Altaf Ahanger
Sr. Assistant Professor (Urdu)
2. Dr. Mohammad Dawood Sofi
Published by:
Director
Directorate of Distance Education
University of Kashmir
Srinagar
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Table of Contents Page No
Unit I Muslim Arts

i) Concept of Art in Islam 8-16
ii) Types of Muslim Art-I 17-28
iii) Types of Muslim Art-II 29-43
iv) Types of Fine Arts 44-61
Unit II Muslim Architecture

i) Concept and Origin of Muslim Architecture 63-77
ii) Salient Features of Muslim Architecture 78-87
iii) Classical Muslim Architecture (Damascus, 88-107
Baghdad, Cordova, Cairo, Istanbul and Isfahan)
iv) Indo-Muslim Architecture 108-119
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A Note to the Students
Assalamu Alykum
Dear Students
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1. Introduction/Background
2. Aims and Objectives
3. Main Topic/Lesson
4. Let Us Sum Up
5. Check Your Progress
6. Suggested Readings
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Now you may have understood the purpose behind division of a topic into various sub topics.
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Sr. Assistant Professor (Urdu)
2. Dr. Mohammad Dawood Sofi
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Unit I
ART IN ISLAM
i) Concept of Art in Islam
ii) Types of Muslim Art-I
iii) Types of Muslim Art-II
iv) Types of Fine Arts
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UNIT I
Lesson 01: Concept of Art in Islam
Lesson Structure
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 Objectives
1.1.3 Understanding Art in Islam
1.1.4 Definition of Islamic
1.1.5 Sources of Muslim Art
1.1.6 Themes in Islamic Architecture
1.1.7 The Spiritual Message of Islamic Art
1.1.8 Let Us Sum Up
1.1.9 Check Your Progress
1.1.10 Suggested Readings
1.1.1 Introduction
Islam is both a religion and a civilization, a historical reality that spans over fourteen centuries of
human history and a geographical presence in vast areas stretching over the Asian and African
continents and even parts of Europe. It is also a spiritual reality that manifests in diverse forms.
One among the important forms of understanding the essence of Islam is the form of Art. The
term Islamic art not only describes the art created specifically in the service of the Muslim
faith (for example, a mosque and its furnishings) but also characterizes the art and architecture
historically produced in the lands ruled by Muslims, produced for Muslim patrons, or created by
Muslim artists. As it is not only a religion but a way of life, Islam fostered the development of a
distinctive culture with its own unique artistic language that is reflected in art and architecture
throughout the Muslim world. This lesson will discuss the concept of Art in Islam and how it
develops in Muslim civilization.
1.1.2 Objectives
 To discuss the concept of Art in Islam
 To discuss and highlight diverse aspects related to Islamic Art
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1.1.3 Understanding Art in Islam

Islamic art is a modern concept created by art historians in the 19th century to facilitate
categorization and study of the material first produced under the Islamic peoples that emerged
from Arabia in the seventh century. Islamic art is equally difficult to characterize because it
covers a wide range of lands, periods, and genres, including Islamic architecture, Islamic
calligraphy, Islamic Miniature, Islamic pottery and textile arts such as carpets and embroidery.
The term Islamic art describes all of the arts that were produced in the lands where Islam was the
dominant religion or the religion of those who ruled. Unlike the terms Christian art, Jewish art,
and Buddhist art—which refer only to religious art of these faiths—the term Islamic art is not
used merely to describe religious art or architecture but applies to all art forms produced in the
Islamic world. With its geographic spread and long history, Islamic art was inevitably subject to
a wide range of regional and even national styles and influences as well as changes within the
various periods of its development. It is all the more remarkable then that, even under these
circumstances, Islamic art has always retained its intrinsic quality and unique identity.
Islamic art encompasses the visual arts produced from the seventh century onward by both
Muslims and non-Muslims who lived within the territory that was inhabited by, or ruled by,
culturally Islamic populations. It is thus a very difficult art to define because it spans some 1400
years, covering many lands and populations. This art is also not of a specific religion, time,
place, or single medium. Instead, Islamic art covers a range of artistic fields including
architecture, calligraphy, painting, glass, ceramics, and textiles, among others. Islamic art is not
restricted to religious art, but instead includes all of the art of the rich and varied cultures of
Islamic societies. It frequently includes secular elements and elements that are forbidden by
some Islamic theologians. Islamic religious art differs greatly from Christian religious art
traditions. Just as the religion of Islam embodies a way of life and serves as a cohesive force
among ethnically and culturally diverse peoples, the art produced by and for Muslim societies
has basic identifying and unifying characteristics. Perhaps the most salient of these is the
predilection for all-over surface decoration. The four basic components of Islamic ornament
are calligraphy, vegetal patterns, geometric patterns and figural representation. One of the most
famous monuments of Islamic art is the Taj Mahal, a royal mausoleum, located in Agra, India.
Hinduism is the majority religion in India; however, because Muslim rulers, most famously the
Mughals, dominated large areas of modern-day India for centuries, India has a vast range of
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Islamic art and architecture. The Great Mosque of Xian, China is one of the oldest and best
preserved mosques in China. First constructed in 742 CE, the mosque’s current form dates to the
15th century CE and follows the plan and architecture of a contemporary Buddhist temple. In
fact, much Islamic art and architecture was—and still is—created through a synthesis of local
traditions and more global ideas.
1.1.4 Definition of Islamic
“Arts of the Islamic World” emphasize that the art discussed was created in a world where Islam
was a dominant religion or a major cultural force but was not necessarily religious art. Often,
when the word Islamic is used today, it is used to describe something religious; thus using the
phrase Islamic art could be mistakenly interpreted to mean that all of this art is religious in
nature. The phrase Arts of the Islamic World also acknowledges that not all of the work
produced in the Islamic world was for Muslims or created by Muslims. Typically, though not
entirely, Islamic art has focused on the depiction of patterns and Arabic calligraphy, rather than
human or animal figures, because it is believed by many Muslims that the depiction of the
human form is idolatry and thereby a sin against God that is forbidden in the Qur’an. However,
depictions of the human form and animals can be found in all eras of Islamic secular art.
Depictions of the human form in art intended for the purpose of worship is considered idolatry
and is forbidden in Islamic law, known as Sharia law.
The word Islamic identifies art and architecture created for people of Muslim faith. Historically,
it also refers to works created in geographic areas ruled by Muslims. Islam as a religion began
around 600 CE in what is today Saudi Arabia. By the end of the seventh century, it spread
beyond the Arabian Peninsula and eventually covered large areas of Asia and the Middle East, as
well as parts of Europe and North Africa. Islam was a religious and cultural force, and one
important idea impacts almost all Islamic art and architecture. Out of respect for Allah, or God,
no images of living creatures are depicted. The term for this is aniconism, the absence of direct
representation of nature, especially animals or people, in art. Islamic art is not a monolithic style
or movement and has incredible geographic diversity—Islamic empires and dynasties controlled
territory from Spain to western China at various points in history. However, few if any of these
various countries or Muslim empires would have referred to their art as Islamic. An artisan in
Damascus thought of his work as Syrian or Damascene—not as Islamic. As a result of thinking
about the problems of calling such art Islamic, certain scholars and major museums, like the
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Metropolitan Museum of Art, have decided to omit the term Islamic when they renamed their
new galleries of Islamic art. Instead, they are called “Galleries for the Art of the Arab Lands,
Turkey, Iran, Central Asia, and Later South Asia,” thereby stressing the regional styles and
individual cultures. Thus, when using the phrase, Islamic art, one should know that it is a useful,
but artificial, concept. In some ways, Islamic art is a bit like referring to the Italian Renaissance.
During the Renaissance, there was no unified Italy; it was a land of independent city-states. No
one would have thought of themselves as an Italian, or of the art they produced as Italian. Rather,
a person would have self-identified as a Roman, a Florentine, or a Venetian. Each city developed
a highly local, remarkable style. At the same time, there are certain underlying themes or
similarities that unify the art and architecture of these cities and allow scholars to speak of an
Italian Renaissance.
Some interpretations of Islam include a ban of depiction of animate beings, also known as
aniconism. Muslims have interpreted these prohibitions in different ways in different times and
places. Religious Islamic art has been typically characterized by the absence of figures and
extensive use of calligraphic, geometric and abstract floral patterns. However, representations of
Islamic religious figures are found in some manuscripts from Persianate cultures, including
Ottoman, Turkey and Mughal India. These pictures were meant to illustrate the story and not to
infringe on the Islamic prohibition of idolatry, but many Muslims regard such images as
forbidden. In secular art of the Muslim world, forms historically flourished in nearly all Islamic
cultures, although, partly because of opposing religious sentiments, figures in paintings were
often stylized, giving rise to a variety of decorative figural designs.
1.1.5 Sources of Muslim Art
Like other aspects of Muslim culture, Muslim art was a result of the accumulated knowledge of
local environments and societies, incorporating Arabic, Persian, Mesopotamian and African
traditions, in addition to Byzantine inspirations. Islam built on this knowledge and developed its
own unique style, inspired by three main elements. The Qur’an is seen as the first work of art in
Islam and its chef-d'oeuvre. The independence of some verses and the interrelation of others
form extraordinary meanings as each verse takes the reader into a unique divine experience
feeling its joy and happiness, terror and fearfulness, bliss and anger, and so on. The constant
repetition of these experiences in the verses of the Qur’an “winds up consciousness and
generates in it a momentum which launches it on a continuation or repetition and infinitum”. The
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outcome of this experience makes the reader feels the presence of God as described in the verse:
“when the verses of the Beneficent are recited unto them, they fall down prostrate in adoration
and tears” (Qur’an 19: 58).
Muslim artists drew lessons and methods from their experience of the Qur’an, developing a new
approach to art characterized by the independence and interdependence of its formative
elements. The emphasis was on the presence and attributes of the divine Creator rather than on
His creatures, including man. Islam sees all men equally regardless of color or form (perfect or
imperfect). The only distinction between them is made on the basis of their piety. Consequently,
Islam sees the white-skinned and fair-haired ideal of man promoted by Western art as racial and
misleading. The second element comes from the Qur’anic verses which criticizes poets as: “As
for the poets, the erring follows them. Have you not seen how they wander distracted in every
valley? And how they say what they practice not? (Qur’an 26: 224-26) This formula regulates
the approach of Muslim artists, writers and professionals. Islam only approves work from “those
who believe, work do good work, and engage much in the remembrance of Allah” (Qur’an 26:
227)
The Muslim artist's work was guided by this criterion and was always connected to the
remembrance of God whether it was in ceramics, textile, leather or ironwork or wall decoration.
The ways this remembrance was expressed was, of course, many. Muslim artists worked with
many different materials, from ceramic to iron, and their artistic style took many forms, such as
Arabesque designs, geometrical patterns and calligraphy. The third decisive factor dictating the
nature of Muslim art is the religious rule that discourages the depiction of human or animal
forms5. The presence of this rule is due to a concern that people would go back to the worship of
idols and figures, a practice that is strongly condemned by Islam. In the early days of Islam,
sculpture and imagery were seen as reminders of the despised idolatrous past of the Muslims.
Today, the majority of Muslims, still respect this rule and their attitude extends to dislike the
excessive “body worship” practiced in the West. The latter can be seen in the revival of the
Islamic dress among educated Muslim women and in their avoiding of the excessive use of
make-up.
Furthermore, Islam is free from metaphysical arguments such as those relating to the trinity, the
true nature of Christ, the Holy Spirit and saints’ hierarchy, as found in Christianity.
Consequently, there was no need in the mosque for apses, transepts, crypts as well as images and
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sculptures of saints, angels and martyrs that played a prominent part in didactic art of Christian
churches. Nevertheless, there were some instances where human and animal forms were used in
Muslim art, but these were mainly found in secular private buildings of some princes and
wealthy patrons. Discoveries made in the Qasre Amra palace, built by the Umayyad Caliph Al-
Walid I (705-715) in the Jordanian desert, revealed large illustrations of hunting scenes,
gymnastic exercises, and symbolic figures. The most important of these were illustrations
depicting the main enemies of Islam, Kaisar (the Byzantine Emperor), Roderick (the Visigoth
King of Spain), and Khosrow (the Emperor of Persia). There was also an illustration of the
Negus, the Abyssinian king, who gave the Muslims refuge when they were being prosecuted in
Makkah in the early days of Islam.
In relation to the depiction of animal forms, many examples were discovered. Lions and eagles,
for example, were found in illustrations of hunting scenes, and carved in sculptures and heraldic
emblems. The Crusaders to Europe where they were widely copied transmitted these emblems.
1.1.6 Themes in Islamic Architecture

It comprises both religious and secular art forms. Religious art is represented by calligraphy,
architecture and furnishings of religious buildings, such as mosque fittings (e.g., Mosque, Lamps
and Girih Tiles), woodwork and carpets. Secular art also flourished in the Islamic world,
although religious scholars criticized some of its elements. Islamic art is often characterized by
recurrent motifs, such as the use of geometrical floral or vegetal designs in a repetition known as
the arabesque. The arabesque in Islamic art is often used to symbolize the transcendent,
indivisible and infinite nature of God. Mistakes in repetitions may be intentionally introduced as
a show of humility by artists who believe only God can produce perfection, although this theory
is disputed. Similarly, there are themes and types of objects that link the arts of the Islamic world
together. Calligraphy is a very important art form in the Islamic world. The Qur’an, written in
elegant scripts, represents Allah’s—or God’s—divine word, which Muhammad received directly
from Allah during his visions. Quranic verses, executed in calligraphy, are found on many
different forms of art and architecture. Likewise, poetry can be found on everything from
ceramic bowls to the walls of houses. Calligraphy’s omnipresence underscores the value that is
placed on language, specifically Arabic.
Geometric and vegetative motifs are very popular throughout the lands where Islam was once or
still is a major religion and cultural force, appearing in the private palaces of buildings such as
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the Alhambra, in Spain, as well as in the detailed metal work of Safavid Iran. Likewise, certain
building types appear throughout the Islamic world: mosques with their minarets, mausoleum,
gardens, and madrasas—religious schools—are all common. However, their forms vary greatly.
One of the most common misconceptions about the art of the Islamic world is that it is aniconic;
that is, the art does not contain representations of humans or animals. Early examples of religious
art and architecture, such as the Dome of the Rock and the Aqsa Mosque—both in Jerusalem)—
and the Great Mosque of Damascus—built under the Umayyad rulers—did not include human
figures and animals. However, the private residences of sovereigns, such as Qasr ‘Amra
and Khirbat Mafjar, were filled with vast figurative paintings, mosaics, and sculpture.
The study of the arts of the Islamic world has also lagged behind other fields in art history. There
are several reasons for this. First, many scholars are not familiar with Arabic or Farsi—the
dominant language in Iran. Calligraphy, particularly Arabic calligraphy, as noted above, is a
major art form and appears on almost all types of architecture and arts. Second, the art forms and
objects prized in the Islamic world do not correspond to those traditionally valued by art
historians and collectors in the Western world. The so-called decorative arts—carpets, ceramics,
metalwork, and books—are types of art that Western scholars have traditionally valued less than
painting and sculpture. However, the last fifty years has seen a flourishing of scholarship on the
arts of the Islamic world.
1.1.7 The Spiritual Message of Islamic Art

In order to know the true spirit of Islamic art and its spiritual message and significance, we shall
have to comprehend briefly its origin as well as some of its main forms such as calligraphy,
architecture, painting, music, poetry and decorative arts in general with special reference to Iran
as the contribution of Iran to these Islamic art-forms can be deemed to be second to none. Islamic
art is the art of the civilization based on the Islamic religion. The Prophet Muhammad - the last
of the Prophets - first preached Islam in Arabia during the early 7th century A.D. and-the people
who followed the teachings of Islam called themselves “Muslims.”
Islam has gigantic connotation with regard to every aspect of human life. It defines without a
doubt the purpose of life, the universe and the relationship among the Creator (God), man and
universe. The intellectual, social, economic-ethical and aesthetic features of Islamic religion
make it distinct from worlds other great religions. Thus, during the 7th century A.D. Arab
Muslims began a series of conquests and amalgamated all the conquered countries or parts into a
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“single civilization”- millah. Though the Arabs themselves had sophisticated very little of art yet
their aesthetic sensibility enabled them to come into contact with the highly developed arts of
Persia (now Iran), Syria, Egypt and Mesopotamia (now Iraq). Therefore, the people who
acknowledged Islam blended their cultural styles and developed a distinct and uniform style of
art best acknowledged as Islamic art. It is said that Islamic art was an outcome of many
centuries, extending from Spain to India.
However, there are very realistic and authentic views on the emergence and evolution of Islamic
art. They maintain that Islamic art emerged at the same time with the very rise of Islam itself. In
this correlation, it is essential to refer to some verses of the Qur'an and few Traditions of the
Prophet, which without a doubt endorse the view that Islamic art is inherent in Islam itself: “We
have adorned the lowest heaven with the beauty of the planets.” “We have placed constellations
in heaven and made them beautiful for those who look.” In addition to the above Quranic verses,
a couple of Traditions of the Prophet would be in order: “God likes that whenever anyone of you
performs any work he should do it in a beautiful manner.”And at other place Quran asserts “God
is Beautiful and likes Beauty.”
There is an inward intimate relationship between Islamic art and Islamic spirituality and as a
result Muslim artists think about the sacred art of Islam to be a descent of heavenly Reality upon
the earth. Through this creative activity we maintain our symbolic correlation with an Invisible
Spiritual Order. “To be spiritual” in the words of George Santayana, “is to live in the presence of
the ideal”. This “Ideal” is Allah (God) who is the cause of everything. Muslim artists tried (and
still try) to create every art-form by invoking in them the Power and Blessing of the Supreme
Reality. It is His gifted creative energy that man can create and appreciate a number of art-forms.
While creating “beauty” in his product the artist or architect always thinks of Allah (God) as the
Supreme Beauty (Jamal) and He is Present (Hadir) everywhere. Islamic art keeps us united
before the Divine Presence. It paves the manner for the explorer who wishes to enter the ultimate
Sanctum-Sanctorum of Divine Revelation. If we take no notice of or demolish this art in the
present day crisis ridden world, we without doubt cut Muslims away from their spiritual
moorings for the reason that this art is the onward expression of the inner spirit of Islam. This
inner spirit or dimension, according to Hossein Nasr, is inextricably correlated to Islamic
spirituality. He further explains that the term “spirituality” in Islamic languages is connected to
either the word ruh denoting “spirit” or ma’na signifying “meaning”. In both cases the very
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terms imply inwardness and interiority. Consequently, it is within the inner dimension of the
Islamic tradition that one must seek the origin of Islamic Art and the strength which has created
and sustained it throughout the centuries
1.1.8 Let Us Sum Up
To conclude the lesson, it is important to remind ourselves that the art of Islam is Islamic art not
because it was created by Muslims but because it issues forth from the Islamic revelation as do
the Divine Law and the Way. This art crystallizes in the world of forms the inner realities of
Islamic revelation, and issues from the inner dimension of Islam revealing to man the Ultimate
Sanctum-Sanctorum of Divine Revelation. In brief, Islamic art is a fruit of Islamic spirituality
from the point of view of its genesis and as an aid. It is a complement and supports for the
spiritual life from the vantage point of realization or return to the origin the summum bonum of
human life. The independence and originality of Islamic art can directly be traced from its
specific world-view. There is an indispensable relation between the Islamic revelation and
Islamic Art. God is the source of all and He is the Knower of all things. Therefore, the Essence
or Forms of all things have their reality in the Divine Intellect.

1. Define the concept of Islamic theology?
2. Write a note on the origins of Islamic Theology?
3. Discuss briefly different schools of Islamic theology?
4. Define Macdonald’s approach to Islamic theology?
5. Elucidate the place of theology in Islamic tradition?

Melvin Rader, (ed.) A Modern Book of Aesthetics, (New York: Rinehart, 1965)
Nasr, S. Hossein, Islamic Art and Spirituality, (Suffolk: Golgon Press, 1987)
Richard, E. and Oleg, G., The Art and Architecture of Islam: 650-1250, (England: Penguin
Books Ltd., 1987)
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Lesson 02: Types of Muslim Art-I

(A) Calligraphy (B) Painting
Lesson Structure
1.2.1 Introduction
1.2.2 Objectives
1.2.3 The Nature and Form of Muslim Art
1.2.4 Essence of Muslim Art
1.2.5 Arabic and Islam
1.2.6 Arabic Calligraphy as an Art Form
1.2.7 Islamic Calligraphy
1.2.8 The calligraphers
1.2.10 Let Us Sum Up
1.2.1 Introduction
Islamic Art is the art of civilization based on Islamic religion and it is not only concerned with
particular region or particular people rather it is a combination of different civilizations and
historical circumstances as painted with Islamic weltanschauung. The Arab civilization is
probably more important. Although the Arabs have little art and even then, they developed
Islamic art with spiritual characteristics. The theme of Muslim art is considerably wide and this
brief introduction can by no mean do justice to define the diversity of Islamic Art. It has been
argued that much of the artistic talent and production were conditioned as well as inspired by
religious beliefs and concepts, a clear indication of the creativity of Islam as both an ideology
and religion. This lesson primarily focuses on two diverse and equally key aspects of Muslim Art
i.e. calligraphy and Painting.
1.2.2 Objectives
To understand why calligraphy is the most esteemed art form in the Islamic world; and be able to
identify the function and visual characteristics of some of the key scripts represented in the
featured artworks; defines the role of paintings in shaping diverse art form in Islamic tradition
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1.2.3 The Nature and Form of Muslim Art

Muslim art differs from that of other cultures in its form and the materials it uses as well as in its
subject and meaning. Philipps (1915), for example, thought that Eastern art, in general, is mainly
concerned with colour, unlike that of western art, which is more interested in form. He described
Eastern art as feminine, emotional, and a matter of colour, in contrast to Western art which he
saw as masculine, intellectual, and based on plastic forms which disregarded colour. Of course
this reflected Philipps’ cultural and artistic bias. Muslim art never lacked intellectualism even in
its simplest forms. The invitation to observe and learn is found in both revealed and hidden
messages in all its forms. Bourgeon (1879), on the other hand, compared between the art forms
of the Greeks, the Japanese and the Muslims and classified them into three categories involving
animal, vegetal, and mineral respectively. In his view, Greek art emphasized proportion and
plastic forms, and characteristics of human and animal bodies. Japanese art, on the other hand,
developed vegetal attributes relating to the principle of growth and the beauty of leaves and
branches. However, Muslim art is characterized by an analogy between geometrical design and
crystal forms of certain minerals. The main difference between it and the art of other cultures is
that it concentrates on pure abstract forms as opposed to the representation of natural objects.
These forms take various shapes and patterns. Prisse (1878) classified them into three types,
floral, geometrical and calligraphic. Another classification was suggested by Bourgoin (1873)
involving ornamental stalactites, geometrical arabesque, and other forms. For our decorative
interest, we concentrate on the three forms suggested by Prisse, which appear, either alone or
together, in most media, such as ceramics, pottery, stucco or textile.
1.2.4 Essence of Muslim Art
Muslim art differs from the art of other cultures in the form and material as well as in the subject
and meaning. Philipps (1915), for example, thought that the eastern art in general is mainly
concerned with colour unlike that of western art, which is interested in form. He described
Eastern art as feminine, emotional and a matter of colour, while Western art as masculine,
intellectual and based on plastic form disregarding colour. Of course this reflects Philipps’s
cultural and artistic particularity which sees Muslim colours (and possibly themes) as feminine.
Furthermore, Muslim art never lacked intellectualism even in its simplest forms. The invitation
to observe and learn is found in the hidden or revealed message of all forms either geometrical,
calligraphic, or floral. Meanwhile, Bourgoin (1879) compared between Greek, Japanese and
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Muslim arts and classified them into three categories involving animal, vegetable, and mineral
respectively. In his view, Muslim art is characterized by an analogy between geometrical design
and crystal forms of certain minerals. The Greeks nurtured persistence on proportion and plastic
forms, and characteristics of the human and animal body. Meanwhile, the Japanese developed
vegetable attributes relating to the principle of growth and the beauty of leaves and branches. In
contrast, Muslim art is characterized by the concentration on pure abstract forms as opposed to
the representation of natural objects. These forms take various shapes and patterns. Prisse (1878)
classified them into three types; floral, geometrical and calligraphic. Another classification was
suggested by Bourgoin (1873) involving stalactites, geometrical arabesque, and other forms.
1.2.5 Arabic and Islam
The written word acquired unparalleled significance with the arrival of Islam in the Arabian
Peninsula. The Prophet Muhammad’s trusted companions and followers collected the divine
revelations from written and oral sources and compiled them into a manuscript known as the
Qur’an, Islam’s holiest book. Since the divine revelations were conveyed to the Prophet
Muhammad in Arabic, Muslims regard the Qur’an in Arabic script as the physical manifestation
of God’s message. Copying text from the Qur’an is thus considered an act of devotion. The
organic link of the Arabic language to Islam elevated it to the lingua franca, or common
language, of the Islamic world. The text of the Qur’an was codified in its present form under the
Caliph ‘Uthman ibn ‘Affan (reigned 644–56). To preserve the authentic pronunciation of the
Qur’an, a system of diacritical (or accent) marks indicating short vowels was developed.

Calligraphy, from the Greek words kallos (beauty) and graphos (writing), refers to the
harmonious proportion of both letters within a word and words on a page. While some of the best
examples of calligraphic writing make this art form appear effortless, each letter and diacritical
mark is the result of painstaking measurements and multiple strokes. Calligraphy appears on both
religious and secular objects in virtually every medium—architecture, paper, ceramics, carpets,
glass, jewellery, woodcarving, and metalwork. In addition to its decorative qualities, it often
provides valuable information about the object it decorates, such as function, maker, patron, and
date and place of production. A number of factors, such as the prospective audience, content of
the text, and the shape and function of an object, informs the type of script employed. Graceful
and fluid scripts such as nasta‘liq are used for poetry, Qur’an manuscripts are written in bold and
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stately scripts, and royal correspondence utilized complex scripts that are difficult to forge.
Although there are exceptions, most scripts have several specific functions.
1.2.7 Islamic Calligraphy

Calligraphy is considered the quintessential art form of the Islamic world— Arabic letters
decorate objects ranging from bowls to buildings. Numerous scripts have emerged over the
centuries that serve a multitude of religious, political, social, and cultural functions. This unit
explores the variety and versatility of Islamic calligraphy and historical efforts to perfect and
codify scripts and generate new forms. In the Islamic world, however, calligraphy has been used
to a much greater extent and in astonishingly varied and imaginative ways, which have taken the
written word far beyond pen and paper into all art forms and materials. For these reasons,
calligraphy may be counted as a uniquely original feature of Islamic art. The genius of Islamic
calligraphy lies not only in the endless creativity and versatility, but also in the balance struck by
calligraphers between transmitting a text and expressing its meaning through a formal aesthetic
code. The Arabic language, and subsequently the art of calligraphy, is held in great esteem by
Muslims because Arabic was the language in which the Qu’ran was revealed to the
Prophet Muhammad in the 7th century. The Arabic text of the Qu’ran is sacred to
Muslims, and its high status gave rise to an associated respect for books in general.
However, it is important to remember that while the Qu’ran’s holy status provides an
explanation for calligraphy's importance, by no means all Arabic calligraphy is religious
in content. Theories claiming that the development of Muslim calligraphy was influenced by the
Chinese, dubiously based on the pottery found in old Cairo (Al-Fustat), seem to be absurd. The
lack of any substantiated proof is clear evidence as are the wide differences between the two
languages in the way and the direction they are written. The suggestion of any link between
Muslim calligraphy and ancient is also inconceivable. It is true that the ancient Egyptians widely
used hieroglyphics on wall paintings, but these had no decorative purpose (Briggs, 1924, p.179).
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Figure 5. Kufic calligraphy combined with floral and geometrical decoration

with intersecting horseshoe arches. Plate on
Cordoba Mosque façade.
The development of calligraphy as a decorative art was due to a number of factors. The first
of these is the importance which Muslims attach to their Holy Book, the Qur’an, which
promises divine blessings to those who read and write it down. The pen, a symbol of
knowledge, is given a special significance by the verse: “Read! Your Lord is the Most
Bounteous, Who has taught the use of the pen, taught man what he did not know” (Qur’an
96: 3-5).
This indicates that the aim of Muslim calligraphy was not merely to provide decoration but
also to worship and remember Allah (or God). The Qur’anic verses mostly used are those
which are said in the act of worship8, or contain supplications, or describe some of the
characters of Allah (God), or his Prophet Muhammad (pbuh). Calligraphy is also used on
dedication stones to record the foundation of some key Muslim buildings. In this case, man
is referred to as the founder, often a Caliph or an Emir, but he was consciously described as
poor to God or Slave of God, a reminder of his position to Allah.
The second factor behind the appearance of Arabic calligraphy is attached to the importance
of the Arabic language in Islam. The use of Arabic is compulsory in prayers and it is the
language of the Qur’an and the language of Paradise. Furthermore, the Arabs have always
attached a considerable importance to writing, emanating from their appreciation of
literature and poetry. It is reported that the Prophet (pbuh) said:"Seek nice writing for it is
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one of the keys of subsistence” and the fourth Caliph, Ali commented on calligraphy as “the
beautiful writing strengthens the clarity of righteousness.”
In addition, the mystic power attributed to some words, names and sentences as protections
against evil also contributed to the development of calligraphy and its popularisation. Arabic
calligraphy was mostly written in two scripts. The first is the Kufic script, whose name is
derived from the city of Kufa, where it was invented by scribes engaged in the transcription
of the Qur’an set up a famous school of writing. The letters of this script have a rectangular
form, which made them well suited with architectural use.
Figure 6. Transcript of Naskhi calligraphy by Mahmud

Yazre.
The other script of Arabic calligraphy is known as Naskhi. This style of Arabic writing is
older than Kufic, yet it resembles the characters used by modern Arabic writing and printing.
It is characterised by round and cursive shape of its letters. The Naskhi calligraphy became
more popular than Kufic and was substantially developed by the Ottomans.
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1.2.8 The Calligraphers

Calligraphers were among the most highly regarded artists in Islamic societies, and this
remains the case in many places today. Their status was based on the excellence of their
work, but also on the eminence of their teachers. As a result, a literary tradition developed in
which the history of calligraphy was conceived as a chain of transmission between masters
and pupils, covering very long periods. Training could take many years, with the pupil
learning to copy exactly models provided by the teacher. Only when the pupil had mastered
the principles in this way could he or she - both men and women trained as calligraphers -
become a master and begin to create new work. Learning calligraphy was therefore similar
to apprenticeships in other trades.
Many people who studied calligraphy were content to stop their training when they knew
enough to earn their living as copyists. Printing was introduced to the Islamic world
gradually between the 18th and 20th centuries but the majority of books continued to be
produced by hand for most of the Islamic period. Not all copyists were calligraphers, and
many books were copied in untidy personal styles that did not obey a set of rules. A book
copied in a good, clear hand was therefore at a premium. Others studied calligraphy to enter
specific professions, such as that of chancery scribe. These men copied out official
documents for the ruler, using distinctive styles of script. Some examples can be extremely
impressive, and it was generally the case that the excellence and complexity of the writing
reflected the status of the document.
The calligraphers who progressed furthest produced the most elegant manuscripts. Their
work was expensive and they generally worked on commissions from the richest members
of society, especially sultans, shahs and other rulers. The best were often employed within a
department of the ruler’s palace devoted to book production and associated tasks. Once the
text was complete, the book was finished by other artists and craftsmen employed there, who
produced the painted decoration and a rich binding. The best calligraphers were also
commissioned to create compositions that could be executed in other media. This was a
different task from that of copying out a continuous text in a manuscript. The calligrapher
had to bear in mind the space available and design the lettering to fill that space in a well-
balanced way and according to the rules for the style of script. The calligrapher would work
out the design on paper for transfer to the new medium.
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These designs and other single sheets produced by great calligraphers were often preserved
so that they could be copied by later generations. In later times, they were gathered into
albums to be appreciated by connoisseurs. As a result, calligraphers began to produce single
sheets specifically for inclusion in albums. Even later, it became the custom to hang
calligraphy on the walls of houses, in the manner of paintings. Calligraphers had found yet
another way to make money, and, together with fees from teaching and commissions for
inscriptions, this allowed some outstanding calligraphers to remain independent. This, too, is
how calligraphers often work today.
It is often believed that the Qur’an prohibits images of living beings, either human or animal.
The Qur’an does condemn the worship of idols: “O ye who believe, wine and games of
chance and idols and divining arrows are an abomination of Satan’s handiwork” (Quran 5:
92). And the accounts and sayings of the Prophet recorded in the hadith—some collected
much later—suggest his distrust of representation. Such likenesses could be seen as usurping
the creative action of God. From the very first, figures were absent in mosques, and then in
other religious settings such as schools. Even the items used in religious buildings avoid
figural decoration. But Islamic art is rich with figural decoration elsewhere: in the wall
paintings and mural tiles within palaces; in manuscript illumination; on textiles; and on
metalwork and ceramics not intended for religious purpose. It is said that the Muslim
attitude towards painting in the early history of Islam was inimical and negative one. M.
Ajmal very briefly gives the reasons why Muslims had this attitude:
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It seems that the Muslim attitude towards painting in the early history of Islam
was hostile. This was justifiable because Fine Arts had at that time an uncanny
association with pagan beliefs and rituals. Painting was reminiscent of
polytheism which Islam had come to fight against and destroy. Islam then
needed an extraverted attitude an—attitude in which the soft and feminine
qualities of artistic creation and appreciation could find little room. The social
consciousness of man at that period of history did not have sufficient insight into
subtle differentiation of various aspects of life. Being a facet of pagan
polytheism painting was prohibited by Islam in its zeal to break idols.
It is fact that there has always been a love-hate relationship between Islam and painting and even
today, a considerable number of Muslims is against painting. Although closely linked with
calligraphy, painting was considered a low and pseudo art and the painter did not rank with the
calligrapher. In spite of all this some of the greatest miniature paintings of the world were
executed within the confines of the Islamic world. Islam itself has never sanctioned or sponsored
painting, so religious art as such is unknown. This is in marked contrast to Buddhism or
Hinduism and Christianity—all stimulated vigorous religious representational art in two or three
dimensions. But in Islam the position was different. There was no religious or for that matter,
public painting in the world of Islam, because painting was a private affair both in execution and
appreciation. Mughals in India, under the influence of Iran, contributed much in the art of
miniature painting.
The central theme in the Muslim miniature painting has been Divine. Since each moment is an
act of Allah, the Muslim painter sees every temporal and spatial situation as somehow
transcending serial time and geometrical space. The painter’s peculiar perception gives a
painting its particular individuality and uniqueness. But the fact is that this array of objects in
reality, is the manifestation of the divine which gives it an aura of universality. It would be right
to say that both particularity and universality are in reality, combined and synthesized in a single
work of miniature art. The entire work of art has emanated from the ‘mystical’ tendencies of the
Persians: The central position of this cycle in the history of Persian painting follows from an
iconic character of the Islamic religion.
The art of Muslim miniature painting is grounded in the literary and religious texts. In reality, all
Muslim paintings, especially miniatures, are illustrations of literary and religious classics such as
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Nizami’s Khamsa Saadi Gulistan (moral tales) and Boston, Hafiz’s Diwan, Jami’s Baharistan
and al-Tawarikh, Hariri’s Maqaniat, Firdawsi’s Shah-Namah (book of the kings), Kalila wa
Dimna, (Album from the Imperial Palace of Yildiz), Zafar Namah (Life of Timur), Qisas al-
Anbiya of Nishapuri, Hamzanamah etc. These are some of the most important works to be
mentioned in the context of Muslim miniature painting. In almost all the illustrations, the
depiction of natural objects seems an essential part of the miniature painting. It is so because a
Muslim artist firmly believes that nature itself is the Sign of Allah. The words of the Holy Qur'an
are the source of communication with God and thus the ‘Word’ for a Muslim has a compelling
power of creation as the spirit must fly to Eternity on the wings of Words. Hence every sensuous
experience which inspires a painter to express his inner self—in colour and line—in order to be
integrated in his personality, must be capable of verbal expression: Muslim paintings—again
especially miniatures—are illustrations of literary and religious classics. Several explanations of
this peculiar characteristic have been advanced. But the only explanation which is consistent
with the general Muslim attitude is that for a Muslim nature is itself an illustration of the Word
of God. Kun fa-yakun are the words which translate themselves into the sensible world. The
world is Logos in matter and motion. Muslim consciousness is rooted in the awareness of a
profound interrelationship between word and fact. Word seems to be the life-blood of the
universe.
Muslims had a tendency to create new and beautiful patterns and followed them. These forms
were not animate pictures. They were geometric and based on plant designs. Decoration became
the signature of Islamic arts. Muslim artists thus sought the spirit of the human, nature and
objects. They attempted to illustrate the essence of nature, and have not imitated it. In many
cases they resort to abstraction and express themselves through decoration. From the second half
of 7th century to the 10th century, kings paid more attention to painting. In the Umayyad period,
mosaics, wall paintings, even statues were numerous and were the pride of dwellings of caliphs
and princes. According to Abdul-Malik, “In the holy-city, and even during time of pilgrimage,
the tents of the wealthy pilgrims were adorned with images of persons.” It seems that some of the
paintings in the palaces of the caliphs were influenced by Sassanid art, for instance, the paintings
of the Al-Heir palace in Syria and the Alhambra in the Umayyad era. In Al-Heir palace, pictures
of horse riding, captive kings, dancing parties, and constellations appear in Sassanid relief style.
The subject matter of paintings in the Moshatta castle and Touba palace are plants and birds.
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Also the paintings in Jowsaq al-Khakani palace in Samarra belonging to the 9th century, which
have human and animal figures and plants. All have been created as the result of the changing
theory on the prohibition of painting. Painting used only for decoration, is lawful.
Although there has been a tradition of wall-paintings, especially in the Persinate world, the best-
surviving and highest developed form of painting in the Islamic world is the miniature in
illuminated manuscripts, or later as a single page for inclusion in a muraqqa or bound album of
miniatures and calligraphy. The tradition of the Persinate miniature has been dominant since
about the 13th century, strongly influencing the Ottoman miniature of Turkey and the Mughal
miniature in India. Miniatures were especially an art of the court, and because they were not seen
in public, it has been argued that constraints on the depiction of the human figure were much
more relaxed, and indeed miniatures often contain great numbers of small figures, and from the
16th century portraits of single ones. Although surviving early examples are now uncommon,
human figurative art was a continuous tradition in Islamic lands in secular contexts, notably
several of the Umayyad Desert Castles (c. 660-750), and during the Abbasid caliphate (c. 749–
1258). The largest commissions of illustrated books were usually classics of Persian poetry such
as the epic Shahnameh although the Mughals and Ottomans both produced lavish manuscripts of
more recent history with the autobiographies of the Mughal emperors, and more purely military
chronicles of Turkish conquests. Portraits of rulers developed in the 16th century, and later in
Persia, then becoming very popular. Mughal portraits, normally in profile, are very finely drawn
in a realist style, while the best Ottoman ones are vigorously stylized. Album miniatures
typically featured picnic scenes, portraits of individuals or (in India especially) animals, or
idealized youthful beauties of either sex.
Chinese influences included the early adoption of the vertical format natural to a book, which led
to the development of a birds-eye view where a very carefully depicted background of hilly
landscape or palace buildings rises up to leave only a small area of sky. The figures are arranged
in different planes on the background, with recession (distance from the viewer) indicated by
placing more distant figures higher up in the space, but at essentially the same size. The colours,
which are often very well preserved, are strongly contrasting, bright and clear. The tradition
reached a climax in the 16th and early 17th centuries, but continued until the early 19th century,
and has been revived in the 20th.
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The main objective of this lesson was to emphasize the uniqueness of Muslim art, especially
Calligraphy and Paintings, which was defined by religious beliefs and cultural values prohibiting
the depiction of living creatures including humans. Calligraphic art is always seen as a
centrepiece of manifesting the universality of Islam, the depiction of Oneness of God. While the
art of miniature painting became a significant feature in Islamic art-world in general, Muslim
painting, especially in the Muslim world, was solely devoted to Divinity. Allah is the source of
everything and, therefore, the Iranians regarded every object of nature as manifestation of God. It
is due to this fact that we find the elements of nature in most Muslim artistic miniature painting.
Muslim artists were much inspired by nature and their approach to art was mystical one.

1. Define the concept of Islamic Art
2. Discuss Arabic Calligraphy as an Art Form
3. Discuss the importance of studying Islamic Art

Arnold, Sir T. W., Painting in Islam, (New York: Dover Publication Inc. 1965)
Blair, Sheila S., Islamic Calligraphy, (Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2006)
George, Alain, The Rise of Islamic Calligraphy, (London: Saqi, 2010)
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Lesson 03: Pottery and Handicrafts

Lesson Structure
1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 Objectives
1.3.3 Understanding Pottery and the Potters of Islam
1.3.4 Innovation of Muslims in pottery
1.3.5 Carpets and Textiles as Handicrafts in the Muslim world
1.3.6 The Ottoman Empire and Carpet Production
1.3.7 Persian Carpets
1.3.8 Indonesian Batik
1.3.9 Let Us Sum Up
1.3.1 Introduction
The era of Islamic pottery started around 622. The early history of Islamic pottery remains
somewhat obscure and speculative, as little evidence has survived. Apart from tiles, which
escaped destruction due to their use in architectural decoration of buildings and mosques, much
early medieval pottery vanished. The Muslim world inherited significant pottery industries in
Mesopotamia, Persia Egypt, North Africa and later other regions. Indeed, the origin of glazed
pottery has been traced to Egypt where it was first introduced during the fourth millennium BCE.
Most of these traditions made heavy use of figurative decoration, which was greatly reduced,
though not entirely removed, under Islam. Instead Islamic pottery developed geometric and
plant-based decoration to a very high level, and made more use of decorative schemes made up
of many tiles than any previous culture. While the handicrafts also have their indigenous history
and the contribution of Muslims in the field of handicrafts gained prominence after diverse
cultural manifestations emerged and shaped a distinct category of handicrafts in the Muslim
world. This lesson will explore the two important arts of the Muslim world.
1.3.2 Objectives
To understand the nuances of Pottery and its relation to Islamic tradition
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To delineate on the concept of Handicrafts and its relation to Islamic Art
1.3.3 Understanding Pottery and the Potters of Islam

A distinct Muslim style in pottery was not firmly established until the ninth century in
Iraq (formerly Mesopotamia), Syria and Persia. During this period pieces mainly used white tin-
glaze. Information on earlier periods is very limited. This is largely due to the lack of surviving
specimens in good condition which also limits the interest in the study of ceramics of these
periods. Archaeological excavations carried out in Jordan uncovered only a few examples from
the Umayyad period, mostly unglazed vessels from Khirbat al-Mafjar. In the East, evidence
shows that a production centre was set up in Samarkand under the Samanid dynasty who ruled
this region and parts of Persia between 874 and 999 A.D. The most highly regarded technique of
this centre is the use of Calligraphy in the decoration of vessels. East Persian pottery from the 9th
to 11th centuries decorated only with highly stylized inscriptions, called “epigraphic ware”, has
been described as “probably the most refined and sensitive of all Persian pottery.” Arthur Lane
produced two books which made substantial contribution to understanding the history and merit
of Muslim ceramics. The first book was dedicated to the study of early ceramics from the
Abbasid period till the Seljuk times, sketching the various events which played a significant role
in the rise and fall of particular styles. In his second work, Lane used the same rhetorical style
adopted in the first book, this time devoting his attention to later periods from the Mongols to
nineteenth-century Iznik and Persian pottery. Following Lane’s works, numerous studies
appeared. The most comprehensive works adopting a general view are those by R. L.
Hobson, Ernest J. Grube more recently Alan Craiger Smith. Additional contributions were made
by those specializing in particular temporal or regional history of Muslim pottery such as George
Marcais in his work on North Africa, Oliver Watson on Persia and J. R. Hallet on Abbasid
Pottery.
The Islamic potters of the Middle Ages created a glorious new world of earth ware. From the
ninth century onward, their once humble craft flourished as an art remarkable for its vitality and
variety of styles. First around the seat of the Abbasid caliphate in Iraq and in the north-eastern
provinces of Khorasan and Transoxiana, then in Egypt, Syria, Iran and centres scattered across
the vast Muslim lands, master artisans turned the local clays into objects of spectacular beauty
unlike any that had been known before, or that were to be produced in Christian Europe until
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many centuries later. Their preoccupation was with techniques of surface decoration. Although
impressed by the fine porcelain and stoneware that began to be imported from China in early
medieval times, the Islamic potters lacked the hard-firing clays necessary to duplicate their
massive hardness and smooth glazes. Resourcefully, they soon adopted a different artistic
approach. To the bowls, pitchers and other objects they fashioned and fired, they brought a new
wealth of colour, and an unequalled range of graceful and intricate decorative motifs.
Before the ninth century ended, Islam's artisans had established a tradition of aesthetic and
technical brilliance, which was to endure dynastic upheavals and foreign invasions. When
political changes interrupted their work, master potters often moved on with their secrets to new
centres of power and patronage, and their art flowered repeatedly throughout the Middle Ages.
Styles and techniques changed over the years, and frequently differed from one region to
another. But essentially, the Islamic potters followed common paths that set their work apart and
made it one of the great creative movements in the potter's art. They served all levels of society,
but the finest of their glazed ceramics were designed for people of the middle classes, who
delighted in owning objects of beauty. And in the colourful, elaborately decorated wares they
created, Islam's medieval artisans left a heritage of cultural treasures. Some of the finest
examples of Islamic pottery that have survived the ages were on display last winter at the Freer
Gallery of Art, in Washington, D.C., one of the most distinguished of all American galleries. Part
of the Smithsonian Institution, the national museum that houses the treasures of United States
history, the Freer, now 50 years old, arranged three special exhibitions to celebrate its half-
century anniversary. The first two high-lighted the arts of China and Japan and the third, which
opened in mid-January and continued through May, was devoted to ceramics from the world of
Islam.
The Freer is a unique institution. It was established by Charles Lang Freer, an American
businessman who made a fortune in the manufacture of railway cars in Detroit and early in his
career became a close personal friend of the celebrated American painter, James McNeill
Whistler. Whistler developed a deep interest in ancient Oriental art, and this led Freer in the
1890’s to begin a collection of Asian art objects that soon expanded to include many examples of
the artistry of the Near East. In 1900, at the age of 44, Freer retired from business to devote full
time to his hobby, and a few years later, he arranged that, on his death, his important collection
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would be given to the nation. He constructed a building to house the gallery that now bears his
name, and when he died in 1919 his will provided funds to help maintain the collection and to
increase it with a view of encouraging study of Asian civilizations and promoting high ideals of
beauty. To assure that the collection would remain highly selective, Freer forbade the gallery to
accept gifts of art works. He also specified that it could neither loan items for exhibition
elsewhere nor display objects it did not own. The Freer Gallery since has increased its select
collection of art objects from 9,500 items to more than 12,000, of which one third represent the
art of the Near East. It has nearly doubled its store of Islamic pottery, and it also contains fine
examples of Islamic glassware and manuscripts, as well as an extensive library of books and
slides on Near Eastern art. For its jubilee exhibition, the Freer assembled 101 of the best and
most representative Islamic ceramic objects from among some 400 that it owns. The choice was
made by the gallery's associate curator of Near Eastern art, Dr. Esin Atil, a petite, attractive lady
from Istanbul, who was educated in Turkish schools and in 1969 earned a doctorate in Near
Eastern Art History at the University of Michigan. To Dr. Atil, one of the Smithsonian's few
woman curators, the selection was a labour of love. One of the foremost experts in America on
Islamic art, she believes that outside the Islamic lands themselves the magnificence of Islam's
artistic tradition is probably best represented by its ceramics.
The exhibition traces the work of Islamic potters from the ninth century to the 19th. More than
40 of the items on display were fashioned in Iran in the late 12th and early 13th centuries, the
golden age of Islamic ceramics. Persia then led the Islamic world in the production of fine
pottery, and for more than 50 years during the two centuries following the arrival of the Seljuk
Turks from Central Asia and before invading Mongols destroyed many of the important kiln
sites, its potters were noted for their creative genius. From earlier centuries, relatively few of
Islam's ceramic wares have survived. But the Freer exhibit includes two bowls and a plate
produced in Iraq in the ninth century, when pottery making first flourished as an art in the
Islamic world. It was then that the importation of fine porcelain and stoneware from China
convinced the rulers of Islam that pottery making was an art worth encouraging. As a result,
ingenious craftsmen from all over the Islamic areas flocked to the capital of the caliphate at
Baghdad. Their earliest works were often clearly experimental. But gathering up the threads of
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ancient experience, they soon introduced techniques that set the pattern for later development
and made Islamic ceramics renowned.
One of the first and great innovations of Islam's early potters was lustre painting. The origins of
the lusterware technique are disputed. Some say it derived from Egypt, where it was probably
used to decorate glass during the first two centuries of Islam, and influenced the work of local
potters in the ninth century. Others contend that the first significant employment of the technique
was by the potters who cantered around the Abbasid court in Baghdad and created lusterware
that was exported to all corners of the Islamic domain. Wherever it originated, the technique was
valued by many generations of Islamic potters. The Abbasid artisans used it to make prosaic
earthenware glisten like yellow gold, and also to give lustre to ceramic articles with designs often
painted in blue, green or purple. The method involved the use of Sulphur compounded with
metallic oxides and then mixed with an earthy material such as red or yellow ochre. With this
mixture, decoration was painted on the surface of a glazed pottery object already once fired. The
vessel was then lightly fired for a second time in a reducing kiln, with little air, much smoke and
no clear flame. When the surface residue formed during firing was rubbed away, the metallic
elements remained on the surface of the glaze in a glittering film not perceptible to the touch.
In the ninth and 10th centuries also, potters became the first among many Islamic artisans to
employ the decorative concept known as arabesque, later used as ornament in architecture, on
textiles and in countless other ways. Totally covering the surface of ceramic objects, it combined
geometric shapes, floral and vegetal motifs, and even stylistic human and animal figures to create
a sense of infinite growth through the flow and interrelation of its parts. The grace of the Arabic
script also inspired the early potters. In various parts of the Islamic world, and especially in the
semi-independent regions of Khorasan and Transoxiana during the Samanid rule (819-1005),
they often used calligraphy for elegant inscriptions. These not only decorated the pottery, but
frequently conveyed messages—usually good wishes, popular sayings or proverbs—that
reflected a society in which virtuous behaviour was stressed.
Persian potters of the Samanid period, in what came to be known as the Samarkand school, made
the important discovery that painted decoration, which was likely to “run” when fluid lead glaze
was applied over it, would stay fixed if the colouring agents were mixed with a paste of fine clay.
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Until the 11th century, when their wares slowly declined to the status of peasant pottery, they
produced fine ceramic objects in which the basic red or pink clay was entirely covered by a coat
of white, and a red or purplish-black “slip” was used for painting. The Samarkand school
remained largely apart from the main development of pottery making in Islam. But when Egypt
in turn broke away from the power of the caliphs, the mainstream of Islamic art passed from
Baghdad to Cairo.
Compared to the finely sifted pink or yellowish clays of Baghdad, the Egyptian materials were
sandy and coarse, with the result that Egyptian pottery often lacked the refinement of earlier
Baghdad wares. But Egypt had long been a melting pot of cultures, and under the art-loving
Fatimids, who ruled Egypt and Syria for two centuries (969-1171), Cairo blossomed as a
vigorous centre of ceramic production. The potters who gathered around the court of the
Fatimids continued to create fine lusterware such as that popularized earlier in Baghdad. Other
works were notable for decoration carved or incised in the body of the object, and covered with
coloured glaze that formed dark pools in the hollows. With the overthrow of the Fatimids, the
lead in pottery making moved again, this time to Persia where the Seljuk Turks were in
ascendancy. There, groups of potters set up kilns in growing urban centres along the major trade
routes, and through their work the 12th century, like the ninth, became a turning point in ceramic
history. Syria continued to produce a wealth of moulded, carved and painted wares until its most
prolific pottery centre, Rakka, was sacked by the Mongols in 1259. But it was under the Seljuks
in Persia that the ceramic art of Islam achieved its greatest development.
An important technical advance contributed to the brilliance of their artistry. Since the ninth
century, Islamic potters had neglected the alkaline glazes known in ancient Egypt in favour of
glazes fluxed with lead, which would adhere to any ordinary potter's clay but tended to smudge
painting not done in earthy pigments. But the Persian potters of the 12th century sought better
methods. Turning back in time, they rediscovered and improved the old alkaline glaze and the
artificially composed body material related to it. These newly developed materials fused
inseparably together. The body was a whiteness that made it an ideal base for painted, carved or
moulded decoration. This could be covered with a stained or colourless glaze, and the glaze
could be made opaque by adding tin-oxide. The white composite paste, made largely of
powdered quartz and potash, became the standard material used throughout the Near East in later
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centuries for all fine ceramics. With it, Persian potters of the “golden age” were able to produce
white wares that were solid, translucent and agreeable to handle. Offering new opportunities for
decoration, it also led the potters to create ceramic wares in an almost endless range of colours,
shapes and decorative styles. Their creativity was at its height when the Mongol invasion
paralyzed the cultural life of Persia, and dealt pottery making in all Islam a blow from which it
never fully recovered. At the end of the 13th century, the Mongols adopted the religion of their
Persian subjects, and sponsored a revival of the arts. But the new pottery, in styles that soon
spread from Persia to other parts of the Islamic world, was more somber and restrained in spirit.
There were lingering flashes of brilliance, and between the 14th century and the 19th, the last
period covered in the Freer exhibit, Islamic artisans produced many magnificent ceramic objects.
But their work as a whole lacked the force and originality, as well as the distinctive character, of
the medieval wares.
Lustre painting was revived on some 17th-century Persian wares. And the Turkish and Persian
ceramics of the 16th century—some of which were included in the Freer exhibit—were painted
in under glaze fashion in a wide range of colours. The decoration was often admirable. But the
artificial materials from which the pottery was fashioned tended to be less sensitively handled
than in earlier times, and the variations in technique were fewer. In these later times also, the
potters found it difficult to maintain the integrity of an Islamic style. The Chinese at last had
begun to cover their wares with painted decoration, influenced by the Islamic styles and often
using the cobalt blue ores from the Near East. The Persian shahs and Ottoman sultans in
particular were avid collectors of Far Eastern wares. And some of the local potters found it far
easier to imitate the mannered Chinese designs than to devise their own.
In their earlier period of glory, however, the Islamic potters were far more creative than their
contemporaries. The Baghdad potters could make good tin-glazed ware by the ninth century, but
not until the 15th century was a comparable ware produced in Christian Europe where, under the
names of majolica, delft or faience, it remained the finest form of pottery for another two
centuries. The translucent Persian wares of the 12th century anticipated the soft-paste porcelain
of France. The over glaze colours of the minai technique preceded the enamel colons that
appeared in China during the 15th century and in Europe during the 18th. And lustre painting,
though imitated a little in Renaissance Italy, long remained a special glory of Islam.
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Great gaps still exist in the knowledge of Islamic pottery. But knowledge is constantly increasing
with the aid of new methods of scientific analysis, excavation reports and scholarly research.
And as understanding grows, there is increasing appreciation of the special qualities of the wares
created in the Middle Ages. Unlike the artisans who illuminated manuscripts or fashioned
articles of gold and silver, the medieval potters sought to appeal to the tastes of the middle
classes, and the brilliance of their work reflects the richness of their civilization.
1.3.4 Innovation of Muslims in Pottery
From between the eighth and eighteenth centuries, the use of glazed ceramics was prevalent in
Islamic art, usually assuming the form of elaborate pottery. Tin opacified-glazing, for the
production of tin-glazed pottery was one of the earliest new technologies developed by the
Islamic potters. The first Islamic opaque glazes can be found as blue-painted ware in Basra,
dating to around the 8th century. Another significant contribution was the development of
stoneware originating in 9th-century Iraq. It was a vitreous or semi-vitreous ceramic ware of fine
texture, made primarily from non-refractory fire clay. Other centres for innovative pottery in the
Islamic world included Fustat (from 975 to 1075), Damascus (from 1100 to around 1600) and
Tabriz (from 1470 to 1550).
9th-century lusterware bowl from Iraq
Lusterware was produced in Mesopotamia in the 9th century; the technique soon became popular
in Persia and Syria. Lusterware was later produced in Egypt during the Fatimid caliphate in the
10th-12th centuries. While some production of lusterware continued in the Middle East, it spread
to Europe—first in the Hispano Moresque ware of Al-Andalus notably at Malaga, and then
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Valencia then later to Italy, where it was used to enhance majolica. Another innovation was the
albarrello a type of majolica earthenware jar originally designed to hold apothecaries’ ointments
and dry drugs. The development of this type of pharmacy jar had its roots in the Islamic Middle
East. Brought to Italy from Spain, the earliest Italian examples were produced in Florence in the
15th century.
Fritware refers to a type of pottery which was first developed in the Near East, where production
is dated to the late first millennium AD through the second millennium AD. Frit was a
significant ingredient. A recipe for “frit ware” dating to c. 1300 AD written by Abu’l Qasim
reports that the ratio of quartz to “frit-glass” to white clay is 10:1:1. This type of pottery has also
been referred to as “stoneware" and “faience” among other names. A ninth-century corpus of
“proto-stoneware” from Baghdad has “relict glass fragments” in its fabric. The glass is alkali-
lime-lead-silica and, when the paste was fired or cooled, wollastonite and diopside crystals
formed within the glass fragments. The lack of inclusions of crushed pottery” suggests these
fragments did not come from a glaze. The reason for their addition would be to act as a flux, and
so “accelerate vitrification at a relatively low firing temperature, and thus increase the
hardness and density of the [ceramic] body.”
1.3.5 Carpets and Textiles as Handicrafts in the Muslim World

The textile arts refer to the production of arts and crafts that use plant, animal, or synthetic fibres
to create objects. These objects can be for everyday use, or they can be decorative and luxury
items. The production and trade of textiles pre-dates Islam, and had long been important to
Middle Eastern cultures and cities, many of which flourished due to the Silk Road. When the
Islamic dynasties formed and grew more powerful they gained control over textile production in
the region, which was arguably the most important craft of the era. The most important textile
produced in Medieval and Early Modern Islamic Empires was the carpet. All this come in the
larger category of handicrafts. To remind ourselves, handicraft products are produced only by
hand using simple tools and variety of decorative materials available in the market. A simple
mechanical skill of an artist may increase the work of hand, native science of beautiful colours,
motifs and designs are conspicuous. All over the world handicrafts are produced frequently at the
small scale level. In many communities, handicraft products are enmeshed with ethnic, local,
regional and national heritage. The spreading of the use of handicraft products in our culture
basically gives a platform for commoditization. “The word handicraft is made of two words
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‘hand’ and ‘craft’. Handicraft means a thing made by hand or using simple tools in making of
any items and craft means a unique expression of art that represents a culture, tradition and the
heritage of a country. Thus, it means handicraft is a unique expression by using art on any item
by hand. Handicraft is also known as artisan art, which means a type of work done by manual
labour where useful and decorative devices are made completely by hand or using simple tools.
The word “handicraft” is most frequently used for the term “Art and Craft”.
Art and craft work is not only just a hobby but is also creates useful as well as creative work for
people, using both natural raw materials and traditional techniques. This discussion of carpets
and textiles in the Islamic world after 1450 falls in four major areas: first, the symbolism and
economics of status, taste, and conspicuous consumption; second, a brief overview of
scholarship; third, the realm of wealth, commerce, trade, and taxation; and fourth, artistic
creativity, technique, and style. It ends with a consideration of regional differences with a
particular focus on the Ottoman (c. 1299–1923), Safavid (1501–1736), and Mughal (1526–1857)
empires. Knotted‐pile carpets, an emblematic Islamic art form, were made and used at all levels
of society throughout much of the Islamic world, and employ a fundamentally simple technique
practiced in villages and nomadic encampments as well as in commercial and court ateliers. By
contrast, the technique of weaving silk luxury fabrics can be enormously complex. These were
made on draw‐looms, easily the most complex machinery to exist in world civilization before the
industrial age. Such machines were operated by a weaver, who manipulated the shuttles
containing the coloured silks that formed the weft surface of the fabric, and a draw boy, who
manipulated the warps on the loom to create patterns and textures from a combination of warps
and wefts. Draw‐looms could in effect be programmed preparatory to actual weaving in such a
fashion that warp and weft threads of many different colours could be woven together and
manipulated in ways that resulted in the outer surface of a finished fabric containing elaborate
designs and patterns, and often several distinct textures as well. Requiring a high level of
technology for all processes, woven silks from the Islamic world were produced over centuries in
a wide variety of complicated techniques that show an extraordinary command of the weaving
medium. The high price of the raw materials—silk thread and dyestuffs—aside, it is the
complexity of the artistry involved that contributed more than anything else both to the high
status and the high price of complex silk fabrics destined to be made into khilʾat—ceremonial
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court vestments that conveyed the high status of the wearer. Islamic textiles and carpets are
certainly among the most prominent of Islamic art forms, and carpets are among the very largest
in size, scale, and expense. Despite their importance both in art and in commerce, to this point
they have received relatively less scholarly attention than media such as arts of the book,
metalwork, or ceramics. The study of carpets and textiles is slowly gaining prominence, but vast
areas remain to be explored in detail. Productive future research will integrate a firm knowledge
of textile technique and weaving process with a command of the increasing volume of
documentary material appearing in print; at the same time, the emergence of dramatic new
discoveries of works of art that took place in the later twentieth century may well continue into
the twenty‐first.
1.3.6 The Ottoman Empire and Carpet Production
The art of carpet weaving was particularly important in the Ottoman Empire. The Ottoman state
was founded by Turkish tribes in north-western Anatolia in 1299 and became an empire in 1453
after the momentous conquest of Constantinople. Stretching across Asia, Europe, and Africa, the
Empire was vast and long lived, lasting until 1922 when the monarchy was abolished in Turkey.
Within the Ottoman Empire, carpets were immensely valued as decorative furnishings and for
their practical value. They were used not just on floors but also as wall and door hangings, where
they provided additional insulation. These intricately knotted carpets were made of silk, or a
combination of silk and cotton, and were often rich in religious and other symbolism. Hereke silk
carpets, which were made in the coastal town of Hereke, were the most valued of the Ottoman
carpets because of their fine weave. The Hereke carpets were typically used to furnish royal
palaces.
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Carpet and interior of the Harem room in Topkapi Palace, Istanbul: The Ottoman Turks
were famed for the quality of their finely woven and intricately knotted silk carpets.
1.3.7 Persian Carpets
The Iranian Safavid Empire (1501–1786) is distinguished from the Mughal and Ottoman
dynasties by the Shia faith of its shahs, which was the majority Islamic denomination in Persia.
Safavid art is contributed to several aesthetic traditions, particularly to the textile arts. In the
sixteenth century, carpet weaving evolved from a nomadic and peasant craft to a well-executed
industry that used specialized design and manufacturing techniques on quality fibres such as silk.
The carpets of Ardabil, for example, were commissioned to commemorate the Safavid dynasty
and are now considered to be the best examples of classical Persian weaving, particularly for
their use of graphical perspective. Textiles became a large export, and Persian weaving became
one of the most popular imported goods of Europe. Islamic carpets were a luxury item in Europe
and there are several examples of European Renaissance paintings that document the presence of
Islamic textiles in European homes during that time.
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The Ardabil Carpet, Persia, 1540: The Ardabil Carpet is the finest example of 16th century
Persian carpet production.
1.3.8 Indonesian Batik
Islamic textile production, however, was not limited to the carpet. Royal factories were founded
for the purpose of textile production that also included cloth and garments. The development and
refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely linked to Islam. The Islamic prohibition on
certain images encouraged batik design to become more abstract and intricate. Realistic
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depictions of animals and humans are rare on traditional batik, but serpents, puppet-shaped
humans, and the Garuda of pre-Islamic mythology are all commonplace. Although its existence
in Indonesia pre-dates Islam, batik reached its high point in the royal Muslim courts, such as
Mataram and Yogyakarta, whose Muslim rulers encouraged and patronized batik production.
Today, batik has undergone a revival, and cloths are used for other purposes besides wearing,
such as wrapping the Quran.
Javanese court batik: The development and refinement of Indonesian batik cloth was closely
linked to Islam.
1.3.9 Let Us Sum Up
This lesson is a brief introduction overview of Muslim art in the field pottery and handicrafts.
We tried to unpack the genealogy of understanding the evolution of these two distinct categories
of Muslim art and they developed as key representation of Muslim art in the world. To
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remember, if we consider Islamic art as a glorious present from Islamic culture to human culture,
we see that crafts are in fact its actual translation. They are an expression of beauty that has tried
and is still trying to contribute various images of creativity that lead to the enrichment of the
Islamic cultural heritage.

1. Define the concept of Pottery in Muslim world
2. Explain in detail the concept of Handicrafts
3. Write a note on Turkish Carpets
4. Elucidate on the distinctive features of Handicrafts
5. Do Muslim arts, like pottery and Textiles manifest Muslim civilizational ethos. Comment?
Finbarr Barry Flood and Gülru Necipoğlu, A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture, (John
Wiley & Sons, 2017)
Titus Burckhardt, Art of Islam: Language and Meaning, (London, 1976)
Wilkinson, C., Nishapur: Pottery of the Early Islamic Period, (New York: Metropolitan
Museum of Art 1973)
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Lesson 04: Types of Fine Arts

Music and Glass Work
Lesson Structure
1.4.1 Introduction
1.4.2 Objectives
1.4.3 Placing Music in Muslim World
1.4.4 The Royal Connection
1.4.5 Types of Instruments
1.4.6 The Realm of Symbolism
1.4.7 The Visual Arts as a Source for the History of Islamic Music
1.4.8 The (In) Admissibility of Music in Islam
1.4.9 Tracing the genealogy of Islamic Glassmaking
1.4.10 Role of Islamic Glass
1.4.1 Introduction
A useful approach to Islam is through Islamic art and such arts of the Muslim world manifest
particular cultural characteristics and a sense of unity across cultures. The two arts discussed in
this lesson are Music and glass work. Music has traditionally been one of the more controversial
issues in the Muslim world. While all Muslim scholars have always accepted and even
encouraged chanting the call to prayer and the Qur’an, the permissibility of other forms of music,
especially instrumental music, has been problematic. In the field of Islamic art, glass is a craft
that often rose to excellence but has been largely overlooked by art historians. Thousands of
anonymous glassmakers, from Cairo to Delhi, proudly transmitted their knowledge from one
generation to the next, experimenting with the colours, shapes, techniques, and surface
decoration of this extraordinarily versatile material. Their most outstanding results, from public
and private collections worldwide, encourage a widespread appreciation of the artistic forms of
Islamic glass—a fitting legacy for this ancient craft. This lesson will concentrate on questions
about the roles of music and musicians in Islamic culture and society and glasswork as an
important aspect of Muslim Art.
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1.4.2 Objectives
To understand the place of Music as an art form
To introduce the glass work as a form of Muslim art
1.4.3 Placing Music in Muslim World
These days the two most common responses to the question of Islam and music tend towards the
extremes. One side sees only the misuses of music and rejects it completely. The other approves
of any sort of music as long as it is branded ‘Halal’, as if Islamic phrases can simply be copy-
pasted over the music of the day, whatever its form. Yet the reverberations of centuries of
diverse musical traditions that we hear today from around the Islamic world lead us down
another path, in a quest to understand music that is authentically Islamic. This search is no
simple venture. It requires that we both forge a profound connection with the musical traditions
that have been passed down to us and open our souls to the deeper mysteries of the heart. The
centre of the Islamic soundscape is undoubtedly the recitation of the Qur’an, which while not
being considered ‘music’ is undeniably musical. Along with the adhan, the rhythms and
cadences of the Qur’an have left an indelible imprint on the souls of Muslims throughout the
centuries, deeply influencing musical traditions as well as the poetry that is sung to this music.
The Qur’an reverberates audibly in many musical genres, from songs of praise to the Prophet and
recitations of du‘a to the traditions of chanted dhikr in Sufi khanqahs and zawiyas.
In Arabic, the word musiqa, which is translated as music, even has a narrower sense than does
the English word music. Musiqa in Arabic refers mainly to popular and instrumental music and
excludes genres such as Quranic chanting and the Muslim call to prayer (adhan). In a discussion
about music in the world of Islam, it is first important to distinguish that Muslims do not use the
term “music” in the same manner employed in the English language and in other Western
languages. The Arabic term for music, musiqa, does not apply to all types of artistic vocal and
instrumental arrangements of sounds or tones and rhythms; rather, the Muslims term this general
case “handasah al sawt,” or “the art of sound”. Musiqa, or music applies rather only to particular
genres of sound art, and for the most part it has been designated for only those that have a
“somewhat questionable or even disreputable status in Islamic culture.” Handasah al-sawt is a
recently coined term used by Muslims to separate their Islamic conception of "music" from that
held in the Western and non-Islamic world, which, as we will see, often contrasts in very
fundamental and critical ways.
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The relationship of the visual arts to music in Islam covers a wide range of categories in both
media. Just as Islamic jurisprudence has always assigned to the art of calligraphy the highest
place in the status of the arts, due to its connection with the Word of God as expressed in the
Quran, so the musical reading of the Word of God occupies a similar high position in the world
of Islamic music. For the musical exercise of the adhan, Islamic architects responded with Minar
(minarets) in many different architectural forms, so that the faithful might be called to prayer
from an architectural setting of appropriate beauty and appropriate symbolic connotations of
power and visual prominence. In the kaleidoscopic world of Islamic mysticism, the various
exponents of tasawwuf not only employed the imagery of music in mystical poetry as an
evocation of the divine Being, but employed music itself in various Sufi rituals, of which the
dances of the mawlawi or “whirling dervishes” are only the best known. Music seems to have
been an essential accoutrement of Islamic courts from the very earliest times, combining the love
of luxury inherited from pre-Islamic and non-Islamic cultures with the evocation of images of
paradise on earth, a theme that permeates the Islamic kingly ambience. Islamic art, as it was
concerned with the service of religious institutions both orthodox and heterodox and with the
service of the royal court, abounds in images of music from the eighth century onward.
Were other evidence not available, it would still be possible to infer from the evidence of the
visual arts alone that there existed in Islamic society from its formation onward a specialized and
well-defined occupational role, that of the court musician. Among the earliest examples of
Islamic figural art are those forming the decoration of the secular pleasure-palaces, hunting
lodges, and desert retreats of the princes of the Umayyad dynasty. In these buildings, with their
bath complexes derived from the ancient Roman thermae, we see wall decorations depicting
musicians as royal servitors, frequently associated with other secular art forms such as dancing.
From Umayyad times the two musical opposites are already established, for from this period
comes the first Manar for the singing of the adhan, that of the Great Mosque of Damascus, as
well as the first depictions of Islamic court music associated with the pursuit of sensual
pleasures, those found in the baths of the Umayyad desert palaces. This latter tradition, traceable
artistically as well as socially to Byzantine and Sasanian practice, is far from unique to Islam,
representing instead the wholesale adoption of pre-Islamic and non-Islamic courtly custom by
the new ruling Arab dynasties. As such, it continues in an unbroken sequence through the
centuries, always in a state of tension with the religious view of music, as secular and religious
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forces constantly changed their balance of power within the various Islamic polities. In
attempting to examine the role of music in Islamic society we must concern ourselves not only
with what art reflects, but with the accuracy of those reflections, and the depth and reliability of
the messages about music given to us by artists. Figural art, music, and dance are produced by
individuals working in highly specialized occupational roles, and the relationships between these
professions within Islamic culture, and especially within the ambience of the Islamic court, may
also colour the depictions of music and dance as we see them through the eyes of visual artists.
1.4.4 The Royal Connection
The development of music as an essential accoutrement of royal courts in Islam, as mentioned
above, appears to have been taken over directly from pre-Islamic traditions. From the 'ud player
depicted in decorations of the palace of Qasr al-Hayr West of the early eighth century [Plate 1],
to his counterpart on the well-known Cordoban ivory casket of al-Mughira completed in the
latter part of the tenth century [Plate 2], the kingly art of early Islam shows musicians in such a
position of prominence that one must assume that certain types of music, above all the music of
the ‘ud, virtually symbolized sophisticated court society. This is a tradition that is not confined to
depictions in Islamic art as the centuries progress, for the lute players in Masaccio's well-known
“Madonna Enthroned” of 1426, now in the National Gallery, London, partake of the same
tradition of the association of the lute with royalty, a tradition coming into Italian art from the art
of Islam.
Masaccio's painting may point the way to a peculiar aspect of Islamic artistic depictions of music
as well. The secular origins of Islamic courtly music notwithstanding, the symbolism of such
music from earliest Islamic times appears to have had religious overtones. The royal ambience in
Islam, as a number of scholars have indicated, is perceived as a reflection of paradise itself.
Islamic tradition views paradise as a garden with running water, flowering trees, lush vegetation,
and beautiful angelic inhabitants. While the Quran itself does not include music in the vision of
paradise, Islamic art reflects what was a popular, if not a formal, religious association of music
with the heavenly garden, as the numerous works of art depicting angelic musicians eloquently
attest., Thus the court, as an earthly paradise, reflects the musical aspects of the heavenly
paradise. Music is associated in the art of the Islamic court with pleasurable and sensual
activities of the earthly paradise. Musicians provided music during royal feasts, as Sultan-
Muhammad's famous painting of the “Feast of 'Id” shows. Musicians were an essential
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accompaniment to royal love, lutenists appearing in scenes of romance in Islamic painting with
great frequency [Plate 4]. Musicians performed in various royal ceremonies, such as processions
and parades; from Fatimid Cairo to Ottoman Istanbul, artists have shown military and parade
music as part of the splendour of royal ceremonies, including not only the expected double-reeds,
trumpets, and drums, but also large parade lutes. Music frequently accompanies the royal hunt,
not simply as the stirring sound of the hunting horn, but as a general accompaniment to
pleasurable activity. This tradition, certainly stretching far back into pre-Islamic times, is perhaps
best seen in the countless illustrations of Bahram Gur and Azadeh hunting, from the Shah-
nameh, with Azadeh depicted on camelback with her inevitable harp.
Royal celebrations depicted in Islamic art are numerous, and invariably show musical aspects.
Musicians of all kinds herald the birth of a royal heir in a late sixteenth-century Indian copy of
Rashid al-Din's Universal History, while the sixteenth-century circumcision festivities for the
sons of an Ottoman sultan depicted in the Sur-nameh of Murad III used a great variety of courtly
musical instruments in addition to the traditional noisy zurna and drums of the folk tradition. The
visual arts also show us the status that musicians frequently attained in the kingly court. The
Shah-nameh includes episodes attesting to the importance of the musician at court, and tells the
story of Barbad the lute-player, who by secreting himself in a tree managed to get an audition
with Shah Khusraw, resulting in his appointment as chief court musician. When this episode is
depicted by Islamic painters, in whose works the contemporary rather than the mythological or
historical environment is usually reflected, it indicates clearly the prominence of court musicians
at that particular place and time. The organization of musicians into guilds under the Ottoman
empire gave them a formal place in the social and economic structure, with standardized wages
and designated social functions, and their guilds were depicted along with those of all of the
other arts and crafts in Ottoman royal Surnameh manuscripts of the sixteenth century and later
[Plate 9]. Clearly, the appearance of musicians in works of art created for royal patrons, and the
iconographic association of music and royalty within these works, speaks eloquently of the
importance accorded musicians in Islamic courts over the centuries. One may posit in addition
that music and the visual arts tended to be viewed with equal distaste by the puritanical and anti-
sensual forces in the Islamic religious establishment. In those periods of ascendancy of the
orthodox religious power, or of orthodox religious views in a reigning monarch, declining
patronage drastically affected the course of the history of art. For example, in the later years of
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the reign of Shah Tahmasp in Iran, many artists were forced by lack of royal patronage to turn
from book illustration to album painting, and emigrated to the Ottoman and Mughal courts in the
east and west. These events in the history of art, so important in influencing the development of
painting style in Istanbul and Delhi, have parallels that have only recently begun to be
investigated
1.4.5 Types of Instruments
A history of the development of musical instruments in Islam must, like its counterpart in the
West, rely heavily on the visual arts for documentation of early examples as well as for
documentation of appropriate use. The variety of instruments depicted in Islamic figural art is
immense, but when one attempts to discuss subtle developments in form, the reliability of the
artist may occasionally be called into question with regard to the number of strings on a lute, for
example, or the articulating of tubing on brass instruments. The most frequently depicted
instruments, on the basis of our sample, are members of the lute family. These include the bent-
necked lutes in various sizes, ranging from that familiar today to gigantic parade lutes; the long-
necked Arab tanbur and various types of Persian lutes; and other lute types such as the Turkish
saz. Other stringed instruments include the spike fiddle or rebab, which tends to appear in a folk
rather than in a court context and other types of kemanja fiddles. The harp or chang is generally
associated with female players and, as remarked above, appears in interior scenes of harem
activity. Indian Islamic art also depicts with considerable accuracy the various stringed
instruments of the subcontinent, of which the bin lute is seen the most often.
Wind instruments also appear often, the most common being the ney flute associated with dance
music of both the mystical tariqa and the romantic garden party. Brass instruments of various
types are found in battle scenes and as a part of parades, appearing in Arab painting (notably the
Schefer Hariri of 1224 in a parade scene) [Plate 22], Iranian painting (notably in battle scenes
such as this example from the Tahmasp Shah-nameh manuscript) [Plate 23], and in Turkish
painting (see Plate 5 above). The popular zurna, a sort of super-oboe if measured by its
penetrating power, while evidently an important part of village musical life and folk celebrations,
rarely appears in miniature painting except in a popular context in some of the Ottoman
historical manuscripts. On occasion a puzzling depiction of a little-used instrument will occur,
such as the album painting in the Louvre showing a dervish blowing what appears to be an
animal horn.
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Membranophones and idiophones are likewise associated with popular events where a great deal
of noise was appreciated. An exception is the ubiquitous tambourine, which as we have seen
appears in depictions of royal dance entertainment. Drums are associated in miniature painting
with the same sorts of occasions as the noisy brass instruments, and they also have quite specific
functions in the Turkish mehterhane or military band, as well as being an indispensable
accompaniment to Turkish wrestling matches
1.4.6 The Realm of Symbolism
To date there has appeared no overall work on musical symbolism in Islamic art to compare with
Winternitz’s study Musical Instruments and their Symbolism in Western Art, although there
have been several studies purporting to show musical symbolism in the actual execution of
Islamic-related ragamala paintings in India. The recently growing interest in the mystical
interpretation of the geometric arabesque in Islamic art has led to speculations about the use of
musical proportions in Islamic geometry, but there has been to this writer’s knowledge. No
convincing link established in this regard. Music, or at any rate musical instruments, can be
shown to play a role in Islamic astronomical and cosmological symbolism, where the lute player
symbolizes the planet Venus in representations of the cosmos [Plate 26]. Using literary
inference, other popular images may in fact have symbolized various celestial bodies, flowers, or
emotions. For example, on a Turkish polychrome dish from Iznik in the Metropolitan Museum
the depiction of a tambourine player may have represented the sun, a conceit encountered at
times in Ottoman poetry. However, over most of its history the Islamic tradition in the visual arts
as a whole appears to lack the complex iconographic sense demonstrated in the paintings of
northern Europe in the fifteenth or sixteenth centuries, on which Western historians of art have
lavished so much attention. On the other hand, it may be wise to exercise some caution in this
regard, since work in various media of Islamic art, most notably that of R. Ettinghausen in
metalwork and ceramics, and that of S. Cammann in the history of oriental carpets, has
demonstrated that, in certain times and places at least, Islamic art embodies symbolic
conceptions of tremendous complexity, to which the passage of time has given a tremendous
opacity as well. The most prudent summation of the problem of symbolism at this time is that
there is in our present stage of scholarship little evidence for a complex general iconography of
music in Islamic art.
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1.4.7 The Visual Arts as a Source for the History of Islamic Music
There are many sources available to the historian of Islamic music and musicians, from the
Kitab al-Aghani’s encyclopedic overview of tenth-century practice to the attempts of the
seventeenth-century German traveller Salomon Schweigger to capture Turkish music in Western
notation. The visual arts provide certain useful sorts of data for the music historian; on the basis
of the sample gathered for this essay, representational art gives insights into the types of
instruments in historical use and their appropriate musical functions, and shows us something' of
the musician's social role as courtier, guild member, and participant in public and private
ceremonies and rituals both sacred and secular. We also see the importance of music in court life,
and glimpse on occasion its importance in other social strata as well. The musician and the visual
artist shared common bonds: existence on the uneasy side of religion, and a precarious niche in
the service sector of an economy that, apart from governmental and religious bureaucracies, was
in the main cantered on the production, handling, and sale of goods. The appearance of music
and musicians so frequently in works by Islamic artists is probably due in some part to this
common insecurity, as well as to the sporadic prestige afforded musicians and artists in many
secular courts. By contrast, the fundamentally important weavers of clothing or growers of food
virtually never appear in Islamic art, and representational art itself had a miniscule public in
Islamic culture. Nevertheless, Islamic art is, within limits, of great interest and importance for the
study of the history of Islamic music, and in future years there will doubtless be numerous
discoveries emerging from the systematic study of the relationships between these two
expressive forms.
1.4.8 The (In) Admissibility of Music in Islam
“The attitude toward music [in the world of Islam] has always been ambivalent, as expressed in a
series of contradictory feelings and concepts: predilection and mistrust; divine-devilish; exalting-
disruptive; admissible-prohibited”. Views about the admissibility of music, or sound art, in the
world of Islam run the gamut from complete negation to complete acceptance, even of dance.
Many Muslims fear the “magical” intoxicating powers of music and prohibit it as a tool of the
devil. Other Muslims, however, find music inspiring and entirely spiritual. Most Muslims fall
somewhere in between these poles, restricting the practice of handasah al-sawt to some degree
but allowing it in various controlled forms.
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Like other legal judgements in the Muslim world, judgements about the admissibility of music
must be based on the sacred writings or on analogy and not merely on individuals' a
priori decisions or opinions. Opponents and advocates of music, thus, base their arguments
primarily on the (a.) Qur'an and on (b.) the hadith literature:
a. As for the Qur'an, nothing of it deals explicitly with the topic of music, though legalists
and religious authorities have recourse to a couple verses that they believe have
implications on the role of music. Opponents of music claim that “diverting talk” in verse
XXXI:5, refers to music: “There are some men who buy diverting talk to lead astray from
the way of God”. Those who approve of music, however, claim verse XXXV: 1, refers to
a “beautiful voice”: “He increases in His creatures that which He wills," and that verses
XXXIX:17-18 refer to singing: “So give good tidings to my servants who listen to al-
qawl (the spoken word) and follow the fairest of it”.
b. These Quranic arguments are somewhat far-fetched, though, with no explicit mention of
music. Stronger support for or against music can be found in the hadith writings, which
describe the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad. One hadith that is often used to defend
the use of music is the story of two young girls performing song to a drum in
Muhammad’s wife Aisha’s house. When Abu Bakr (later the first Muslim caliph) rebukes
the girls for singing, Muhammad responds to “Let them alone”. However, this
same hadith is also used by Muslims to oppose the use of music: Abu Bakr had called the
above singing “mizmar al-shaytan,” or reed-pipe of satan and Ibn Umar had once seen
Muhammad plug his ears when he heard the sound of mizmar. The hadith literature, then,
like the Quran, fails to come to any definite conclusions regarding the role of music in
Islam.
The main reason for Muslim reservations about music is that many believe it is a very powerful
intoxicating force, capable of creating extreme excitement in listeners that can potentially cause
them to lose control of their reason, diverting them from their devotional life and inviting sinful
behaviour: “its maximal effect can send the listener into an emotional, even violent paroxysm....
This quasi-somnambulistic state is considered to be in contradiction to the exigencies of rational
religious precepts”. Such a state of trance, furthermore, is seen as false ecstasy and “a temptation
of the devil who dominates the soul and makes it a slave of passion”.. These anti-music
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proponents of Islamic society point to music's lack of mention in the Qur'an as proof of its
unimportance in life.
Muslims who have supported the use of music, on the other hand, include certain sects of the
mystic Sufi Muslims, who believe that music impels a person to seek the spiritual world:
“[Man’s] soul, which originates in the world above, remembers its homeland [through music]
and yearns to attain the state that would enable it to untie the knots binding it to matter, thereby
facilitating mystical union with God”. Rather than a temptation of the devil, music and dance are
seen instead as manifestations of “infinite, ecstatic love of God.” These Muslims argue that “the
nature of music’s influence on man very much depends on the basic intentions of the listener”.
Therefore, music is not inherently evil: rather, the listener's interpretation of musical experience
can be evil. For this reason, these Sufis prohibit much of music for novices and non-initiates,
who have not yet been saved from “the clutch of the carnal soul”. Advanced Gnostics, however,
are permitted all forms of music and dance and find inspiration and divine beauty in them.
Questions as to the admissibility of music, it should be further noted, are not unique to the
Islamic tradition: one can also find heated religious debate concerning the role of music in
Western history as well. In the Middle Ages, so-called Gregorian chant was formulated under
strict rules of musical structure called “counterpoint” that had foundations in Catholic religious’
beliefs, restricting the use of certain musical intervals, like the triton for example, for their
supposed evocation of the devil. In ancient times, also, Plato had mapped out certain musical
modes and scales in his Republic that were considered illegal for evoking certain undesirable and
dangerous kinds of emotions. St. Augustine, furthermore, a Christian ascetic, had spent much
focus trying to define the point at which music distracts the listener from reflection of God, at
which point music thus becomes sinful.
1.4.9 Tracing the genealogy of Islamic Glassmaking
The prophet Muhammad proclaimed the new religion of Islam in 622. Following his death 10
years later, Arab armies conquered much of what is now Egypt, the Near East, and Iran. Here the
Muslims found flourishing glass industries, which continued to produce large quantities of
objects for daily use. Later, Islamic glassmakers introduced new forms and decoration that were
based on one or more of the three principal "building blocks" of Islamic art: geometric ornament,
vegetal motifs, and calligraphy. From time to time, these craftsmen also depicted human figures,
animals, birds, and fish. In the eighth century, glassmakers in Egypt discovered the technique of
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painting glass with metallic stain. Transparent stains coloured with copper (which produces red
or brown) and silver (which produces yellow) became a hallmark of early Islamic glassware in
Egypt and the Near East. Islamic glassmakers inherited a long tradition of cold working:
decorating an object by cutting, grinding, and polishing with a rotating wheel and abrasives, and
by using hand-held tools. As early as the second half of the first century, for example, the
Romans produced fine glassware with patterns of cold-worked facets. Their Islamic successors
also made facet-cut objects, but in the ninth century they began to create vessels with linear
decoration that included vegetal motifs, animals, birds, and inscriptions. During the ninth and
10th centuries, they produced great quantities of cut glass in several different styles.
The glass industry in the Early Islamic Period can initially be characterized as a continuation of
older traditions, coinciding with the Umayyad Caliphate, the first Islamic dynasty. Following the
rise of the Abbasid Caliphate in 750 AD, the capital of the Islamic world was moved from
Damascus in the Levant to Baghdad in Mesopotamia. This led to a cultural shift away from the
influences of Classical traditions, and allowed for the development of an 'Islamic' expression. For
most of the Middle Ages Islamic glass was the most sophisticated in Eurasia exported to both
Europe and China. Islam took over much of the traditional glass-producing territory of
Sassanid and Ancient Roman glass, and since figurative decoration played a small part in pre-
Islamic glass, the change in style is not abrupt, except that the whole area initially formed a
political whole, and, for example, Persian innovations were now almost immediately taken up in
Egypt For this reason it is often impossible to distinguish between the various centres of
production, of which Egypt, Syria and Persia were the most important, except by scientific
analysis of the material, which itself has difficulties. From various documentary references
glassmaking and glass trading seems to have been a specialty of the Jewish minority in several
centres.
Between the 8th and early 11th centuries the emphasis in luxury glass is on effects achieved by
"manipulating the surface" of the glass, initially by incising into the glass on a wheel, and later
by cutting away the background to leave a design in relief. The very massive Hedwig glasses,
only found in Europe, but normally considered Islamic, is an example of this, though puzzlingly
late in date. These and other glass pieces probably represented cheaper versions of vessels of
carved rock crystal, themselves influenced by earlier glass vessels, and there is some evidence
that at this period glass cutting and hand stone carving were regarded as the same craft. From the
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twelfth century the industry in Persia and Mesopotamia appears to decline, and the main
production of luxury glass shifts to Egypt and Syria, and decorative effects of colour on smooth
surfaced glass. Throughout the period local centres made simpler wares such as Hebron glass in
Palestine.
Lustre painting, by techniques similar to lusterware in pottery, dates back to the 8th century in
Egypt, and became widespread in the 12th century. Another technique was decoration with
threads of glass of a different colour, worked into the main surface, and sometimes manipulated
by combing and other effects. Gilded, painted and enamelled glass were added to the repertoire,
and shapes and motifs borrowed from other media, such as pottery and metalwork. Some of the
finest work was in mosque lamps donated by a ruler or wealthy man. As decoration grew more
elaborate, the quality of the basic glass decreased, and it “often has a brownish-yellow tinge, and
is rarely free from bubbles”. Aleppo seems to have ceased to be a major centre after the Mongol
Invasion of 1260, and Timur appears to have ended the Syrian industry about 1400 by carrying
off the skilled workers to Samarkand.
Fig.1. Drinking Horn. Probably Egypt, 8th-9th century, Overall L:

21.5 cm; Rim D: 5.9 cm. The Corning Museum of Glass (69.1.4).
In the eighth century, glassmakers in Egypt discovered the technique of painting glass with
metallic stain. Transparent stains coloured with copper (which produces red or brown) and silver
(which produces yellow) became a hallmark of early Islamic glassware in Egypt and the Near
East.
Islamic glassmakers inherited a long tradition of cold working: decorating an object by cutting,
grinding, and polishing with a rotating wheel and abrasives, and by using hand-held tools. As
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early as the second half of the first century, for example, the Romans produced fine glassware
with patterns of cold-worked facets. Their Islamic successors also made facet-cut objects, but in
the ninth century they began to create vessels with linear decoration that included vegetal motifs,
animals, birds, and inscriptions. During the ninth and 10th centuries, they produced great
quantities of cut glass in several different styles.
Fig. 3.Ewer.Western Asia or Egypt, about 1000. H. 16.0 cm. The

Corning Museum of Glass.
Much of the glass cut by Islamic craftsmen was meant to resemble rock crystal. Glassworkers
formed glass into blanks (plain objects) of eggshell thinness which were decorated by cutters.
Much of this decoration involved removing both the background and the interior of the design,
leaving the outlines in relief. On rare occasions, colourless blanks were given coloured overlays,
which were cut away to create cameo glasses such as the Corning Ewer (Fig. 3)
Fig. 4.Flask.Probably Egypt, 11th-12th century. H. 16.6 cm.

The Corning Museum of Glass.
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Later, both cut and colourless glasses seem to have gone out of fashion. With the exception of
objects for everyday use, much of the Islamic glass produced between the 11th and 13th
centuries was coloured. Some of these objects featured relief decoration that was formed by
inflating the molten glass in decorated moulds, while others were made of deep purple, blue, or
green glass decorated with white trails that were tooled into festoons or featherlike patterns.
Fig. 5. Handled Vase, Egypt or Syria, 1310-1330. H. 30.2. cm. The

Corning Museum of Glass.
In the 13th century, decorators in the region of Syria achieved the first extensive application of
enamels on glass. For the next two centuries, Syrian and Egyptian craftsmen produced large
quantities of glass in many shapes and sizes with brilliant polychrome ornament (Fig. 5
[55.1.36]). These objects included functional vessels such as hanging lamps to illuminate the
interiors of mosques, as well as drinking vessels and other useful items, plus spectacular display
pieces.
Fig. 6.Flask.Syria, probably Aleppo, 1200-1299. H. 6.2 cm. The

Corning Museum of Glass (69.1.2).
The making of this glass required both artistic imagination and technical expertise. Gilding was
applied by mixing gold dust with a liquid medium, painting this on the glass, and fixing it to the
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surface by heating the object in the furnace. Enamelling was accomplished in a similar manner.
Powdered glass was applied in suspension, then heated until the enamel fused with the surface of
the glass. When attempting to date these objects, the most important clues are the inscriptions on
lamps and other objects. These inscriptions identify important patrons whose dates are known
(Fig. 6 [69.1.2]). This tiny flask, which would have held perfume, bears the arms of Sultan
Baybars of Egypt (r. 1260 - 1277). Scholars believe that most of the pieces with designs
including human figures and animals were made in the 13th century. Objects with ornamentation
featuring large inscriptions are thought to date from the 14th century.
Fig. 7.Sprinkler.Iran, 18th-19th century. H. 30.7 cm. The

Corning Museum of Glass (59.1.575).
In the later Middle Ages, Europeans prized Islamic luxury glasses because of their exotic
appearance and technical sophistication, and sometimes because they were believed to be relics
from the Holy Land. Fragments of Islamic glass, usually decorated with gilding and enamelling,
have been unearthed in archaeological excavations all over Europe, and some unbroken objects
are contained in cathedral treasuries. Excavations have also revealed that Islamic glass vessels
were exported to China.
Although the peak of Islamic glassmaking ended in the 14th century, later craftsmen produced
high-quality glassware in the empires of the Ottomans (Turkey, the Near East, and the Balkans),
the Safavid (Iran), and the Mughals (India). The earliest of these works are known only from
brief written reports and illustrations in manuscripts, but many later objects have been preserved.
These pieces often have a distinct European influence. English glassmakers exported blanks to
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India, where they were decorated by cutting and gilding, and at least one 19th-century Turkish
glassmaker is known to have been trained in Venice. One particularly elegant example of later
Islamic glassmaking is a "swan’s neck" rosewater sprinkler from 18th- or 19th-century Iran (Fig.
7 [59.1.575]).
Fig.8. Mosque Lamp, France, Philippe-Joseph Brocard, 1860-

1880. Overall H: 31.7 cm, Diam: 24 cm. The Corning Museum of Glass (78.3.16).
In the 19th century, glassmakers in Austria, Bohemia, and France began to create objects
decorated in Islamic style. The Viennese firm of Lobmeyr and other companies produced gilded
glassware for Egyptian and Middle Eastern markets, as well as pieces with Moorish and Turkish
decoration for customers closer to home. One glassmaker, Philippe-Joseph Brocard of Paris, was
so skilful in imitating older Islamic designs that even experts have difficulty distinguishing his
products from the 14th-century works that inspired them.
1.4.10 Role of Islamic Glass
While the various functions of Islamic glass have been touched upon during the previous
discussion (mosque lamps from the Middle Islamic Period, wine bottles from Safavid Persia,
nargelih bases from Mughal India), glass filled a multitude of roles throughout the history of the
Islamic world. A variety of vessel forms used to hold a wide range of materials make up the bulk
of glass objects (bowls, goblets, dishes, perfume bottles, etc.), and have seen the most attention
from Islamic glass scholars. Some of the more distinct vessel functions from the Islamic period
include inkwells, qumqum or perfume sprinklers, and vessels associated with Islamic science and
medicine such as alembics test-tubes, and cuppers. Glass was also used for aesthetic purposes in
the form of decorative figurines, and for jewellery as bracelets and beads. The bracelets, in
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particular, may prove to be an important archaeological tool in the dating of Islamic sites. Glass
also filled various utilitarian roles, with evidence of use as windows, and as coin weights. The
variety of functions filled by glass and the sheer bulk of the material found through excavation
further highlights its significance as a distinct and highly developed material industry throughout
the Islamic world.
This lesson was a brief overview of two important aspects of Muslim artistic category. We tried
to contextualize the debate and also the historical tradition of Music in the Muslim world. To
understand, we live in a world in which music is so often used as a means to manipulate the
emotions or to provide a means of escape from the troubles of daily life. Traditional music in the
Muslim world also contains profound emotional content, perhaps experienced most profoundly
in traditions of love poetry set to music, yet the emotions are directed to a higher purpose, as the
intensity of love is raised to such heights that we realize it is only the Infinite Beloved that can be
its true object. Most Muslim musicians employ various techniques of abstraction to instil a
fundamental sense of tawhid in their music, or “sound art” (handasah al-sawt). Though the
Western world does not explicitly refer to tawhid or to “unity with God” in their music,
furthermore, similar abstractions can be seen to operate in much of Western music as well,
outside of Romanticism and wherever its influence continues. Religion does play an important
role on music throughout Western history, however, and both Islam and the Catholic Church
have independently debated music's very admissibility in light of their worship of God. We
equally tried to unpack the genealogy of glasswork art in the Muslim world and how glass craft
rose to excellence but has been largely overlooked by art historians. Thousands of anonymous
glassmakers, from Cairo to Delhi, proudly transmitted their knowledge from one generation to
the next, experimenting with the colours, shapes, techniques, and surface decoration of this
extraordinarily versatile material. Their most outstanding results, from public and private
collections worldwide, encourage a widespread appreciation of the artistic forms of Islamic
glass—a fitting legacy for this ancient craft.
1. Explain the place of Music in Muslim world
2. Define the connection of Muslim with courts
3. Trace the genealogy of Islamic Glassmaking
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4. Role of Islamic Glass in Muslim art

5. Explain the importance of these two arts in promoting Muslim art
Carboni, Stefano, and Qamar Adamjee, “Glass from Islamic Lands,” In Heilbrunn Timeline of
Art History, (New York: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, 2000)
Qaradawi, Yusuf, Diversion and Arts in Islam, Translated by Rawah el-Khatib, (Islamic Inc,
n.d.)
Shiloah, Amnon, Music in the World of Islam: A Socio-Cultural Study, (Detroit: Wayne State
University Press, 1995)
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Unit II
Muslim Architecture
i) Concept and Origin of Muslim Architecture
ii) Salient Features of Muslim Architecture
iii) Classical Muslim Architecture (Damascus,

Baghdad, Cordova, Cairo, Istanbul and Isfahan)
iv) Indo-Muslim Architecture
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UNIT II
Lesson 01: Concept and Origin of Muslim Architecture
Lesson Structure
2.1.1 Introduction
2.1.2 Objectives
2.1.3 Identity and the Role of Architecture
2.1.4 The Philosophy of Islamic Architecture
2.1.5 Development of Islamic Architecture
2.1.6 Understanding the concept of “Islamic” in Architecture
2.1.7 Islamic/Muslim Architecture
2.1.8 Characteristics of Islamic Architecture
2.1.9 Let Us Sum Up
2.1.1 Introduction
Architecture is one of the most significant components of a culture, in many respects, (i)
architecture reflects the dominant civilizational paradigm in a society including its culture,
religious beliefs, and life styles, (ii) As the civilizational paradigm changes the social
architectural style also changes, almost in the same direction, (iii) History of civilizations is
recorded through then architectural heritage. Ibn Khaldun, a famous Arab Muslim sociologist has
indicated, “reading the architectural human behaviour is best means to understand people’s
history”. In fact, it has been widely recognized that by analyzing the architectural products of a
certain civilization, one can comprehend the main cultural paradigms of such civilization. These
architectural products are physical witness to quality of such civilization, and more importantly
the foreign influences on its societies, which experience strong foreign intrusions, tend to reflect
them in their architectural products. This lesson examines various types of Islamic architecture
and conducts a semiotic analysis of these works. The lesson introduces the meaning and concept
of Islamic architecture. It highlights the qualities and characteristics that make it unique and
distinctive from other forms of architecture.
2.1.2 Objectives
 Introduce the idea and diverse aspects of Islamic architecture
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 Highlight the origin of Muslim architecture

2.1.3 Identity and the Role of Architecture
When Islam emerged in the seventh century, it didn’t bring a specific architectural theory. It
introduced a set of values, which tended to orient architects of Muslim countries towards certain
architectural design. Being a global religion, Islam could not present a specific architectural
concept, as different environments call for different architectural thinking. In fact, Islam spread
over a vast area extending from China to Spain. In this area, different environments existed was
inconceivable to mandate a specific architectural design is this vast area. What Islam brought
was a set of values and themes, which could be applied differently depending on the environment
in which the values are applied. This explains the wide variety of styles that had come out under
the umbrella of Islamic Architecture. Architecture is used to identify people, cultures and
civilizations. It is a unique art through which societies can be identified. It often shapes their
culture and exemplifies their image to the rest of the world. Architecture is known and seen as
the greatest forms of Islamic Art. Islamic architecture is a composition of architectural designs,
both secular and religious, that have been developed since the establishment of the Islamic faith
and which influence construction works in Muslim culture. Islamic architecture provides an
insight into the beliefs and practices of Muslims throughout history. It adapts and responds to
varied cultures and traditional practices upheld by different Islamic generations without
interfering with their spirituality. Muslim architecture is widely recognized for its unique and
creative designs.
According to Omer Spahic, Islamic architecture has a close relationship with the spiritual as well
as physical individual Muslims. He said “Islamic architecture came about to facilitate, foster and
stimulate to ceaseless (worship) practices of it users.” In the debate, he also stated that
architecture as a frame work in implementing the Islamic claim to serve as encouragement for
Muslims in performing worship either through daily worship or devotion. This can be proved
through the building of mosques as a place of worship for the Islamic community’s primary that
could be described as identity, culture and the Muslim civilization itself. Likewise, Ibn Abdun,
namely, a judge in Al-Andalus in the 12th century A.D. in the writings cited by Stefano Bianca;
“as an architecture is concerned, it is the haven where man’s spirit, soul and body find refuge and
shelter.” The architecture is also regarded as one of the places for human habitation which is also
a shelter through the construction of buildings. The mosque also contains the most important
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elements in the development of urbanization development in the housing community or the

Muslim community. The mosque became the basis for the concept of a ‘neighbourhood’ or
known as the concept of the locality. This is clearly shows that mosques provide a positive input
in the friendly relationships between the local communities within a city or village through
programmers carried out in situ. In the field of the construction of an architectural structure, an
architect should be reviewed so that the architecture is really appreciated by every individual
Muslim. The significant appreciation of the philosophy is to link the physical form with spiritual
aspects of person. As such, the architecture is in a rare Muslim community focus on the
philosophy of architecture, particularly in the context of the architecture of the mosque. The
author considers that architecture has its own function in the context of its relationship with
Allah. The elements such as prayer, mihrab, towers and dome shapes, create awareness against
the magnificence of the platform and the prominence of Allah.
The Islamic architects pegged their creativity on evoking their inner beliefs through the use of
abstract forms that produced magnificent works of art. They progressively developed alternate
architectural styles that used Islamic art to create unique works. For these artists and architects,
the main aim of the art works was to transmit Islamic messages and not to offer aesthetic
gratification to the eye. Islamic architecture evolves with time which brings about diversification
in designs. Muslim cities were a reflection of unity portrayed through the sequential arrangement
of structures such as the mosque, the palace, the madrassa, and the homesteads. The symbols and
signs used in Islamic buildings did not always carry a religious message or meaning. Some of the
forms were unclear and unspecific in meaning. The only design that contained an easily
understood message was calligraphy. The symbols used in architectural designs were either an
expression of cultural or religious beliefs. Buildings underwent constant repairs and
refurbishment that depended on prevailing trends. This means that sometimes the symbols used
were just for aesthetic purposes. Several historical buildings held different meanings at the time
of their construction. For example, the Taj Mahal was built by Emperor Shah Jahan to
commemorate the death of his third wife who passed away while giving birth to their fourteenth
child. Back then, it was built out of grief but today it holds a different meaning and significance
to the world; that of architectural mastery of ancient architects. It is universally recognized as
one of the best Islamic architectural masterpieces.
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Although Islamic architecture has undergone several studies over different periods, a majority of
mainstream researchers still omit it from their developmental theories on architectural designs.
Most of the available literature on Islamic architecture is mainly from sympathizers rather than
genuine interested parties. Briggs, a scholar of architectural forms throughout history, refers to it
as Muhammedan architecture. Some scholars deliberately keep mum on this topic. For example,
Simpson’s three volume book which is one of the pioneer books on architectural history fails to
cover Muslim architecture. The book overlooks the period between the 6th and 10th centuries
during which Islamic architecture was dominant. Islamic architecture is to a large extent
associated with mosques, palaces, and castles. Hope provides a brief insight into Islamic
architecture, but does not cover a substantial volume on the topic. Modern day publications on
Islamic architecture provide a shallow and superficial coverage on the various aspects of the
designs, signs and significations associated with the architecture. Kostof, for example, covers
Muslim architecture in only eight pages out of his eight-hundred-page study on architectural
forms. This clearly shows how little regard researchers give to Islamic forms of architecture. In
addition, some Western scholars purport that Islamic architecture is a product of imitations from
other forms of architecture and borrows heavily from Byzantine and Romanesque architecture.
They argue that the concept of Islamic designs in architecture only served to distinguish their
structures from those of other cultures. They support these claims by arguing that Muslims were
reluctant to build permanent shelters due to their nomadic lifestyle. Such misconceptions often
serve to trivialize the contributions of Islamic designs to mainstream architecture.
The philosophy of Islamic architecture is derived from the general philosophy of Islam and is a
reflection of that philosophy at the same time. Islamic philosophy focuses on the internal
dynamics of the human entity in relationship with its external manifestations, integration
between that entity and the Creator, and that the basic values of life are those related to the
submission to the Creator, and equality among human beings. Such philosophy was reflected in
the field of architecture in the emphasis on simplicity f the buildings and their integration with
the environment. Further, there is an emphasis on the absence of external vernacular designs, and
complex details, and that the buildings should enable the Muslim to achieve its ritual and
spiritual obligations to the Creator, and its social commitments without impinging on the privacy
of his life. The building itself is not the target. The real target is the fulfilment of the Muslim’s
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spiritual and social obligation. The buildings should enable the Muslim to achieve these
objectives rather than to show richness and grandeur.
Islamic architecture is best articulated in its focus on the interior of the building, and the central
arrangement of spaces around the internal open courtyard, with solid external wall containing a
door. Such wall rarely contained small size openings, or showed any structures, as the emphasis
was on separating guest movements from the family’s private zone. The major objective of this
design was to secure family privacy. Further, Islamic architecture discouraged the use of
congregational forms in the design of buildings. It always emphasized on the simplicity of the
composition of the building. If all people are equal before their Creator, then it logically follows
that there should not major differences in their life styles and the styles of their buildings. This
explains the compatibility between the features of the external facades commonly produced by
Islamic architects. If a building fulfilled these major elements, it could be described as a
manifestation of Islamic architecture, regardless of the environment in which it was built. That is
why; Islamic architecture took different forms depending on the environment in which it was
applied. Islamic architecture in the desert was mainly different from its counterpart in tropical
and polar areas. However, these forms share the major elements just outlined. One may also add
that when the Muslims developed these concepts in different area, they were influenced by local
architectural pre-requisites, tastes, and technical knowledge and expertise.
2.1.5 Development of Islamic Architecture
As Islam spread in different areas, and as the needs of the new Muslim communities became
more complex, new types of buildings appeared, such as the religious schools (Madrasas), and
citadels. New elements were added to the building of the mosque, such as the minarets, and
water fountains for ablution. In fact, the mosque began to assume a social role, in addition to its
ritual one, which required an expansion of its size, and composition. An examination of the
mosque and Madrasa of Sultan Hassan, and the mosque and university of Al-Azhar, both in
Cairo, and King Faisal Complex in Sharjah exemplifies the major development in the institution
of the mosque over the years. Muslim rulers built government houses (Dar Al-Hukm). These
houses partially reflected Islamic architecture. They were characterized by a high level of rich
decorations in order to show the strength and power of the state. Other types of buildings
witnessed similar developments reflecting the nature of the community and the available
technology. The overall trend was the shift from simplicity and the use of limited technology to
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the establishment of huge structures and multi-story houses using advance technologies
developed by local Muslims.
The Muslim world, especially in the early ages of Islam, was characterized by the freedom of
movement of Muslims. There were no borders within Dar Al-Islam restricting the free movement
of citizens. Further, Muslims are obliged to perform Hajj at least once in a lifetime if it was
possible. As new centres of Islamic teaching and knowledge were established in different areas
of the Muslim world, Muslims began to travel more frequently, either to trade, to enrol in
Madrasas, or simply to perform Hajj. Consequently, new forms of buildings were established,
such as the Khans, these were residential and commercial complexes built either inside or
outside the city to host Muslim travellers. Police stations and watchtowers were also built in
order to secure the movement of Muslims across the Muslim world. The main conclusion to be
drawn from this review is that Islamic architecture has been able to adapt to different
environments, needs, and times. In this sense, Islamic architecture can be diagnosed a modern
given its ability to adapt to modern needs. Islamic architecture is not a medieval invention that
has lost its relevance to modern life.
One finds viable applications of Islamic architecture to modern societies across the Muslim
world. Once may refer to the case of the Sharjah Islamic Centre as a manifestation of our
argument. Whereas the Centre is based on the application of the main concepts of Islamic
architecture, it achieves the needs of a modern community to engage in different types of trade
transactions. Today, the main dilemma of Islamic architecture is not inherent in its inability to
adapt to modernity. Such dilemma is mainly located in the influences of Western architectural
theories and models over Muslim architects. These influences are a by-product of the dominance
of the Western cultural paradigm and a result of the decay of the Muslim world during the era of
imperialism. Many would-be-architects from the Muslim world were educated in the West, were
only taught the Western architectural theories as the only ones capable of adapting to modern
societies. This has resulted in a trend to transplant Western, architectural styles in modern Arab
cities, regardless of their suitability to local needs and environments. This trend was reinforced
as a result of the flow of oil in the Arab Gulf states and the influx of huge numbers of experts to
engage in the business of oil extraction, which, in turn, reinforced the trend to borrow the
Western architectural models. Al-Faqih has succinctly summarized these trends as follows:
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”In the Arab world during the early days of oil based prosperity, the
importation of western architecturally stylized buildings was looked at as
illustrating richness and ability to spend money. This was later even adopted
by the local architects, to show that they were just as able as western
architects, and the client in turn was made to believe that this represented a
desirable modernity”.
The Arab city today is heterogeneous conglomeration of buildings, which does not reflect a
specific identity or a philosophy.
2.1.6 Understanding the concept of “Islamic” in Architecture
Much has been written and said about the meaning of Islamic architecture. Nonetheless, scholars
have considerably differed? In their views as to whether there is an architecture that can be called
"Islamic," and if there is, what are its meanings and main characteristics. To a number of people,
Islam as a religion seems irrelevant to architecture. Though it is one of life's biggest necessities,
architecture is seen by some not in need of any religion as a point of reference. The answer to the
above quandary is that Islamic architecture as a concept as well as a sensory reality already
exists. Saying otherwise would do great injustice to both the religion of Islam and its followers
who have striven hard for centuries to realize it in their thought, deeds and words. Islam is a
comprehensive worldview and a way of life which has neglected no segment of existence.
Practicing Islam inevitably means the creation of a comprehensive culture and civilization which
bear the imprints of Islamic values, teachings and principles, more in some aspects than in
others, yet covering all. Islam signifies not only a set of prescribed rituals, but also
comprehensive articles of faith, philosophy, ideology, culture, civilization and the totality of
life’s systems: personal, family and societal. The subject of architecture is no exception to this.
Islamic beliefs shape the ways in which the Muslims build.
However, it must be borne in mind that it is the nature of Islam that provides humanity with the
basic rules of morality and guidelines of proper conduct in those spheres of life which are not
related to prescribed rituals of worship such as the spheres of art and architecture. Upon such
general principles and guidelines people can establish systems, regulations, views and attitudes
in order to comprehend and regulate their worldly life in accordance with their time, region and
needs. Since every age has its own problems and challenges, the solutions and perceptions
deduced from the fundamental principles and permanent values of life have to vary to some
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extent. Their substance, however, will always be the same. This is because of the uniformity and
consistency of the foundation and sources which are of Divine provenance. Islam is based on
man's essential nature, which is constant and is essentially not subject to change according to
time and space. It is the outward forms which change whereas the fundamental principles, and
basic values do not change and so does the essential human nature together with man's basic
needs.
What would be the most proper understanding of Islamic architecture? Islamic architecture is an
architecture whose functions, and to a lesser extent, forms, are inspired primarily by Islam.
Islamic architecture is a framework for the implementation of Islam. It facilitates, fosters and
stimulates the Muslims ‘ibadah (worship) activities, and these in turn account for every moment
of their lives. Islamic architecture can only come into existence under the aegis of the Islamic
perceptions of God, man, nature, life, death and the Hereafter. Thus, Islamic architecture
enshrines the facilities and, at the same time, a physical locus of the actualization of the Islamic
message. Practically speaking, Islamic architecture represents the religion of Islam that has been
translated into reality at the hands of the Muslims. It also represents the identity of Islamic
culture and civilization. ‘Abd al-Majid b. ‘Abd Allah Ibn ‘Abdun (d. 529/1135), an Andalusian
poet and man of letters (adib) of the 12th century, is reported to have said, as quoted by Stefano
Bianca: As far as architecture is concerned, it is the haven here man's spirit, soul and body find
refuge and shelter. In other words, architecture is a receptacle of people’s lives. Abu Muhammad
Abd Allah Ibn Qutaybah (d. 276/889), a Muslim scholar of the 9th century, compared the house,
as quoted by Afif Bahnassi, to a shirt, saying that just as the shirt should fit its owner, the house
too should suit its dwellers. That is to say, the aesthetic and utilitarian ends of the house must
correspond to the needs and capabilities of its users. The two must perfectly suit each other.
Central to Islamic architecture is its functionality with all of its ramifications? corporeal, cerebral
and spiritual. A form divorced from function is inconsequential. This, however, by no means
implies that the form plays no role in Islamic architecture. It does play a prominent role, but its
relevance is a supportive one, supplementing and enhancing its function. In terms of value and
substance the form always comes second to function and its wide scope. There must be the
closest relationship between the ideals that underpin the form of buildings and the ideals that
underpin their function, one with which the users of buildings must be at ease. A conflict
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between the two is bound to lead to a conflict of far-reaching psychological proportions among
the buildings users.
Scholars emphasize the word “function” simply because Islam is a religion not only of faith and
abstract philosophy but also of deeds, action and concrete life strategies. The term “Islam” means
“submission” which in itself implies a continuous and comprehensive action. Islam is not
essentially a religion of symbols, slogans and rhetoric. It strikes a fine balance between the
exigencies of the material and spiritual aspects of existence, between the requirements of well-
being in this world and the Hereafter, and between the needs of personal, family as well as
societal development. Islam means having a strong and complete faith in God and the other
required realities from the spiritual and corporeal worlds plus performing good deeds under all
circumstances. Appropriation of simply one aspect of Islam without the others is insufficient for
attaining success in here and hereafter. The two must be integrated in a whole that we call Islam,
which, in turn, must be interwoven with the life force of the notion of comprehensive excellence
or ihsan. In Islam faith and good deeds go hand-in-hand. Neither faith suffices without good
deeds, nor good deeds are of value without faith. A strong relationship between faith and good
deeds is the way towards comprehensive excellence.
Certainly, herein lies the actual importance of Islamic architecture in the sense that it not only
meets the requirements of living the Islamic lifestyle by just enveloping or framing it, but also by
facilitating it, as well as promoting its worth and encouraging Islamic architecture users and
observers to give to such a lifestyle its due consideration and respect. Islamic architecture is both
a field for the implementation of Islam and a vehicle for its promotion and advancement.
This is done at all planes of architecture: its perception, visualization, planning, execution and
utilization. This is done, furthermore, through inspired and innovative practical plans, designs
and structural solutions, which, as a matter of fact, can never be exhausted due to the countless
opportunities presented by the integration of the Islamic religion into all segments of life, or by
the harmonisation of the material and spiritual domains, of the heavens and the earth. Islamic
architecture is a style that glorifies Allah and His revelation. Likewise, it instils in man humility
in his capacity as a worldly creature. At the same time, however, it celebrates man's honoured
position as God’s vicegerent on earth and the glorious mission that has been entrusted to him.
The total image of Islamic architecture is thus, like everything else, that legitimately bears the
title “Islamic,” such as the notions of “Islamic city,” “Islamic arts,” “Islamic dwelling,” “Islamic
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state,” “Islamic university,” and so on. The projected functions of all these phenomena
epitomize, either completely or mainly, the ethos of Islam. In other words, they are microcosms
of the Islamic doctrine. The multifaceted roles that such phenomena play in society, though
conformable to the Zeitgeist, dynamic and modern, always remain in full accordance with Divine
inspiration and guidance. Muslims' holistic outlook on life’s challenges stems from a symbiosis
between the Islamic faith and an unprejudiced, pragmatic and brave approach to life. Having said
this, it follows that it is grossly inappropriate to use the adjective “Islamic” before those entities
or phenomena that only partly and superficially represent the Islamic doctrine and its value
system. The use of such adjectives might lead to confusion and creation of misconceptions about
Islam and its peoples. It is inappropriate, for example, to advance such concepts as “Islamic
tiles,” “Islamic patterns,” “Islamic costume,” “Islamic door,” “Islamic window,” and so on.
2.1.7 Islamic/Muslim Architecture
We have seen earlier that Islamic architecture is the one that exemplifies the Islamic spirituality
and the corpus of its normative teachings. Its evolution commenced with the revelation of Islam
to Muhammad (peace be on him), the last Messenger of God to mankind. Although Islam is a
complete code of life, it could not impose itself as such instantaneously on people, doing away
with their flawed living patterns. This is understandable because this code of life was revealed to
the Prophet Muhammad (peace be on him) gradually over a span of about 23 years: thirteen in
Makkah and ten in Madinah, so that the hearts of people would be able to comprehend and
absorb the message of Islam. After people had accepted Islam as a result of their own choice, it
was only natural that this was followed by the formation of inclusive Islamic lifestyles and
cultures. Thereafter new building styles were created in order to facilitate the new lifestyles
signifying the birth of Islamic architecture. The new architecture needed some time to evolve.
When it did, it typified everything that Islam stood for: its universalism, magnitude, dynamism
and originality. Hence, it is very much appropriate to brand such an approach to and style of
building as Islamic architecture.
However, what is the status of an architectural enterprise created and used by Muslims but
which entail some substantial and unambiguous features that clearly go against the values and
teachings of Islam? Such an enterprise, in our opinion, ought not to be called “Islamic” as it
betrays the connotations of the adjective “Islamic” placed before “architecture,” which implies
that the noun “architecture” is judged to be an epitome of the Islamic message, or a major portion
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of it. Arguably, some minor inconsistencies between an Islamic architectural enterprise and the
essential character and value system of Islam could be tolerated provided that these
inconsistencies are the target of some corrective measures.
Such architecture is to be rather called “Muslim,” that is to say, it is the architecture of Muslims
who perceived, designed, built and then used it. Calling an imperfect architectural creation as
“Muslim” entails no problems for the sake of a proper comprehension of what goes on, whereas
calling the same as “Islamic” could create problems. The serious spiritual failings of certain
Muslims at times more and at other times less are not atypical and constitute a segment of life’s
spiritual paradigm. What normally signifies an issue are the magnitude, frequency and effects of
such failings. Therefore, an imperfect architectural creation by Muslims is a direct outcome of
some or their many shortcomings, deliberate or otherwise, while living in the shade of the laws
and precepts of Islam. Such an architectural creation can be a deficiency in itself, or a result of
some other correlated deficiencies, or it can be used as an avenue to performing or aiding some
other inadequacies. Just as many Muslims can err in business, education, political, social and
pure spiritual spheres, they likewise can err in different aspects of the architectural sphere.
In other words, while Islamic architecture represents the spirit of Islam, Muslim architecture
represents the spirit and mentality of Muslims. While the former is constant, the latter fluctuates.
Every Islamic architecture is Muslim. Every Muslim architecture is not necessarily Islamic.
Islamic architecture in principle is flawless, classified whereas Muslim architecture
accommodates spiritual imperfections of Muslims. While Muslim architecture can be according
to regions, communities and historical periods, Islamic architecture manifests the ethos and
ideals of Islam. Islamic architecture, however, cannot be studied and accurately experienced and
assessed from a distance: from pictures, video tapes, documentary films or stories. As is the case
with Islam, Islamic architecture is more about the soul, about spiritual aspects of life as well as
psychological sentiments and experiences than about outward manifestations. The former is the
substance, the latter the supplement.
It is a fact that a vast majority of Muslims today fail to adhere in its totality to the dictates of the
Islamic law and the requirements of the Islamic worldview. This is a rough assessment
experienced more in some aspects of living and less in others, and more in some geographic
regions and less in others. The field of built environment freely falls within the category of those
life aspects where in Muslims adhere less and less to the teachings and judgments of Islam.
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Some researchers go so far as to assert that many of the new buildings in the Muslim world,
particularly in the Middle East, apart from being unfaithful to the Islamic indigenous traditions
and culture, are direct imitations of Western models that were designed for another culture, thus
creating alien environments in Islamic communities. Hence, it would be more appropriate and
also safer to identify today's architecture of Muslims in most cases as “Muslim” rather than
“Islamic.”
Indeed, a clear distinction is to be made between Islamic and Muslim architecture at both the
conceptual and empirical planes. This is in order that confusion and misconceptions about Islam
and its peoples are eschewed. If an architectural establishment contains a thing or two that are
clearly against the body of Islamic teachings and principles, characterising such an architecture
as “Islamic” is likely to confuse those who are not familiar with the substance of Islam.
Moreover, it may pave the way for the creation of some misconceptions about Islam, or it may
cause the existing misconceptions to be further strengthened. As a result, some people may even
end up asking what Islam actually is, who Muslims actually are, and what should be the features
of their primary cultural expressions.
2.1.8 Characteristics of Islamic Architecture
In describing the characteristics of Islamic architecture, the authors did not find any description
associated with it in detail. The writer’s results are more general in nature. Among them are the
views of the I. H. Qureshi who argue the key features of the first Islamic architecture and the
architecture must have space for the entry of light into the buildings as much as possible. This is
in accordance with the State of the environment which can provide comfort to Muslims during
prayers and the mosque workers or residential houses. The second is to use decorative materials
such as khat or calligraphy cited verses from the Quran and the Hadith. Application of writing
calligraphy is very effective and so harmony once to represent human life. Third room space that
separates between male and female. The fourth is the design of a building that must be
compatible with local climate of a country. The fifth is the furniture in a building must be simple
and beautiful, and there is no element of wastage.
The sixth is the architecture also characterizes the expression of feelings, peace, peace and
silence to the occupants. In other words, does not exist any conflict between elements of
spirituality with material or mundane. The seventh is building security should concern and is safe
for use in the future. This is proven through some mosques and buildings that have erected
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nearly one hundred years but still intact and can be used safely. Eighth is arcade or the roof as
submitted by E.J. Grube as a complement to the characteristics of Islamic architecture as
described above. In contrast to the views given by Omer Sephic in her writings, the
characteristics of Islamic àrchitecture must have erected buildings either personally or even
general nature tawhid conscious of God and also the importance of the Ummah. This can be
evidenced by the construction of a mosque in the city of Medina as a basis of consolidation of
the community in the field of religion, economic and social. In addition, techniques and design of
the building also influenced the Islamic architecture. These include local culture, climate,
geography and also changes in technology at that time. It also takes into account the creativity,
imagination, a combination of skills in architecture based on tawhid to Allah SWT.
The addition of these features was also submitted by Mohammad Tajuddin Muhammad Rasdi in
his writings on Islamic concept of Municipality notes that the characteristics of the architecture
has a close relationship with geographical factors, especially in terms of terrain, weather, wind
and temperature conditions. These aspects be determinant to the needs of the community against
certain features on a building. Similarly, the philosophy of architecture must be able to adapt to
the needs and comfort of a free society and not merely to replicate elements of the foreign
architecture which reflects the characteristics of Islam. In this case, the construction of a building
is considered a feature of Islamic architecture, but some architects are quite marginalizing this
factor.
However, the authors look at some other factors presented, namely window construction found
in the architecture of the Middle East, comprising the small window at the top of the building,
including the mosque. Sultan Suleiman Mosque, Istanbul has small windows at the top. Badshshi
Mosque, Lahore, Pakistan, has no windows but has a large iwan gateway together with other
doors. This case clearly shows the factors and weather is one of the main factors in the
characteristics of the architecture of the mosque. However, these features vary with the
construction of traditional mosques, namely Nusantara Mosque, Kampung Laut Mosque in Kota
Bharu and also the Peringgit Mosque in Malacca which have structured a total window. This
situation is caused by the climate of the region together with hot and humid rain often requires
adequate cooling and wind for ventilation. Therefore, windows became the main element in a
building of Islam even in different territories.
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These differences saw the need of the local community against the influence of geography in a
building. Mohamad Tajuddin Mohd Rasdi has his own standing that of that the political
influence of the previous Islamic Government influenced the development of the architecture of
the Muslim community at that time. According to an Islamic perspective, that the exchange of
power in appointing a consultative system Khulafa al-Muslim heritage system was a very big
impact in the development of the Muslim community, especially during the Umayyad and
Abbasid. With reference to the next leader, all architectural developments were unjustified
referred to the Islamic understanding. Architecture in a building referred to the leaders and the
Government, but is not referred to the Islamic understanding.
This view contrasts with the view of E.J. Grube in her writings “What is Islamic Architecture.”
He highlighted several methods in identifying the characteristics of Islamic architecture. The first
of Islamic architecture can be seen in the context of the residence of the Muslim community in
West Asia that has internal and external pages seem simple and does not have a window. The
second is the architecture associated with buildings such as mosques and also the tomb of its own
purposes in the context of reconciliation in spite of different space. He is also associate the
Islamic architecture with specific aspects such as décor, flowers and geometric patterns and
calligraphy. On the whole, the view of Islamic master nor the West against the characteristics of
Islamic architecture can be seen through the building of a mosque that serves as the main symbol
of Islam and in buildings which affects other buildings in the Muslim world. There are certain
elements in the design of the building which is identified as the dome design, windows, doors
and the others which have relation to the climate, geography and culture of a place. Greetings of
Islamic architecture also recognizes aspects of decoration that has its own functions and
complement the uniqueness of Islamic architecture itself.
2.1.9 Let Us Sum Up
This lesson was a brief overview of Islamic architecture and its various dimensions. Architecture
is among the greatest forms of Islamic Art. The aim of this lesson was to contextualize the
concept of Islamic architecture. It seeks to make the readers appreciate the heritage of Islamic
architecture, and to clarify on misconceptions about Islamic architecture. Throughout history,
Islamic signs and signification have been recognized and appreciated across territorial
boundaries. As we learnt Islamic architecture is one of the world’s most celebrated building
traditions. Known for its radiant colors, rich patterns, and symmetrical silhouettes, this
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distinctive approach has been popular in the Muslim world since the 7th century. Islamic
architects pegged their creativity on evoking their inner beliefs through the use of abstract forms
that produced magnificent works of art. They progressively developed alternate architectural
styles that used Islamic art to create unique works. For these artists and architects, the main aim
of the art works was to transmit Islamic messages. Islamic architecture provides an insight into
the beliefs and practices of Muslims throughout history. Its ability to evolve over time brings
about diverse designs. A lot of gratitude should be shown towards the Muslim architects without
whom some of the monuments that exist today would not be there.
1. Define the Philosophy of Islamic Architecture
2. Explain the concept of “Islamic” in Architecture
3. Differentiate Islamic versus Muslim Architecture
4. Explain the characteristics of Islamic Architecture
Ahmad, H. Hassan, Fathy and Continuity in Islamic Architecture: The Birth of a New Modern,
(The American University in Cairo Press, 2010)
Akkach, S., Cosmology and Architecture in Pre-modern Islam: An Architectural Reading of
Mystical Ideas, (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005)
Bhabha, H., Architecture and Thought, Intervention Architecture: Building for Change, (New
York: I.B. Tauris, 2007)
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Lesson 02: Salient Features of Muslim Architecture

Lesson Structure
2.2.1 Introduction
2.2.2 Objectives
2.2.3 Art: An Integral Part of Muslim Life
2.2.5 General Characteristics of Islamic Art
2.2.6 Art as a Historical Category
2.2.7 Water as the Source of Life
2.2.8 Let Us Sum Up
2.1.1 Introduction
Islamic architecture is one of the world’s most celebrated building traditions. Known for its
radiant colours, rich patterns, and symmetrical silhouettes, this distinctive approach has been
popular in the Muslim world since the 7th century. While Islamic architecture comprises several
styles across different countries and continents, there are certain characteristics that remain
universally prevalent throughout. Recognizing these underlying elements—as well as
understanding its geographical prevalence—is key to grasping the visually sensational and
historically significant style In fact, it has been widely recognized that by analyzing the
architectural products of a certain civilization, one can comprehend the main cultural paradigms
of such civilization. These architectural products are physical witness to quality of such
civilization, and more importantly the foreign influences on its societies, which experience
strong foreign intrusions, tend to reflect them in their architectural products. This lesson
examines various types of Islamic architecture and conducts a semiotic analysis of these works.
The lesson explains the key features of Islamic architecture and also highlights the qualities and
characteristics that make it unique and distinctive from other forms of architecture.
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2.1.2 Objectives
 Introduce the meaning and characteristics of Islamic Architecture

 Highlight the diverse distinctive features of Islamic Architecture
2.2.3 Art: An Integral Part of Muslim Life

In the Quran, God says, in speaking of man, “I created him only that he might worship Me” (51:
56). Further, it is said, “Nothing is greater than the remembrance of God!” (29: 45). It follows
then that the real raison d’être of man is to worship God, which implies that the whole of his
existence should be an act of devotion and remembrance vis-a-vis his Maker. The idea of
remembrance, of recollection—dhikr, tadhkīr—is fundamental to Islam. The Koran is called
dhikr Allah, remembrance of God, and dhikr Allah is also one of the names given to the Prophet
Muhammad, not only because he was the trustee and transmitter of the Quran, but also because
his behavior, his words, and his teachings—in short all that makes up the Sunnah, the Prophetic
Tradition—show to what extent he remembered his Lord, and as a result of this constant
remembrance, was near to Him.
This preoccupation, this obsession one might even say, with the recollection, the remembrance of
God is not only a factor in individual perfection. It is also a stimulating ferment to social life and
artistic development. In order to remember God often, it is necessary in effect that the members
of the Muslim community should contrive to surround themselves at every moment of their
lives—and not only during the ritual prayer—with an ambiance favorable to this remembrance.
Such an ambiance would need to be beautiful and serene so that the human beings one met as
well as all the things, natural or artificial one encountered, could become the occasion for and the
support of the dhikr (remembrance of God). With regard to the human and social milieu, such an
ambiance is realized through the practice of the sharia, the revealed religious Law which
contains the rules to which all are obliged to conform. Thanks to this law, the five essential
pillars of Islam, a network of sacralized behavior patterns, as much individual as collective, is
woven into the heart of the collectivity, the Ummah. As to the imprint given to the material
environment so that it too might become a mirror of the spiritual world, it is here, precisely, that
one enters the domain of art, of sacred art which, according to the words of the contemporary
Maitre a penser Frithjof Schuon, “is first of all the visible and audible form of Revelation and
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then also its indispensable liturgical vesture”. The function of artists consists in translating the
principles of Islam into aesthetic language, in other words, transposing them into forms and
motifs which will be incorporated into the structures and used in the decoration of all things from
sanctuaries and palaces to the most humble domestic utensil. “God is beautiful; He loves
beauty”, says a hadith which could be regarded as the doctrinal foundation of Muslim aesthetics.
According to the Islamic perspective, which underlines the absolute supremacy of the rights of
the Creator over those of the creature, artistic creativity is nothing other than a predisposition
which God has placed in man to help him follow the path which leads to Him. The artist is
therefore only one among others of the servants of God; he does not belong to any exceptional
category. He should himself, the better to fulfill his role in the collectivity, become, by means of
effacement and disinterested service, an as transparent as possible interpreter of the Tradition to
which he subscribes. Whence the relationship that has always existed with Muslim artists
between the practice of virtues and the excellence of professional work. The Prophet said: “God
loves that when one of you does something, he does it thoroughly.” And one can confirm that
this advice has been followed to the letter, in particular by the artisans of the guilds and
brotherhoods of the entire classical period for whom the artisanal pact was a unanimously
respected professional code of honor. Another characteristic of artistic creativity in Islam is that
it is never exercised “gratuitously”, by which we are to understand that it always answers to
well-defined ends. Unlike the art of the modern West, Islamic art has never known the
distinction between an art supposedly “pure”, or “art for art’s sake”, and a utilitarian or applied
art, the first aiming solely at provoking an aesthetic emotion and the second supposedly
responding to some need. In fact, Islamic art is always “functional”, that is to say useful, whether
the utility is directly of the spiritual order—like the Koranic verses engraved on the pediment of
a mausoleum or embroidered on the veil which covers the Ka‘bah at Mecca—or whether it
pertains to many levels at the same time, as with a chandelier or a bronze basin inlaid with
arabesques.
It will perhaps be noticed that we use the terms “artist” and “artisan” without distinction to
designate those who are responsible for the artistic expression of Islam. This is because in
classical Arabic there is only one word to indicate the man who works and fashions with his
hands; it is sāni, the artisan, someone who practices a craft or trade, for which he must serve an
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apprenticeship in a technique, in an “art”—in the sense in which this term was used in the
Middle Ages, and not in the modern world. The Arabic word fann (art) carries the same ancient
connotation. This meaning is found expressed, notably, in the adage ars sine scientianihil,
“technique (or skill) without knowledge (or wisdom) counts for nothing”—an adage Muslim
artisans could have made their own and of which, it may be said in passing, our modern
technocrats would do well to take note. Therefore, the artist, as we know him today, with his
search after individual expression and his rather marginal position in society does not exist in the
world of traditional Islam which is what we are now concerned with and that is why the use of
either term, “artist” or “artisan”, should not lend itself in this context to any misunderstanding.
There are two essential characteristics of Islamic artistic production. Firstly: from the spiritual
and ethical point of view, it derives essentially from the Koranic Message, the values of which it
aims to translate onto the formal plane. Secondly: from the technical point of view, it rests on the
transmission from father to son, or master to apprentice, of unchangeable rules and practices.
Such a transmission does not in any way imply stagnation and the automatic repetition of earlier
designs. On the contrary, at most times, it has assured a constant source of inspiration to the
artists and a stability on the technical level which have favoured the creation of numerous
masterpieces that are in no way repetitive. If, at other times, the ancient formulae have become
somewhat exhausted as a result of being reproduced, it is necessary to look elsewhere than in the
formulae themselves for the cause of this decadence.

The philosophy of Islamic architecture is derived from the general philosophy of Islam and is a
reflection of that philosophy at the same time. Islamic philosophy focuses on the internal
dynamics of the human entity in relationship with its external manifestations, integration
between that entity and the Creator, and that the basic values of life are those related to the
submission to the Creator, and equality among human beings. Such philosophy was reflected in
the field of architecture in the emphasis on simplicity f the buildings and their integration with
the environment. Further, there is an emphasis on the absence of external vernacular designs, and
complex details, and that the buildings should enable the Muslim to achieve its ritual and
spiritual obligations to the Creator, and its social commitments without impinging on the privacy
of his life. The building itself is not the target. The real target is the fulfilment of the Muslim’s
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spiritual and social obligation. The buildings should enable the Muslim to achieve these
objectives rather than to show richness and grandeur.
Islamic architecture is best articulated in its focus on the interior of the building, and the central
arrangement of spaces around the internal open courtyard, with solid external wall containing a
door. Such wall rarely contained small size openings, or showed any structures, as the emphasis
was on separating guest movements from the family’s private zone. The major objective of this
design was to secure family privacy. Further, Islamic architecture discouraged the use of
congregational forms in the design of buildings. It always emphasized on the simplicity of the
composition of the building. If all people are equal before their Creator, then it logically follows
that there should not major differences in their life styles and the styles of their buildings. This
explains the compatibility between the features of the external facades commonly produced by
Islamic architects. If a building fulfilled these major elements, it could be described as a
manifestation of Islamic architecture, regardless of the environment in which it was built. That is
why; Islamic architecture took different forms depending on the environment in which it was
applied. Islamic architecture in the desert was mainly different from its counterpart in tropical
and polar areas. However, these forms share the major elements just outlined. One may also add
that when the Muslims developed these concepts in different area, they were influenced by local
architectural pre-requisites, tastes, and technical knowledge and expertise.
2.2.5 General Characteristics of Islamic Art

Among the many forms of Islamic art, high esteem is given to religious architecture, most
notably the mosque. Among all the arts of Islam, religious writing is most revered, including
writing and decoration of the Quran and calligraphy used on the mosque and other religious
structures. Islamic art emphasizes the glorification of God’s words, and embellishing passages
from sacred texts with beautiful images of geometric and floral designs. Unlike Christian and
Buddhist arts, for example, in which there are many representations of stories involving the
depiction of human figures, Islamic art strongly discourages the rendering of the human figure
for art that has a religious purpose. The worship of idols is especially taboo. One never finds a
human statue in the mosque, or a painted figure illustrating the pages of the Koran. However, the
representation of living things in visual art is not strictly forbidden. Rather, various scriptures
suggest that the artist should not attempt to re-create what only God is capable of doing. The
artist should not attempt to create something that gives the illusion or impression of a living
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creature. Despite these beliefs, the human figure does appear in Islamic art, mostly in illustrated
histories and literary works of a secular nature. These paintings and manuscripts were typically
commissioned by the courts to glorify their position, or claim legitimacy by linking their exploits
to famous people and legends of the past. These works were made for private viewing, not for
use in public or in worship. According to the Linda Komaroff, Curator of Islamic Art at the Los
Angeles County Museum of Art, “in Islamic cultures, the so-called decorative arts provide the
primary means of artistic expression, in contrast to western art, in which painting and sculpture
are preeminent. Illuminated manuscripts, woven textiles and carpets, inlaid metalwork, blown
glass, glazed ceramics and carved wood and stone all absorbed the creative energies of artists,
becoming highly developed art forms. These works include small-scale objects of daily use, such
as delicate glass beakers, as well as more monumental architectural decoration, for example,
glazed panels from building facades. Such objects were meticulously fabricated and carefully
embellished, often with rare and costly materials, suggesting that the people for whom they were
made sought to surround themselves with beauty.” An important role for the Islamic artist was to
create a sense of wonderment (ajib) or astonishment.
Therefore, great emphasis was placed on the surface decoration of objects. Islamic art appears to
revel in an extraordinary range of techniques and designs applied to practical objects, in addition
to buildings and sacred writings. Many of these designs combine geometric and vegetal
elements. One design in particular is emblematic of Islamic art: the arabesque. The arabesque
consists of leaf shapes and tendrils that have been stylized, abstracted, and interlaced into a
geometric framework that appears to extend indefinitely in all directions. This patterning suited
the decoration of buildings extremely well. It probably first appeared in Baghdad, the cultural
capital of the Islamic world in the 900s. Later philosophers would extol the moral and
philosophical virtues of such designs. To them, the degree of refinement demonstrated in these
designs indicated the level and sophistication of the cultures that created them. Forms that
repeated themselves in a seemingly endless pattern were likened to the infinite nature of God’s
creation. An emphasis on surface design may also have resulted from the accumulated expertise
of artists concentrating on this type of art form, rather than on figurative arts.
Another important emphasis in Islamic art is the attention given to gardens, both to actual
physical gardens, and to the representation of gardens in paintings, carpets, and in the layout and
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decoration of buildings. The aim, however, was not to create the illusion of a real garden on the
surface of a building. The depiction of gardens was linked to the many vivid descriptions of
paradise in the sacred writings. Such understanding of a transcendental paradise seems natural
considering the extremely dry, arid, and mountainous regions that make up much of the Islamic
world. In scripture, paradise is like a beautiful oasis. Those who pass the final judgment by living
in accordance with the true faith, it is believed, will arrive in a lush garden, filled with abundant
greenery and flowing water.
2.2.6 Art as a Historical Category
As an art-historical category, “Islamic art” refers to much more than objects and monuments
created in the service of the Muslim faith, such as manuscripts of the Qurʾān, mosques, and
madrasas, although historians of Islamic art study these, as well. Most surviving works of
Islamic art were secular, and many of them originally served utilitarian purposes, oft en as
tableware. The full spectrum of Islamic art runs the gamut of material artifacts. Metalwork,
ceramics, glass, stone, manuscripts, woodwork, jewellery, and textiles feature prominently in
Islamic art’s vast array of artistic media. While specialists acknowledge that very few Islamic
objects were made “for art’s sake,” neutral descriptors like “portable” are generally preferred
over terms used in Western art-historical taxonomy like “decorative,” “minor,” or “applied arts.”
Additionally, the hierarchical ranking of Western artistic media, in which painting and sculpture
are the highest forms of expression, is irrelevant in the context of Islamic visual culture.
Sculpture is virtually nonexistent in the history of Islamic art. Large-format painting is largely
absent, as well. For most of Islamic history, painting was most frequently done in service of the
arts of the book, which also include calligraphy and bookbinding. With the exception of
calligraphers, the history of Islamic art contains relatively few named artists.
Architecture and archaeology have traditionally been considered subfields of study within the
history of Islamic art. Architecture is sometimes cited as the clearest expression of Islamic
artistic creativity, and the conventional separation between art and archaeology was of little
relevance to the history of Islamic art until fairly recently. Although archaeology is increasingly
viewed as a separate discipline, the construction of a chronological framework for Islamic art
relied heavily upon archaeological findings and other objects not usually designated as “art,” as
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well as the study of the built environment (which includes monuments and elements of
architectural decoration, like tiles). Like all branches of art history, the study of Islamic art is
inherently interdisciplinary, requiring a synthesis of several humanistic fields to better
understand objects and monuments in relation to their original circumstances. Art history
emerged as an autonomous discipline in early nineteenth-century Europe. Its basic methods are
thus foreign to Islamic culture, and Muslim scholars were, for the most part, uninvolved in the
study of Islamic art until relatively recently. Despite the potential shortcoming of “Islamic art”
as a Western construct, and despite art history’s disciplinary formulation in the context of
Western visual and scholarly traditions, historians of Islamic art and architecture have devised a
range of approaches as varied as the material culture they study. These approaches are best
understood in the context of the field’s development since its emergence in the closing decades
of the nineteenth century.
2.2.7 Water as the Source of Life
We made of water every living thing (Quran 21: 30). Allah has created from water every living
being. (Quran, 24: 45) When the Divine Essence, unseizable in its own nature, aspires to be
perceived, it overflows and reveals itself in a creative irradiation, as expressed in the sacred
utterance (hadith qudsi) inspired to Prophet Muhammad: “I was a hidden Treasure; then I desired
to be known and created the creatures.” At first, it condenses into an ethereal substance, the
principle of the four cosmic elements which is sometimes called “the dust” or the “thick cloud”.
At times also, like in the biblical Genesis, it is designated as “the higher waters” or “the surface
of waters” or simply, as in the above quoted Quranic verses, as “water”. In this primordial sense,
water is the materia prima which the Spirit comes to inform; it is the support of universal life.
The earthly water, a gift of God indispensable to the material and spiritual life of every human
being, is a common property, and every ruler or group leader has the obligation to ensure its
equitable distribution to all members of the community. This explains the remarkable degree of
development achieved in all Muslim countries with hydraulic works that are found in the
countryside and city alike: irrigation canals and pools, water wheels and aqueducts (figs. 176-
177), public fountains (fig. 52), not to mention the facilities needed for the ritual purification in
the form of baths, latrines, and ablution basins (figs. 46-53). Water is joy, plenitude and, in the
garden, it flows and sings permanently. When it is not physically present, because of
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unfavourable climatic or housing conditions, an effort is made to at least suggest its presence by
some symbolic means: the cruciform design of the alleys and pavement of the inner courtyard of
a house, recalling the four rivers flowing in Paradise, or the orderly placing of plant and
flowerpots to draw the outline of a ryad, the classical closed garden with its partitioned borders
and beds of vegetation.
In Arabic, the same word jannah, often appearing in the Koran, may be used to designate either
the earthly or the heavenly garden and, for a Muslim, any garden, whether richly arranged or
modest, must allow the imagination a precursory sense of the joys that await the elect in their
happy abode. Among the elements which help to enhance this relationship, a few have been
particularly cherished by the master gardeners of Islam: the inverted image of earthly things and
the reflection of the sky appearing on the surface of a basin (fig. 179); the actual or figurative
presence of the four rivers of Eden (fig. 175); the planting of trees endowed with eternal youth,
like yews and cypresses, or bearing the fruits of Paradise, like dates and pomegranates mentioned
in the Koranic descriptions of the heavenly Garden; the selection of flowers whose fragrance is
suggestive of an immaterial beatitude; and the setting up of “dwellings” analogous to those
reserved for the companions of Heaven, in the form of tents woven with many-coloured
brocades, of pergolas and pavilions placed at strategic points from where the view offers a
perspective of lanes, rivulets, and plots (figs. 183-184). Finally, various devices help to associate
hearing with the other senses in this place of delight when landscape architects cause water to
zigzag then fall back into marble basins, so that the murmur of the stream mixes with the cooing
of doves.
2.2.8 Let Us Sum Up
This lesson was a brief overview of Islamic architecture and its various dimensions. To reiterate
architecture is among the greatest forms of Islamic Art. The aim of this lesson was to
contextualize the concept of Islamic architecture and diverse manifestations of Islamic
Architectural forms. It seeks to make the readers appreciate the heritage of Islamic architecture,
and to clarify on misconceptions about Islamic architecture. Throughout history, Islamic signs
and signification have been recognized and appreciated across territorial boundaries. As we
learnt Islamic architecture is one of the world’s most celebrated building traditions. Known for
its radiant colors, rich patterns, and symmetrical silhouettes, this distinctive approach has been
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popular in the Muslim world since the 7th century. Islamic architects pegged their creativity on
evoking their inner beliefs through the use of abstract forms that produced magnificent works of
art. They progressively developed alternate architectural styles that used Islamic art to create
unique works. For these artists and architects, the main aim of the art works was to transmit
Islamic messages. Islamic architecture provides an insight into the beliefs and practices of
Muslims throughout history. Its ability to evolve over time brings about diverse designs. A lot of
gratitude should be shown towards the Muslim architects without whom some of the monuments
that exist today would not be there.
1. Define the Philosophy of Islamic Architecture

2. Explain the concept of “Islamic” in Architecture
3. Differentiate Islamic versus Muslim Architecture
4. Explain the characteristics of Islamic Architecture
Ahmad, H. Hassan, Fathy and Continuity in Islamic Architecture: The Birth of a New Modern,
(The American University in Cairo Press, 2010)
Akkach, S., Cosmology and Architecture in Premodern Islam: An Architectural Reading of

Mystical Ideas, (Albany: State University of New York Press, 2005)
Bhabha, H., Architecture and Thought, Intervention Architecture: Building for Change, (New
York: I.B. Tauris, 2007)
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Lesson 03: Classical Muslim Architecture (Damascus, Baghdad, Cordova, Cairo, Istanbul
and Isfahan)
Lesson Structure
2.3.1 Introduction
2.3.2 Objectives
2.3.3 Understanding Classical Muslim Architecture
2.3.4 Manifestation of Muslim Architecture
2.3.5 Art within the City and Mosques in Classical Muslim Architecture
2.3.6 The Religious Function: The Mosque
2.3.7 Architecture in Damascus
2.3.8 Islamic Architecture in Cairo
2.3.9 Architecture under Ottomans
2.3.10 Architecture in Isfahan
Introduction
Islam is not just a religion among many existing religions but a meta-religion (al-din), the only
true means to understand and initiate a conversation with God and the development of any
institutional offshoots (social, cultural, political) works as a medium to create a concatenation
between Creator and the creation. Its approach to man’s life and his spirituality is to some extent
different from that of other religions such as Hinduism, Buddhism, Judaism and Christianity.
There is no objective or representation of the Supreme Reality in Islamic art-world to be painted
or portrayed as in case of other religions. Islamic Art is one of the medium to converse and
manifest the theo-centric beauty of Islam. On the other hand, the consequent Void (‘adam) has its
distinctive implication in the Islamic art-world. Al-Tawhid (Unity of Being) is the real meaning
of Islam and this metaphysical belief of Unity is the spiritual significant of the Void which is the
only aspiration and soul of Islamic art. Art moves human beings and satisfies their emotional
dimensions. Artistic emotional response inspires a man to shed light on the profundities of
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human existence as well as facial appearance of the universe. One universal explanation on the
subject of art that has been acknowledged by all thinkers and aestheticians of all the times is that
art, a creative course of action is the expression of frame of mind, feeling or spirit. This lesson
will explore and introduce some key aspects of Islamic Art.
2.3.2 Objectives
To understand the essence of Islamic Art
To delineate over the diverse aspects of Islamic Art
2.3.3 Understanding Classical Muslim Architecture
Important Architectural projects are most of the time constructed not only to fulfil its functional
purposes but also the showcase of pride and luxuries. Islam starts to spread by Arab Nomads at
early 700 CEs to all over the world and they hardly had any permanent settlements to anywhere.
However in late 700 CEs, Muslim had conquered great Roman and Persian emperors. Islam
started to expand over a vast territory. Muslim rulers are starting to establish cities, palaces, forts
from the influences of Roman and Persian lifestyle. Significant architectural development had
done by new Muslim rulers with the help of same architects and masons groups from previous
emperors. They played a significant role in the elaboration of Muslim Art and Architecture all
over the world. According to Fletcher “Muslims were not blind imitators but were content to
adopt each local style that they found, modifying it mainly in distinctive ornamental details, but
also introducing several important new features of plan and structure”. Firstly, Umayyad (661-
750 C.E) rulers started establishing the Muslim Kingdom. They adopted the construction
techniques of the Byzantine and Sassanid empires and often reused existing buildings. Though
they start following Byzantine and Mesopotamian style; they introduce and developed some
significant architectural styles and decorations, especially in Mosque design which is still
followed as a role model. The dome of rock, the great mosque of Kairouan and Damascus are the
examples of Islamic Architecture in Umayyad period. Secondly, Abbasid (750-945) rulers
inherited Persian and Central Asian architectural style and also evolved distinctive styles of their
own. They have a significant contribution to decorative works; three new types of stucco
decoration were developed by them and rapidly became popular elsewhere. While the Abbasids
lost control of large parts of their empire after 850, their architecture continued to be copied by
successor states in Iran, Egypt and North Africa. Great Mosque of Samarra, Abbasid palace in
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Karbala, Iraq; Dalal Bridge in Zakho, Iraq are the examples of Islamic Architecture in Abbasid
period.
The Islamic architecture is not determined; it is not standards and forms, not limited to patterns
applied in countries conquered by the Muslims. The more we understand about its
architecture, it is recognized that the Islamic content is created to establish the building
character with a distinct identity. The relation of time and place differs within the architectures
created in various Muslim countries. Despite the diversity of solutions, the original feature and
the similarity of the surrounding environment weather, construction materials and designer
thought are maintained.
2.3.4 Manifestation of Muslim Architecture
The great cities of the Islamic world form a chain reaching from northern India to the Andalusian
region in modern Spain, encompassing Marrakech, Cairo, Damascus and Baghdad along the
way. These places were constructed along trade routes, some pre-dating the coming of Islam,
others built as a result of its conquest of new areas. Mainly inland, their initial purpose was to
provide a space for exchange and respite for merchants moving across the great trading routes of
North Africa and the Middle East. As these cities developed they grew to be leading centres of
learning both for scholars and artisans. As merchants and students moved between cities they
spread with them not only their knowledge of science and religion but also an understanding of
architecture. From this a certain language of design developed, unifying and identifying Muslim
places across the chain. These Islamic architectural elements are most noticeable in the shape of
mosques, with their distinctive forms of courtyards, minarets and domes, but are also reflected at
a wider scale across towns and cities. Alongside this architectural language closer inspection
reveals individual touches, where each region and city developed its own style, using different
building materials and decoration to express its identity and culture. Some of the most striking
examples of this are the Djenne Mosque in Mali and the palace of Al-Hambra in Granada, Spain.
The elements of the buildings and cities were not only designed for their great beauty but also
held within them a physical expression of Islamic life and spiritualism. The cities were not
simply a collection of buildings, peppered throughout a public area, but were a collective of
buildings and gardens. The person moving through them would experience a flow between large
open spaces, built to accommodate collective gatherings, and smaller more intimate areas in the
market or in courtyards. The mosque itself would be flanked by minarets, great tall towers
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marking both the territory of the building and reaching up, connecting the horizontal flat earth
with the heavens. The final culmination of this flow of space would be the prayer hall of the
mosque, a place where the earth, with its four walls, and four seasons, meets heaven, a universal
circle reaching up into the sky.
2.3.5 Art within the City and Mosques in Classical Muslim Architecture
Seen from the sky or the surrounding hills, the Islamic city is easily recognizable by its
appearance of a cellular conglomerate. “Naturahorret vacuum”, said the Ancients, and the
Islamic city, which obeys the laws of nature, does not leave any vacant spaces. Dense and
compact, it is criss-crossed with barely visible arteries: streets, and alleys which, rarely linear,
may vanish under a group of houses and reappear only to sink once again into refreshing shade.
Each cell comprises a square or rectangular structure surrounding an inner courtyard onto which
open living quarters of houses, or shops, workshops and storerooms of bazaars and
caravanserais, or class and students’ rooms of religious colleges—madrasas—or galleries and
prayer halls of mosques. Even though the buildings may be of different sizes, the largest ones
being used for religious or civil purposes and containing princely palaces with their courtyards
and interior gardens, these quadrangular cells give the urban canvas a homogeneity akin to that
of a biological organism, formed from similar and compatible elements, and able to multiply and
interweave without undue interference as the city develops (figs. 129 & 130).
A city is, first of all, a site which is chosen according to certain criteria, some having a quasi-
universal value: the presence of water, often drawn from a river flowing from neighbouring
mountains like the Barada in Damascus (fig. 120) or the Zayandeh Rud in Isfahan (fig. 121), and
a strategic location at the crossing of important lines of communication. In all cases protection
for the city must be guaranteed, whether it hoists itself up a rocky slope like the holy city of
Moulay Idriss in the Zerhoun mountains of Morocco (fig. 127) and the many fortified villages of
Yemen, of the Algerian Aures or Moroccan Atlas (fig. 128) or, if built on a plain, it surrounds
itself with walls, towers, and fortified doors (figs. 123 & 124). In fact every Muslim city is a
hurm, a sacred place for its inhabitants, just as every mosque is a hurm and as every family
house, folded in on itself, closed to the exterior and open to the courtyard, the garden, and the
sky, is also a hurm, a sanctuary where the father officiates as an imām and the mother as
unchallenged mistress of domestic life.
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Above the horizontal plane of its terraced roofs, the Islamic city raises the vertical lines of its
minarets (the tall towers attached to many mosques), from whose summit the Word of God,
carried by the voices of the muezzins, unfolds upon the town, bathing it in the Message of Divine
Unity. When carrying out a detailed survey of sanctuaries located in the various quarters of the
Fez medina, as part of a safeguarding programme sponsored by Unesco, the late Titus
Burckhardt—who died in January 1984—noticed, after plotting on a map the sites from where
the muezzins launched their appeals, that they covered the entire city area with a network of
sound waves, transmitted around each minaret within a radius of 60 meters, which is the average
range of the human voice. This meant that no citizen could be left oblivious of the time for
prayer, the city having incorporated into its fabric a proportion linked with the function of
“remembrance” (dhikr) which is the very raison d’être of the Message and, consequently, of all
that is known as “Islamic art”.
2.3.6 The Religious Function: The Mosque
The primary function of the Islamic city is, indeed, religious in nature, as illustrated by the fact
that many urban cores have been formed around a sanctuary—like the Holy Ka‘bah of Mecca or
the tomb of Moulay Idriss I (fig. 127)—and that public life, trade and craftsmanship, places of
learning, baths, are grouped around the great mosque, or Friday mosque, where the preaching
imam and the faithful meet for the common prayer. A place for prayer, the mosque is also a
center of teaching where learned members of the community, the ‘ulamā’, impart “in the path of
God”, i.e. without payment, the traditional sciences—Quranic exegesis, psalmody, Hadīth,
Arabic linguistics, theology, law, and even mysticism (tasawwuf)—to an audience of students,
among them craftsmen and tradesmen of the souk who, according to the advice of Prophet
Muhammad, are “seeking knowledge from cradle to tomb”. In addition, the mosque is a meeting
place where it is not considered unbecoming to exchange news of a personal or community
nature. Finally, it may be a place of asylum for fugitives, and every destitute is sure to receive
within its precinct food, alms, and shelter.
The first mosque of Islam was that built by the Prophet in Medina, adjoining his own house. It
consisted of a courtyard onto which opened the quarters of his wives, and a covered portico
whose roof was held up by palm trunks. A spear stuck into the ground in front of the rear wall
showed the direction of Mecca and a small wooden rostrum allowed the Prophet to be seen and
heard by all when he addressed the audience. Such are up to this day, together with the minaret
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which appeared in Fustāt (Cairo) and then in Medina after the Prophet’s death, the main
constituents of the mosque. Most of the time, the prayer hall is preceded, according to the
original design of the Prophet in Medina, by a courtyard which is also used for prayer on
crowded days (figs. 131 & 133) and which is generally fitted with basins and fountains for
ablutions (figs. 46-50 & 52-53). In the prayer hall, the orientation toward the Ka‘bah of Mecca is
indicated by the mihrāb (figs. 132, 134 & 155), a recess in the form of a niche before which the
imām stands when leading the prayer. Just before he preaches, the imām climbs a few steps up
the minbar, the rostrum placed on the right of the mihrāb, taking care not to reach the platform
situated at the top of the stairs and surmounted by a canopy, a place of eminence that only the
Prophet, God’s elect, was worthy of occupying (fig. 135).
2.3.7 Architecture in Damascus
To understand the importance of the Great Mosque of Damascus, built by the Umayyad caliph,
al-Walid II between 708 and 715 C.E., we need to look into the recesses of time. Damascus is
one of the oldest continually inhabited cities in the world, with archaeological remains dating
from as early as 9000 B.C.E., and sacred spaces have been central to the Old City of Damascus
ever since. As early as the 9th century B.C.E., a temple was built to Hadad-Ramman, the Semitic
god of storm and rain. Though the exact form and shape of this temple is unknown, a bas-relief
with a sphinx, believed to come from this temple, was reused in the northern wall of the city’s
Great Mosque.When Damascus became the capital of the Umayyad Dynasty, the early 8th
century caliph al-Walid envisioned a beautiful mosque at the heart of his new capital city, one
that would rival any of the great religious buildings of the Christian world. The growing
population of Muslims also required a large congregational mosque (a congregational mosque is
a mosque where the community of believers, originally only men, would come to worship and
hear a sermon on Fridays—it was typically the most important mosque in a city or in a
neighbourhood of a large city). The Great Mosque of Damascus was commissioned in 708 C.E.
and was completed in 714/15 C.E. It was paid for with the state tax revenue raised over the
course of seven years, a prodigious sum of money. The result of this investment was an
architectural tour de force where mosaics and marbles created a truly awe-inspiring space. The
Great Mosque of Damascus is one of the earliest surviving congregational mosques in the world.
The mosque’s location and organization were directly influenced by the temples and the church
that preceded it. It was built into the Roman temple wall and it reuses older building materials
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(called spolia by archaeologists) in its walls, including a beam with a Greek inscription that was
originally part of the church. The complex is composed of a prayer hall and a large open
courtyard with a fountain for ablutions (washing) before prayer. Before the civil war that began
in 2011, the courtyard of the mosque functioned as a social space for Damascenes, where
families and friends could meet and talk while children chased each other through the colonnade,
and where tourists once snapped photographs. It was a wonderful place of peace in a busy city.
The courtyard contains an elevated treasury and structure known as the “Dome of the Clock,”
whose purpose is not fully understood. There are tower-like minarets at the corners of the
mosque and courtyard; the southern minarets are built on the Roman-Byzantine corner towers
and are probably the earliest minarets in Syria. Again, the earlier structures directly influenced
the present form.
From the courtyard, one would enter the prayer hall. The prayer hall takes its form from
Christian basilicas (which are in turn derived from ancient Roman law courts). However, there is
no apse towards which one would pray. Rather the faithful pray facing the qibla wall. The qibla
wall has a niche (mihrab), which focuses the faithful in their prayers. In line with the mihrab of
the Great Mosque is a massive dome and a transept to accommodate a large number of
worshippers. The façade of the transept facing the courtyard is decorated on the exterior with
rich mosaics.Although a fire in the 1890s badly damaged the courtyard and interior, much of the
rich mosaic program, which dates primarily to the early 8th century, has survived. The mosaics
are aniconic (non-figurative). Islamic religious art lacks figures, and so this is an early example
of this tradition. The mosaics are a beautiful mix of trees, landscapes, and uninhabited
architecture, rendered in stunning gold, greens, and blues. Later sources note that there were
inscriptions and mosaics in the prayer hall, like the Umayyad mosque in Medina, but these have
not survived.The influence of the mosque and its artistry can be seen as far as a way as Cordoba,
Spain, where the 8th century Umayyad ruler, Abd al-Rahman (the only survivor of a massive
family assassination that sparked the Abbasid Revolution), had fled. The mihrab and the dome
above in the Great Mosque of Cordoba was decorated in blue, green and gold mosaics, evoking
his lost Syrian homeland. The Umayyad mosque of Damascus is truly one of the great mosques
of the early Islamic world and it is remains one of the world’s most important monuments.
Unlike many of Syria’s historic buildings and archaeological sites, the mosque has survived the
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Syrian Civil War relatively unscathed and hopefully, will one day again welcome Syrians and
tourists alike.
The Great Mosque of Cordoba: Known locally as Mezquita-Catedral, the Great Mosque of
Cordoba is one of the oldest structures still standing from the time Muslims ruled Al-Andalus
(Muslim Iberia including most of Spain, Portugal, and a small section of Southern France) in the
late 8th century. Cordoba is a two hour train ride south of Madrid, and draws visitors from all
over the world. Following the overthrow of his family (the Umayyads) in Damascus by the
incoming Abbasids, Prince Abd al-Rahman I escaped to southern Spain. Once there, he
established control over almost all of the Iberian Peninsula and attempted to recreate the
grandeur of Damascus in his new capital, Cordoba. He sponsored elaborate building programs,
promoted agriculture, and even imported fruit trees and other plants from his former home.
Orange trees still stand in the courtyard of the Mosque of Cordoba, a beautiful, if bittersweet
reminder of the Umayyad exile.
The Hypostyle Hall: The building itself was expanded over two hundred years. It is comprised
of a large hypostyle prayer hall (hypostyle means, filled with columns), a courtyard with a
fountain in the middle, an orange grove, a covered walkway circling the courtyard, and a minaret
(a tower used to call the faithful to prayer) that is now encased in a squared, tapered bell tower.
The expansive prayer hall seems magnified by its repeated geometry. It is built with recycled
ancient Roman columns from which sprout a striking combination of two-tiered, symmetrical
arches, formed of stone and red brick.
The Mihrab: The focal point in the prayer hall is the famous horseshoe arched mihrab or prayer
niche. A mihrab is used in a mosque to identify the wall that faces Mecca—the birth place of
Islam in what is now Saudi Arabia. This is practical as Muslims face toward Mecca during their
daily prayers. The mihrab in the Great Mosque of Cordoba is framed by an exquisitely decorated
arch behind which is an unusually large space, the size of a small room. Gold tesserae (small
pieces of glass with gold and colour backing) create a dazzling combination of dark blues,
reddish browns, yellows and golds that form intricate calligraphic bands and vegetal motifs that
adorn the arch.
The Horseshoe Arch: The horseshoe-style arch was common in the architecture of the
Visigoths, the people that ruled this area after the Roman empire collapsed and before the
Umayyads arrived. The horseshoe arch eventually spread across North Africa from Morocco to
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Egypt and is an easily identified characteristic of Western Islamic architecture (though there are
some early examples in the East as well).
The Dome: Above the mihrab, is an equally dazzling dome. It is built of crisscrossing ribs that
create pointed arches all lavishly covered with gold mosaic in a radial pattern. This astonishing
building technique anticipates later Gothic rib vaulting, though on a more modest scale.
The Great Mosque of Cordoba is a prime example of the Muslim world's ability to brilliantly
develop architectural styles based on pre-existing regional traditions. Here is an extraordinary
combination of the familiar and the innovative, a formal stylistic vocabulary that can be
recognized as “Islamic” even today.
The Alhambra: The Alhambra in Granada, Spain, is distinct among Medieval palaces for its
sophisticated planning, complex decorative programs, and its many enchanting gardens and
fountains. Its intimate spaces are built at a human scale that visitors find elegant and inviting.
The Alhambra, an abbreviation of the Arabic: Qal’at al-Hamra, or red fort, was built by the
Nasrid Dynasty (1232-1492)—the last Muslims to rule in Spain. Muhammad ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr
(known as Muhammad I) founded the Nasrid Dynasty and secured this region in 1237. He began
construction of his court complex, the Alhambra, on Sabika hill the following year.
Three Palaces: The Alhambra's most celebrated structures are the three original royal palaces.
These are the Comares Palace, the Palace of the Lions, and the Partal Palace, each of which was
built during 14th century. A large fourth palace was later begun by the Christian ruler, Carlos V.
El Mexuar is an audience chamber near the Comares tower at the northern edge of the complex.
It was built by Ismail I as a throne room, but became a reception and meeting hall when the
palaces were expanded in the 1330s. The room has complex geometric tile dadoes (lower wall
panels distinct from the area above) and carved stucco panels that give it a formality suitable for
receiving dignitaries (above).
The Comares Palace: Behind El Mexuar stands the formal and elaborate Comares façade set
back from a courtyard and fountain. The façade is built on a raised three-stepped platform that
might have served as a kind of outdoor stage for the ruler. The carved stucco façade was once
painted in brilliant colours, though only traces remain. A dark winding passage beyond the
Comares façade leads to a covered patio surrounding a large courtyard with a pool, now known
as the Court of the Myrtles. This was the focal point of the Comares Palace. The Alhambra’s
largest tower, the Comares Tower, contains the Salón de Comares (Hall of the Ambassadors), a
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throne room built by Yusuf I (1333-1354). This room exhibits the most diverse decorative and
architectural arts contained in the Alhambra.The double arched windows illuminate the room and
provide breathtaking views. Additional light is provided by arched grille (lattice) windows set
high in the walls. At eye level, the walls are lavishly decorated with tiles laid in intricate
geometric patterns. The remaining surfaces are covered with intricately carved stucco motifs
organized in bands and panels of curvilinear patterns and calligraphy.
2.3.8 Islamic Architecture in Cairo
Cairo, known as “the mother of the world,” has one of the largest concentrations of Islamic
architectural treasures. And Islamic art is one of the best means of understanding the heart of
Islam. Islamic art is essentially derived from “Tawhid,” or divine unity. Calligraphy, the writing
of the word of God, and Quranic psalmody, the chanting of it, stand at the top of the hierarchy of
arts and architecture, with mosques coming immediately after. The city of Cairo preserves well
over six hundred buildings of historical importance that date from the ninth century to the
present. In no other city in the Islamic world can the evolution of styles be traced with such
precision over such a long period, and the addition of literary sources and endowment deeds
increases the importance of the surviving buildings. Indeed, UNESCO has named Cairo a “City
of Human Heritage” in an attempt to preserve this valuable resource from rapid development and
thoughtless modernization. The pre-eminence of the Islamic architecture of Cairo has long been
recognized. K. A. C. Creswell, the great historian of Islamic architecture, envisioned writing its
entire history, but the two volumes of his massive Muslim Architecture of Egypt, published
before his death in 1974, had only reached the early fourteenth century. The size and expense of
Creswell's tomes have put them out of reach of all but the best-endowed scholars and libraries,
and his approach did not lend itself to address such issues as meaning or urban history, which
have become increasingly important since his death. The need for a comprehensive and
convenient study of Cairene architecture is therefore acute, for earlier studies, such as M. S.
Briggs’s Muhammadan Architecture in Egypt and Palestine and Dietrich Brandenburg’s
Islamische Baukunst in Aegypten are woefully inadequate, and the admirable Islamic
Monuments in Cairo: A Practical Guide, by Richard B. Parker, Robin Sabin, and Caroline
Williams, is primarily designed for dedicated tourists. Doris Behrens-Abouseif’s Islamic
Architecture in Cairo is a one-volume survey of the subject from its beginning to the mid-
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nineteenth century, intended, according to the publisher’s blurb, for “educated laymen and
beginning students of Islamic art and architecture, as well as the specialist in Islamic
architectural history.”
The American University in Cairo Press has recently published “The Mosques of Egypt,” a
magnificent celebration of Egypt’s rich Islamic architectural heritage. The reader is given a
guided tour of the country’s most historic mosques, mausoleums, madrasas (religious schools),
mihrabs (niches in the wall of a mosque indicating the direction of the prayer toward Makkah)
and minarets. This overview, spanning 1,200 years, highlights the rich sequence of Fatimid,
Ayyubid, Mamluk, Ottoman and modern styles. The author, Bernard O’Kane, one of the world’s
leading authorities on the history of Islamic art and architecture, also took the majority of the
stunning colour photographs which illustrate the book.
The Ibn Tulun Mosque in Cairo was begun in 876 and finished in 879. Ahmad Ibn Tulun was
sent to Egypt by the caliph in Baghdad to serve as the governor of Fustat but, after two years, he
set up his own ruling dynasty. The mosque of Ibn Tulun was inspired by the great mosque in the
city of Samarra in Iraq where Ibn Tulun grew up. However the horseshoe-shaped arches of the
minaret are similar to features of the Great Mosque of Cordoba in Spain. When you catch the
first glimpse of the Ibn Tulun Mosque, you are struck by its solemn majesty, with its massive
crenellated brick walls emerging from the bedrock and interspersed with huge doorways.
“Despite its varied history, the mosque still retains the basic form it had under Ibn Tulun. It is a
tribute to the aesthetics of its time that it may still be considered one of the world’s greatest
architectural masterpieces,” writes O’Kane.
The oldest mosque in Cairo is the Mosque of Amr ibn Al-As. Less than 10 years after the
passing away of Prophet Muhammad (peace be upon him), the new religion of Islam came to
Egypt in 639 with the army of Amr ibn Al-As. The victorious general established his capital at
Fustat, south of modern Cairo. In the center of Fustat, Amr ibn Al-As built a mosque in his
name. The Mosque of Amr, as it became known, was the first mosque in Egypt and the first on
the African continent. The building has undergone many changes; it was restored in 2002 and,
apart from some reused columns, it has little work older than the nineteenth century.
“Although the sense of antiquity has now gone from the building, there is still pleasure to be had
in the vistas that open before the visitor in the rows of arcades stretching in every direction,”
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writes O’Kane. The Mosque of Amr is thus a memorial to early Islam, the Arab conquest, and
the beginning of a new era in the history of Egypt. It is unique among the early mosques of Cairo
because it is still very popular, and people pray there in large numbers on Fridays.
Most of the mosques, madrasas and minarets featured in the book, are in Cairo. The late
filmmaker John Feeney expressed perfectly the awesome feeling which overwhelms you when
you are in Old Cairo: “Nowhere in the Muslim world can you find such a profusion of domes
and minarets as in Cairo. Rising from the haze of crowded, crumbling streets in the old, chaotic,
yet picturesque medieval parts of the city, they dominate the city’s skyline. Minarets indeed are
Cairo’s joy and ornament and the source of Cairenes’ favourite nickname… the city of a
thousand minarets,” he wrote. O’Kane has included some stunning examples of Islamic
architecture in lesser known towns such as Esna. This town south of Luxor, mostly known for its
Ptolemaic temple, has a beautiful minaret. A Kufic inscription on a tablet on the qibla wall
informs us that an eminent Fatimid official, Abu Mansur Sartakin, built the minaret of the
mosque in 1081. This minaret has a square base built of brick inserted with layers of wood and
interspersed with pointed-arched windows. The cylindrical upper story is plastered and
surrounded by a wooden balcony. The domed pavilion at the summit has an unusual hexagonal
shape.
Another beautiful minaret is found in Asyut at the El-Mujahidin Mosque. It has four levels and it
is one the few Islamic monuments outside Cairo which the famous 19th century Scottish artist,
David Roberts, included in his lithographs of Egypt from the 1840s.
One of the most interesting mosques featured in the book is the Congregational Mosque in New
Gourna, a village built by Hassan Fathy, one of Egypt’s most famous modern architects. The
mosque was one of the first buildings to be constructed between 1945 and 1948 and has been
very well taken care of since its construction. Because of its position facing the only highway
that leads from the Nile embankment to the Valley of the Kings and Queens nearly 5 km away,
the elevation was carefully designed to symbolize the spiritual values inherent in the mosque. To
explain his architectural concept, Hassan Fathy wrote that in Makkah, “the mosque is not an
isolated microcosm complete in itself. It is a clean and quiet place for prayers under the sky.
Originally, the mosque was designed to be at the centre of the village but nowadays the mosque
is completely isolated, surrounded by the space which should have been occupied by the houses.
The rapid expansion of Islam encouraged a unique absorption and integration of cultural forms
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and traditions and this book highlights the extraordinary variety of Egypt’s mosques from the
birth of Islam to the present day. O’Kane takes us on a guided tour from Alexandria to Aswan
via the Nile Delta, Upper Egypt and the Red Sea to admire lesser known historic and modern
mosques which rival those in Cairo.
2.3.9 Architecture under Ottomans

The grand tradition of Ottoman architecture, established in the 16th century, was derived from
two main sources. One was the rather complex development of new architectural forms that
occurred all over Anatolia, especially at Manisa, İznik, Bursa, and Selçuk in the 14th and early
15th centuries. In addition to the usual mosques, mausoleums, and madrasahs, a number of
buildings called tekkes (Arabic zāwiyahs, Persian khānqāhs) were constructed to house dervishes
(members of mystical fraternities) and other holy men who lived communally.
The tekke (or zeviye) was often joined to a mosque or mausoleum. The entire complex was then
called a külliye. All those buildings continued to develop the domed, central-plan structure
constructed by the Seljuqs in Anatolia.
The other source of Ottoman architecture is Christian art. The Byzantine tradition, especially as
embodied in Hagia Sophia, became a major source of inspiration. Byzantine influence appears in
such features as stone and brick used together or in the use of pendentive dome construction.
Also artistically influential were the contacts that the early Ottomans had with Italy. Thus, in
several mosques at Bursa, Turkey, there are stylistic parallels in the designs of the exterior
facade and of windows, gates, and roofs to features found in Italian architecture. A distinctive
feature of Ottoman architecture is that it drew from both Islamic and European artistic traditions
and was, therefore, a part of both.
The apogee of Ottoman architecture was achieved in the great series of külliyes and mosques that
still dominate the Istanbul skyline: the Fatih külliye (1463–70), the Bayezid Mosque (after 1491),
the Selim Mosque (1522), the Şehzade külliye (1548), and the Suleyman külliye (after 1550). The
Şehzade and Süleyman külliyes were built by Sinan, the greatest Ottoman architect, whose
masterpiece is the Selim Mosque at Edirne, Turkey (1569–75). All those buildings exhibit total
clarity and logic in both plan and elevation; every part has been considered in relation to the
whole, and each architectural element has acquired a hierarchic function in the total composition.
Whatever is unnecessary has been eliminated. This simplicity of design in the late 15th and 16th
centuries has often been attributed to the fact that Sinan and many other Ottoman architects were
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first trained as military engineers. Everything in those buildings was subordinated to an imposing
central dome. A sort of cascade of descending half domes, vaults, and ascending buttresses leads
the eye up and down the building’s exterior. Minarets and slender frame the exterior composition
while the open space of the surrounding courts prevents the building from being swallowed by
the surrounding city. These masterpieces of Ottoman architecture seem to be the final perfection
of two great traditions: a stylistic and aesthetic tradition that had been indigenous to Istanbul
since the construction of the Byzantine church of Hagia Sophia in the 6th century and the other
Islamic tradition of domical construction dating to the 10th century. While mosques and külliyes
are the most characteristic monuments of Ottoman architecture, important secular buildings were
also built: baths, caravansaries, and especially the huge palace complex of Topkapı Saray at
Istanbul, in which 300 years of royal architecture are preserved in its elaborate pavilions, halls,
and fountains.
Istanbul is one of the most visually-appealing metropolitan cities of the world and it is no
surprise that its architecture in pure Islamic form exhibits the same aesthetic details. Scores of
houses of worship have been constructed throughout the city, but these three really caught my
eye and piqued my interest. While they all are beautiful works of architecture and popular tourist
destinations some have religious significance for many, so it is wise to be culturally-vigilant and
cover up before entering.
1) The Blue Mosque: Built in the early 1600s, the Sultan Ahmed Mosque is popularly and
widely known as the Blue Mosque (Sultanahmet Camii in Turkish). Situated directly in front of
the Hagia Sophia, the Blue Mosque exudes its own regal splendour with its six external minarets.
The name does not make sense until you enter the confines of the mosque, where the walls are
lined with small, shiny blue Iznik tiles. As with every mosque, there are separate areas for
women and men. Entry is free, but you have to remove your shoes and if you are revealing your
shoulders or legs, you are provided with a cover-up cloth upon entering.
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2) Hagia Sophia: The beautiful architectural gem known as the Hagia Sophia (Ayasofya in
Turkish) served as an Orthodox basilica until 1453, when it was ordered to be turned into a
mosque by the Ottoman Turks. And it remained a mosque until 1934, when it was secularized
and converted into a museum. Islamic elements of the outer façade such as the minarets and
mihrabs were added slowly over time, as the reigning empire changed from the Byzantine to the
Ottoman. The juxtaposition of Islamic calligraphy and the crucifix inside the museum is an
experience in itself and yet another example of Turkey’s tolerance of other faiths. Pictures
cannot do justice to the grandeur of this iconic structure of Turkey.
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3) Ortaköy Mosque: The stunning Ortaköy Mosque, officially referred to as the Büyük
Mecidiye Camii is perfectly situated at the Ortaköy pier on the banks of the Bosphorus Strait,
right below the Bosphorus Bridge. Located in the Beşiktaş area of Istanbul, it was originally
erected during the 18th century, but was rebuilt in the 1850s in an unconventional neo-Baroque
style. It stands tall next to a Greek Orthodox Church and a synagogue, beautifully depicting the
religious tolerance of the country once again. Throughout the day, you can hear traditional calls
for prayer. Though it is small and simple, there is a unique element of magnificence. Witness this
dazzling spectacle at night and watch the mosque come alive in all its glory.
2.3.10 Architecture in Isfahan
One of the most remarkable Islamic cities is Isfahan (also called Esfahan or Hispahan), today the
third largest city in Iran. Set against a backdrop of snow-capped mountains, the city is populated
by both Islamic and pre-Islamic buildings. Although it has existed in some form since pre-
historic times, it was not until the era of Shah Abbas I, in the late sixteenth century that much of
what still stands in the city was built. It was Shah Abbas who decided to make Isfahan the capital
of his Safavid dynasty and to build a breath-taking city of parks, libraries and mosques
remarkable in their scale and the beauty of their decoration. At this time Isfahan had a population
of around 600,000 people with an astonishing number of buildings: 160 mosques, 48 religious
schools, 1,800 shops and over 270 public baths. It had become such a melting pot of travellers
and cultures that it was also referred to as ‘Nesf-e-Jahan’ meaning ‘half the world’ in Persian.
The buildings of Isfahan demonstrate some of the particular artistic characteristics that developed
in the Persian region. The gates of the mosques, or ‘eivans’ are massive in scale and decorated in
vibrant coloured tile work. On a practical level these mosaics protected the bricks beneath but
also lifted the buildings with bright colour and intricate geometric designs. The artisans' level of
skill reached such a height that they were able to overlay all the small niches, concave arches and
domes of the buildings with minutely detailed and complex patterns. Some of these also depicted
calligraphy, translated from the page to the wall in tile work. This calligraphy elevated the
beauty of the buildings yet further by emblazoning them with the word of God. Many of the
artisans who created these buildings and their decoration were thought to have been influenced
by Sufism, a spiritual exploration of Islam. This architecture was not simply an exercise in
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building cities but also an attempt to open souls to the wonder of the divine through the most
extraordinary scale and beauty of the spaces they created. Isfahan was awarded UNESCO world
heritage status in 1979 both because of its architectural significance and as a reflection of the
tangible link between its design and Islamic belief and customs.
Naqsh-e Jahan Square: “Image of the World Square”, also known as Meidan Emam, is a
square situated at the centre of Isfahan, Iran. Constructed between 1598 and 1629, it is now an
important historical site, and one of UNESCO's World Heritage Sites. It is 160m wide by 560m
long (an area of 89,600 m2). It is also referred to as Shah Square or Imam Square. The square is
surrounded by buildings from the Safavid era. The Shah Mosque is situated on the south side of
this square. On the west side is the Ali Qapu Palace. Sheikh Lotf Allah Mosque is situated on the
eastern side of this square and at the northern side Qeysarie Gate opens into the Isfahan Grand
Bazaar. In 1598, when Shah Abbas decided to move the capital of his empire from the north-
western city of Qazvin to the central city of Isfahan, he initiated what would become one of the
greatest programmes in Persian history; the complete remaking of the city. By choosing the
central city of Isfahan, fertilized by the Zāyande roud (The life-giving river), lying as an oasis of
intense cultivation in the midst of a vast area of arid landscape, he distanced his capital from any
future assaults by the Ottomans, the arch rival of the Safavids, and the Uzbeks, and at the same
time gained more control over the Persian Gulf, which had recently become an important trading
route for the Dutch and British East India Companies. The chief architect of this colossal task of
urban planning was Shaykh Bahai (Baha ad-Din al-Amili), who focused the programme on two
key features of Shah Abbas’s master plan: the Chahar Bagh avenue, flanked at either side by all
the prominent institutions of the city, such as the residences of all foreign dignitaries, and the
Naqsh-e Jahan Square (Exemplar of the World). Prior to the Shah's ascent to power, Persia had a
decentralized power-structure, in which different institutions battled for power, including both
the military (the Qizilbash) and governors of the different provinces making up the empire. Shah
Abbas wanted to undermine this political structure, and the recreation of Isfahan, as a Grand
capital of Persia, was an important step in centralizing the power. The ingenuity of the square,
or Maidān, was that, by building it, Shah Abbas would gather the three main components of
power in Persia in his own backyard; the power of the clergy, represented by the Masjed-e Shah,
the power of the merchants, represented by the Imperial Bazaar, and of course, the power of the
Shah himself, residing in the Ali Qapu Palace.
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Maidan—The Royal Square: The Maidan was where the Shah and the people met. Built as a
two story row of shops, flanked by impressive architecture, and eventually leading up to the
northern end, where the Imperial Bazaar was situated, the square was a busy arena of
entertainment and business, exchanged between people from all corners of the world. As Isfahan
was a vital stop along the Silk Road, goods from all the civilized countries of the world,
spanning from Portugal in the West, to the Middle Kingdom in the East, found its ways to the
hands of gifted merchants, who knew how to make the best profits out of them. The Royal
Square was also admired by Europeans who visited Isfahan during Shah Abbas' reign. Pietro
Della Valle conceded that it outshone the Piazza Navona in his native Rome. During the day,
much of the square was occupied by the tents and stalls of tradesmen, who paid a weekly rental
to the government. There were also entertainers and actors. For the hungry, there were readily
available cooked foods or slices of melon, while cups of water were handed out for free by
water-carriers paid for by the shop-keepers. At the entrance to the Imperial Bazaar, there were
coffee-houses, where people could relax over a cup of fresh coffee and a water-pipe. These shops
can still be found today, although the drink in fashion for the past century has been tea, rather
than coffee. At dusk, the shop-keepers packed up, and the huzz and buzz of tradesmen and eager
shoppers bargaining over the prices of goods would be given over to dervishes, mummers,
jugglers, puppet-players, acrobats and prostitutes.
Every now and then the square would be cleared off for public ceremonies and festivities. One
such occasion would be the annual event of Nowruz, the Persian New Year. Also, the national
Persian sport of polo could be played in the maidan, providing the Shah, residing in the Ali Qapu
palace, and the busy shoppers with some entertainment. The marble goal-posts, erected by Shah
Abbas, still stand at either end of the Maydan. Under Abbas, Isfahan became a very
cosmopolitan city, with a resident population of Turks, Georgians, Armenians, Indians, Chinese
and a growing number of Europeans. Shah Abbas brought in some 300 Chinese artisans to work
in the royal workshops and to teach the art of porcelain-making. The Indians were present in
very large numbers, housed in the many caravanserais that were dedicated to them, and they
mainly worked as merchants and money-changers. The Europeans were there as merchants,
Roman Catholic missionaries, artists and craftsmen. Even soldiers, usually with expertise in
artillery, would make the journey from Europe to Persia to make a living. The Portuguese
ambassador, De Gouvea, once stated that: “The people of Isfahan are very open in their dealings
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with foreigners, having to deal every day with people of several other nations.” Also, many
historians have wondered about the peculiar orientation of the maidan. Unlike most buildings of
importance, this square did not lie in alignment with Mecca, so that when entering the entrance-
portal of the Shah Mosque, one makes, almost without realising it, the half-right turn which
enables the main court within to face Mecca. Donald Wilber gives the most plausible explanation
to this; the vision of Shaykh Bahai was for the mosque to be visible wherever in the maidan a
person was situated. Had the axis of the maydān coincided with the axis of Mecca, the dome of
the mosque would have been concealed from view by the towering entrance-portal leading to it.
By creating an angle between them, the two parts of the building, the entrance-portal and the
dome, are in perfect view for everyone within the square to admire.
Masjid Shah: The Pinnacle of Safavid Architecture: The Crown Jewel in the Naghs-e Jahan
Square was the Masjid-i-Shah, which would replace the much older Jameh Mosque in
conducting the Friday prayers. To achieve this, the Shah Mosque was constructed not only with
vision of grandeur, having the largest dome in the city, but Shaykh Bahai also planned the
construction of a religious school and a winter-mosque clamped at either side of it
The Lutfullah Mosque: Of the four monuments that dominated the perimeter of the Naqsh-e
Jahan square, the Lutfullah Mosque, opposite the palace, was the first to be built. The purpose of
this mosque was for it to be a private mosque of the royal court, unlike the Masjid Shah, which
was meant for the public. For this reason, the mosque does not have any minarets and is of a
smaller size. Indeed, few Westerners at the time of the Safavids even paid any attention to this
mosque, and they certainly did not have access to it. It wasn't until centuries later, when the
doors were opened to the public, that ordinary people could admire the effort that Shah Abbas
had put into making this a sacred place for the ladies of his harem, and the exquisite tile-work,
which is far superior to those covering the Shah Mosque.
The Imperial Bazaar: The Bazaar of Isfahan is a historical market and one of the oldest and
largest bazaars of the Middle East. Although the present structure dates back to the Safavid era,
parts of it are more than a thousand years old, dating back to the Seljuq dynasty. It is a vaulted,
two kilometre street linking the old city with the new.
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This lesson tried to explore and present the overview of Islamic architectural spaces across the
Muslim world. We tried to understand that Islamic art was part and entered the public
consciousness in a significant way across history and it did so largely as a result of its principles
based on Tawhid. Historians of Islamic art and people who have studied Muslim architectural
history always agreed that the study of art and architecture is an especially fruitful way of
learning about a culture. Islamic art has found an audience of hitherto unprecedented size, and
the field concerned with its study has a visible and growing presence in academic and cultural
institutions around the globe. While it might still be said that the study of Islamic art retains
something of its earlier artisanal and pioneering character, the field’s recent growth and the
scrutiny of all the above mentioned marvels of Islamic architecture, to which historians of
Islamic art currently subject their working methods should be taken as signs of the field’s
maturation.
1. Define the concept of Islamic Architecture
2. Explain Art within the city and Mosques in classical Muslim architecture
3. Delineate on the religious function of Mosque
4. Explain Architecture in Damascus and Ottomans
5. Briefly elucidate on the architecture in Isfahan
Suggested Readings
Brend, Barbara, Islamic Art, (London: British Museum Press, 2000)
Wheatcroft, Andrew, The Ottomans: Dissolving Images, (New York: Penguin Books, 2002)
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Lesson 04: Indo-Muslim Architecture

Lesson Structure
2.4.1 Introduction
2.4.2 Objectives
2.4.3 Pre-Islamic Tradition
2.4.4 Earliest Islamic Architecture
2.4.5 The New Elements Added by Muslims to Indian Architecture
2.4.6 Categories of Styles
2.4.7 Contextualizing the Muslim Architecture in India
2.4.8 Architecture of Delhi Sultanate
2.4.9 Mughal Architecture
2.4.11 Check your Progress
2.4.1 Introduction
Islam came to India in the 7th and 8th centuries CE chiefly through Muslim traders, merchants,
holy men and conquerors. The religion spread in India over a time period of 600 years. Muslims
in Gujarat and Sind had begun construction work in the 8th century itself. But it was only in the
13th century that building activity on a large scale began by the Turkish State after the Turkish
conquest of North India. By the twelfth century, India was already familiar with monumental
constructions in grandiose settings. Certain techniques and embellishments were prevalent and
popular, such as trabeation (brackets, pillars and lintels) to support a flat roof or a small shallow
dome. While arches were shaped in wood and stone, these were unable to bear the weight of the
top structure. Muslims absorbed many aspects of local architectural traditions and amalgamated
them into their own practices. Architecturally, a mix of many techniques, stylized shapes and
surface decorations evolved through a continuous amalgamation of architectural elements from
the various styles. Such architectural entities that showcased multiple styles are known as Indo-
Islamic Architecture. This lesson explores the interaction between Islamic and Indian
architecture and it shaped a new form called as Islamic Architecture.
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2.4.2 Objectives
To understand by the term ‘Indo-Islamic’ or ‘Indo Saracenic’ architecture
Exploring the diverse dimensions of Indo-Islamic architecture
2.4.3 Pre-Islamic Tradition
Though the Muslims had accomplished the conquest of Sindh India in 712 yet India did not feel
the impact of the Muslim cultural ideas until the beginning of the eleventh century when the
repeated raids of Sultan Mahmud of Ghazna compelled her to take notice of the new force. He
died in 1030 and he had appointed his representatives in the places he had conquered, especially
in the Punjab and other parts. At the time of the Muslim conquest, India was a land with a rich
artistic tradition: temples and monasteries abounded, Hindu shrines of all descriptions and sizes
were found by almost every hillside and spring, cities were rich and well-planned, Hindu rulers
had built for themselves forts and palaces, and the remains of earlier phases of Indian
civilization—such as the Hindu, Buddhist and Jain cave-temples, and the Buddhist stupas and
monasteries—were numerous. Architecture was characteristically of stone, its construction
derived from timber prototypes: beams and lintels were supported on columns or brackets, and
roofs tended to a stepped pyramidal shape, through having been built in diminishing horizontal
courses. Domical shapes were known, often carried on octagonal bases, but were often solid and
in any case had little structural affinity with the true voussoir-built dome. The northern temples
usually had curvilinear towers, again often solid; these, and some of the domical forms, had a
characteristic crowning feature which later became part of the Indian Islamic dome decoration, a
ribbed ring known as malaka (from the fruit it resembles, the Emblic Myrobalan,
Phyllanthusemblica) surmounted by a pot-shaped moulding, the kalasa (lit. ‘water-jar’); to these
a base of stone foliations in the form of lotus-petals might be added. The entire ornamental
feature was on occasions supported by ribs on the curvilinear towers, and it has been suggested
that at least part of the origin of ribbed domes in India is to be found in this device. The arch is
not known at all as a structure, and only rarely as a decorative form; but recesses used freely on
both internal and external walls lead to a proliferation of vertical lines and to unnecessary
horizontal plinths and mouldings. Window-openings were rare: the interior of the Hindu temple
was poorly lighted, its kernel being the secret shrine of an idol god whose mysteries were known
only to a few initiated priests and were not for public display. The exterior, however, was as
luxuriant and prolix as the interior was esoteric and recondite, for all its surfaces were covered
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with a profusion of exuberant sculpture of iconographic significance, in which the human form
preponderated. Free-standing statuary was also known, with the human form again dominant; but
frequent also were the vehicles and attendants of the Hindu gods, especially Shiva’s bull, the
representation of the phallus as the generative principle of the world.
2.4.4 Earliest Islamic Architecture
There is as yet insufficient archaeological evidence of the first Islamic buildings on Indian soil
which must have been produced by the conquest of Sindh in the 8th century, although excavation
at present being undertaken at Bhambor (Pakistan) and elsewhere may eventually reveal the site
of Daybul. The buildings after the 12th century conquest of the north, however, show the
Muslims’ reaction to indigenous building very plainly; for the traditions of the idol-temples, with
their plethora of florid figure representation, their gloom and secrecy, and above all the nature of
the worship they implied, were not only anathema to Islam but were its direct antithesis.
The earliest phase of Muslim building is in Delhi, and is here represented by the re-use of
pillaged material from Hindu and Jain temples; destruction of the religious buildings of the
enemy is known, of course, in many religions other than Islam, and indeed in India there is more
than one record of a Hindu king doing just this to his neighbour’s lands. Reutilization of the
pillaged material is a feature of the initial phase of Muslim occupation in many regions of India,
for example, at Ajmer and Jalor in Rajasthan; Bharoch, Cambay (Khambayat) and Patan in
Gujarat; Jaunpur; Bijapur, Daulatabad and Warangal in the Deccan; Gaur (Lakhnauti), Pandua
and Tribeni in Bengal; Dhar and Mandu in Malwa; and many other sites. The rst example, the
Masjid Quwwat al-Islam at Delhi, is in fact built on a temple plinth, and some 27 temples were
pillaged to provide columns, walls, roofing materials, and paving; sculptured figures were
mutilated or were so set in walls that the unworked sides of the stones were all that could be
seen. This mosque was at first a plain enclosure, but in 595/1199, eight years after its foundation,
a large maqsura screen was erected between the western liwan and the courtyard, and the arch
appears for the first time: but these arches are corbelled out, not voussoired, and it appears that
the work was done by Hindu artisans working under general Muslim direction and as yet having
no mastery over the alien architectonic forms; moreover, the courtyard side of the maqsura is
covered with carving, mostly typical Hindu oral motifs and ornaments, but also some bandeaux
of naskh calligraphy, in such a way as to suggest that local workmanship was being employed. In
the south-east corner of the mosque buildings the minaret known as the Qutb Minar presents a
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stylistic contrast, as its tapering utedstoreys develop the polygonal outline of the minars at
Ghazni (Afghanistan) which must be its immediate prototype, and features of typically Hindu
derivation are almost entirely absent. The extension of the Quwwat al-Islam mosque and the first
completion of the minar were carried out by Altamash in the early 13th century, and to his reign
belong the Arha’i din ka Jhompda mosque at Ajmer, his own tomb of c. 632/1235, and his son’s
tomb of 629/1231, the earliest monumental tomb in India (there are earlier dated tombstones, as
at Hansi); also minor buildings at Delhi and Badaun (the Jama Masjid has been so much repaired
and rebuilt that scarcely any of Iletmish’s fabric is visible), at Bayana, and at Nagaur. In none of
these buildings is there a true arch or dome, although all the masonry has well-dressed surfaces,
often elaborately carved. The tomb of Altamash’s son, Nasir al-Din Mahmud, stands within an
octagonal cell which seems to be the earliest use of the octagon in Muslim India; it appears next
as the phase of transition of Altamish’s own square tomb, to support, presumably, a dome of
which there is now no trace (and which, one must imagine, was also corbelled and not
voussoired). In the latter tomb the octagon is formed by simple corbelled squinch arches across
each corner. These early buildings are of so heterogeneous and, often, of so makeshift a nature
that there is little of a coherent style about them. The buildings of the emperor Balban, similarly,
are few and largely uninteresting, except for the significant appearance of the true voussoired
arch in his tomb, now a mere unprepossessing lump of decaying masonry.
2.4.5 The New Elements Added by Muslims to Indian Architecture
The Indo-Islamic architecture inculcates the elements of Saracenic, Turkish and Arab
architecture. The Muslims absorbed many features of local cultures and traditions and combined
them with their own architectural practices. So a mix of many structural techniques, stylized
shapes, and surface decorations came about through constant interventions of acceptance,
rejection or modification of architectural element. The first new element added in the Indian
architecture was the use of shapes instead of natural forms. This apart, use of calligraphy as
inscriptional art was also a new element added to by Muslims. Muslim added the inlay
decoration and use of coloured marble, painted plaster and brilliantly glazed tiles. The Dome was
a new element added by the Muslims. In contrast to the indigenous Indian architecture which
was of the trabeated order i.e. all spaces were spanned by means of horizontal beams, the Islamic
architecture was arcuate i.e. an arch or dome was adopted as a method of bridging a space. Here,
we have to note that the arch or dome was not an invention of the Muslims but was borrowed
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and improvised from the architectural styles of the post-Roman period. The Muslims used the
cementing agent in the form of mortar/Limestone/Chuna for the first time in the construction of
buildings in India. The Indo-Islamic monuments were typical mortar-masonry works formed of
dressed stones. It must be emphasized that the development of the Indo-Islamic was greatly
facilitated by the knowledge and skill possessed by the Indian craftsmen, who had mastered the
art of stonework for centuries and used their experience while constructing Islamic monuments
in India.
2.4.6 Categories of Styles
Architecture can be categorized into two primary categories, a) Secular architecture and b)
Religious architecture. The typology of architecture is complex because no basic requirements
such as those that characterize domestic architecture are common to all religions and because
functions of any one religions involves many different kinds of activity all of which change with
the evolution of cultural patterns. In India man’s ideals have found expression in numerous noble
monuments showing that few countries possess a richer architectural heritage. The outstanding
quality of the architecture of India is its spiritual content. It is evident that the fundamental
purpose of building art was to represent in concrete form the prevailing religious consciousness
of the people. It is mind materialized in terms of rock, brick or stone.
Keeping in mind religious and secular necessities, architectural building like mosques for daily
prayers, the Jama Masjids, tombs, dargahs, minars, hammams, formally laid out gardens,
madrasas, sarais or caravanserais, Kos minars, etc., were constructed over a period of time.
These were thus additions in the existing types of buildings in the sub-continent. Architectural
edifices in the Indian sub-continent, as elsewhere in the world, were constructed by wealthy
people. They were, in descending order, rulers and nobles and their families, merchants,
merchant guilds, rural elite and devotees of a cult. In spite of the obvious Saracenic, Persian and
Turkish influences, Indo-Islamic structures were heavily influenced by prevailing sensibilities of
Indian architectural and decorative forms. A lot depended on the availability of materials,
limitations of resources and skills and the sense of aesthetics of the patrons. Although religion
and religiosity were very important to people of medieval India, as elsewhere, they borrowed
architectural elements liberally.
The study of Indo-Islamic architecture is conventionally categorised into the Imperial Style
(Delhi Sultanate), the Provincial Style (Mandu, Gujarat, Bengal, and Jaunpur), the Mughal Style
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(Delhi, Agra, and Lahore) and the Deccani Style (Bijapur, Golconda). These categories help in
understanding better the specificities of architectural styles rather than putting them in immutable
slots.
Architectural Influences: Amongst provincial styles, the architecture of Bengal and Jaunpur is
regarded as distinct. Gujarat was said to have a markedly regional character for patrons borrowed
elements from regional temple traditions such as toranas, lintels in mihrabs, carvings of bell and
chain motifs, and carved panels depicting trees, for tombs, mosques and dargahs. The fifteenth
century white marble dargah of Shaikh Ahmad Khattu of Sarkhej is a good example of
provincial style and it heavily influenced the form and decoration of Mughal tombs.
Decorative Forms: These forms included designing on plaster through incision or stucco. The
designs were either left plain or covered with colours. Motifs were also painted on or carved in
stone. These motifs included varieties of flowers, both from the sub-continent and places outside,
particularly Iran. The lotus bud fringe was used to great advantage in the inner curves of the
arches. Walls were also decorated with cypress, chinar and other trees as also with flower vases.
Many complex designs of flower motifs decorating the ceilings were also to be found on textiles
and carpets. In the fourteenth, fifteenth and sixteenth centuries tiles were also used to surface the
walls and the domes. Popular colours were blue, turquoise, green and yellow. Subsequently the
techniques of tessellation (mosaic designs) and pietradura were made use of for surface
decoration particularly in the dado panels of the walls. At times lapis lazuli was used in the
interior walls or on canopies. Other decorations included arabesque, calligraphy and high and
low relief.
2.4.7 Contextualizing the Muslim Architecture in India
The medieval period saw great developments in the field of architecture in India. With the
coming of Muslims to India, many new features and techniques came to be introduced in
buildings. The development of Muslim Style of Architecture of this period can be called the
Indo-Islamic Architecture or the Indian Architecture influenced by Islamic Art. The Indo-Islamic
style was neither strictly Islamic nor strictly Hindu. It was, in fact, a combination of Islamic
architecture elements to those of the Indian architecture. The architecture of the medieval period
can be divided into two main categories—Architecture of the Delhi Sultanate or the Imperial
Style and the Mughal Architecture. The Imperial Style developed under the patronage of the
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Sultans of Delhi. The Mughal Architecture was a blend of the Islamic Architecture of Central
Asia and the Hindu Architecture of India.
2.4.8 Architecture of Delhi Sultanate
The types and forms of large buildings required by Muslim elites, with mosques and tombs much
the most common, were very different from those previously built in India. The exteriors of both
were very often topped by large domes and made extensive use of arches. Both of these features
were hardly used in Hindu temple architecture and other indigenous Indian styles. Islamic
buildings initially adapted the skills of a workforce trained in earlier Indian traditions to their
own designs. Unlike most of the Islamic world, where brick tended to predominate, India had
highly skilled builders well used to produce stone masonry of extremely high quality. Alongside
the architecture developed in Delhi and prominent centres of Mughal culture such as Agra,
Lahore and Allahabad, a variety of regional styles developed in regional kingdoms like the
Bengal, Gujrat, Deccan and Kashmir Sultanates. By the Mughal period, generally agreed to
represent the peak of the style, aspects of Islamic style began to influence architecture made for
Hindus, with even temples using scalloped arches, and later domes. This was especially the case
in palace architecture. Following the collapse of the Mughal Empire, regional nawabs such as in
Lucknow, Hyderabad and Mysore continued to commission and patronize the construction of
Mughal-style architecture in the princely states.
The Delhi Sultanate was predominantly spread in and around Delhi in North India and it
gradually spread its rule across various parts of the Indian subcontinent for over three centuries
starting from 1206 to 1526, particularly during the Tughlaq Dynasty. The rule of the sultanate
comprised of five successive dynasties starting from the Mamluk Dynasty whose founder in
Delhi, Qutb al-Din Aibak, also the founder of the Turkic dominion in north-western India,
became the first sultan of Delhi. The three of the other four successive dynasties namely
the Khilji Dynasty, Tughlaq Dynasty and the Sayyid Dynasty respectively were also of Turkish
origin. The last dynasty of the Delhi Sultanate was an Afghan Pashtun dynasty called the Lodi
Dynasty that was founded by Bahlul Khan Lodi. The dynasty saw its fall under the reign of
Ibrahim Lodi after it faced defeat at the hands of Babur, the founder of the Mughal Empire in
1526, which brought an end of the Delhi Sultanate.
During the rule of various Sultans, several politically significant Hindu temples located in enemy
states were vandalised, damaged and desecrated and the development of Indo-Islamic
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architecture initiated. The grand and imposing edifices and monuments constructed by the
Sultans of the Delhi Sultanate stand as the first illustration typifying Indo-Islamic style of
architecture. A mix of Indian and Arabic styles of architecture emerged during the Delhi
Sultanate that, as opined by Sir John Marshall, developed into a peerless form of art and
architecture comprising of architectural brilliance of both Hindu and Muslim artisans. Some of
the unique features of architectural styles preferred by the Delhi Sultanate are palpable from their
palaces that adorn elaborately decorated and embellished arches and domes. Teachings from the
Holy Quran and various floral patterns are visible in the arches while swastika, lotus, bells and
other Hindu motifs used widely by the sultans form parts of other embellishments of the palaces
thus giving them a grand and exquisite appearance.
The Qutb Complex: The ‘Qutb Complex’ comprising of a number of historically significant
monuments and buildings is one of the foremost examples of Indo-Islamic architecture. Some of
the important constructions of the complex include the ‘Qutb Minar’, the ‘Quwwat-ul-Islam
Mosque’, the ‘Tomb of Iltutmish’, the ‘Tomb of Imam Zamin’, the ‘Iron Pillar’ of Delhi, and
Major Smith's Cupola. ‘Qutb Minar’ - The 73 m (240 ft.) colossal tower called ‘Qutb Minar’
made of red sandstone and marble located within the complex stands not only as the highest
brick minaret in the world but it is also as one of the most famous tourist attractions in India.
Construction of this UNESCO World Heritage Site was initiated by Qutbud-Din Aibak, the
founder of the Mamluk Dynasty in Delhi, in 1200 AD and completed by his successor and son-
in-law Iltutmish in 1220 AD. This minaret was dedicated by Aibak to the Muslim Sufi mystic
saint and scholar of the Chishti Order, Qutbuddin Bakhtiar Kaki. ‘Quwwat-ul-Islam Mosque’ –
It is regarded as the first mosque built in India; its construction was delegated by Aibak, which
started in 1193 and completed in 1197. Twenty-seven Hindu temples, shafts of which adorn the
inner and outer courtyard of this Jami Masjid, were demolished to construct it. A provocative
inscription etched over its eastern gate justifies the presence of typical Hindu embellishments in
a Muslim mosque.
‘Alai Darwaza’ - Another brilliant example of Indian and Muslim architecture is the magnificent
‘Alai Darwaza’ within the complex that forms the central gateway from the southern side of the
mosque. Built in 1311 AD by Ala-ud-din Khilji, the second Khilji Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate,
the gateway built of red sandstone and white marble stands as the first ever structure in India that
incorporated principles of Islamic architecture, both in its construction and decoration. Unique
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features of Khilji art including intricate patterns and embellishments are visible from the
monument. The fortified city of Tughlaqabad built by emperor Ghiyathud Din Tughluq; the
fourth medieval city of Delhi called Jahanpanah and the ‘Adilabad Fort’ built by Muhammad
bin Tughluq, son of Ghiyathud Din Tughluq; and the Ferozabad fort and palace constructed by
Firoz Shah Tughlug, successor of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, marks the architectural style of the
Tughlug dynasty.
2.4.9 Mughal Architecture
The first major building to be erected during Mughal rule is Humayun’s mausoleum, not begun
until 976/1568–9 in the early years of Akbar’s reign, and erected, not in his lifetime after the
usual practice, but by his widow. The cenotaph-chamber, which stands on a vast high plinth, is
essentially square in plan, with each corner of the square chamfered off and with a recessed
central bay in each side. Each of these bays contains a deep arch, as high as the walls on either
side of the bay, constructed as a half-dome, and smaller arches of varied height and levels ll the
remaining façades of each wall. The central chamber is surmounted by a tall drum, which carries
a high double dome, with a chatri of Lodi type, open and on slender pillars, at each corner, and
two smaller square chattris over each central arch. The dome is slightly curved at its base, but its
general shape echoes that of the arches below; the arches introduce a new shape to North India,
as their curves are struck from four centers
Shortly after Babur’s arrival in India in 932/1526 he ordered buildings to be erected; he was
unimpressed with Indian edifices, and disgusted with the lack of the formal gardens to which he
was accustomed. Most of his works consisting of terraced gardens with pavilions and summer
houses, hardly anything of which has survived. Two of his mosques exist, one in Panipat and one
in Sambhal: works large but utterly undistinguished. Little more can be said about the buildings
of Humayun’s reign (except those works of a previous period now completed); but Humayun’s
importance is in the craft traditions imported with him after his exile rather than the ideas of his
own. The Mughal Empire was founded in the Indian subcontinent by a conqueror from Central
Asia called Babur who became the first Mughal emperor in India in 1526. The Mughal Empire
that ruled till 1764 in India made significant contribution in the field of architecture in the Indian
subcontinent by evolving a rich and unique architectural style, better known as Mughal
architecture that portray a fine blend of Central Asian, Islamic, Persian, Arabic and Turkish
architectural styles with that of the native architectural styles of India.
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The symmetrical design palpable from the monuments, buildings and courtyards built during the
Mughal reign forms one of the central features of Mughal architecture. This is more discernable
from the symmetrically designed towns and forts built by Akbar, the great Mughal emperor of
the 16th century. Akbar made significant contributions to the Mughal style of architecture. Huge
domes bulbaceous in shape, large halls, colossal gateways, svelte minarets positioned at corners
and fine embellishments are some of the other signature features of the Mughal architecture. The
Mughal emperors, particularly Shah Jahan, were connoisseurs of art and architecture that
manifested into several grand and imposing monuments, palaces, forts, Masjids and tombs
among others built during their era including the world famous ivory white marble mausoleum,
the Taj Mahal. The Mughal architecture reached its peak during the rule of Shah Jahan who,
apart from the TajMahal, is accredited for constructing other majestic and architectural
splendours like the ‘Red Fort’, the ‘Jama Masjid’ and the ‘Shalimar Gardens’.The marvels of
Mughal architecture are spread over Delhi, Agra, Fatehpur Sikri, Aurangabad, Jaipur and many
other cities in present day India and other cities like Lahore and Sheikhupura in Pakistan, Dhaka
in Bangladesh and Kabul in Afghanistan. Some of the significant and most popular ones include
the ‘TajMahal’, ‘Red Fort’, the ‘Agra Fort’, ‘Fatehpur Sikri’, ‘Akbar’s Tomb’, ‘Humayun’s
Tomb’, the ‘Jama Masjid’ and the ‘Badshahi Masjid’ among others. To turn our attention
towards some of the marvels of the Mughal style of architecture in India:
Taj Mahal: Built as a tomb by Shah Jahan for his beloved Queen Mumtaz Mahal, this elegant
and grand mausoleum situated on the south bank of the river Yamuna in Agra, India, is perhaps
the finest testament of the Mughal architecture. It not only stands as an epitome of love attracting
millions of visitors round the year but it is also as a UNESCO World Heritage Site and one of the
7 Wonders of the World.
Red Fort: Built as a palace by Emperor Shah Jahan in 1639, this historically significant fort
situated in Delhi, India, remained the central residence of the Mughal emperors for around two
centuries till 1857 apart from serving as an important political and ceremonial centre of the
dynasty. This UNESCO World Heritage Site that holds a special significance and pride in the
history and culture of India and attracts several tourists all year round comes to life especially on
the Independence Day of India. Every year, the Indian Prime Minister hoists the country’s flag at
the central gate of the fort on August 15. Another architectural marvel is Fatehpur Sikri. One of
the architectural gems of the Mughal Empire is the city of ‘Fatehpur Sikri’ located in the Agra
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District of Uttar Pradesh, India. Built by Emperor Akbar as his Capital City from 1569 AD to
1574 AD, the city served its purpose from 1571 to 1585 and comprised of several edifices that
were significant both in terms of religion and secularism. Some of the important buildings and
constructions within the city are the 15-storied high semi octagonal gateway called ‘Buland
Darwaza’, also referred as the ‘Gate of Magnificence’ that forms the main entrance to the palace
of the city portraying a remarkable blend of Hindu and Persian styles of architecture; the ‘Jama
Masjid’ also referred as the ‘Friday Mosque’ reflecting Iranian architecture in some of its
designs; and the ‘Tomb of Salim Chisti’ housing the grave of the Sufi saint Salim Chisti.
The architecture of Kashmir is remarkably different from that of all other regions of India, as it is
essentially in wood: great logs of deodar (Cedrusdeodara) lay horizontally and joined by crude
carpentry, and used also as piers to support any superstructure; the interstices between courses
may be lled with brickwork or plaster covered with glazed tile. There is of course a constant re
risk, and many buildings have undergone repeated rebuilding, usually, however, reproducing the
form of the original structure. The typical Kashmiri Muslim building is the tomb-shrine (ziyarat)
of a local saint: a cubical ground floor (sometimes set on a stone or brick plinth), covered by a
pyramidal roof which may be in several tiers, topped by a long and slender wooden flèche. The
same type with flanking courtyards may be used for mosque buildings, with the addition of a
square open pavilion between roof and flèche to form a platform for the muadhdhin (the minaret
is not used). Such a pattern is used in the mosque of Shah Hamadan in Srinagar, a two-storeyed
building on the plinth of a Hindu temple, with projecting wooden balconies and the eaves
supported on a log cornice; the pyramidal tiered roof is covered with an impervious layer of
birch-bark and then with turves planted liberally with irises and tulips, above which rise the
ma’dhina platform and the flèche. The Jama Masjid in Srinagar, dating from the end of the 14th
century, but three times rebuilt, is the most ambitious example of pre-Mughal Kashmiri
architecture: a vast square courtyard is surrounded on each side by a wide arched wing which
carries a central ziyrat-like structure that on the west having a tall central brick arch. Much of the
lower walling is in brick, but the surrounding colonnades are composed entirely of deodar trunks
on stone plinths. Some ne stone tombs of the 15th century exist, constructed from temple spoil,
but domed and covered with glazed tiles.
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This lesson was a brief introductory overview of relationship between Indo-Islamic architecture.
As we learnt Indo-Islamic architecture has left a large impact in South Asia, as in the case of its
influence on the Indo-Saracenic Revivalism of the late British Raj. Muslims absorbed many
features of local cultures and traditions and combined them with their own architectural practices
while later on with Sultanate and Mughal rule a new stream of architecture was evolved in India
which combined Saracenic, Persian and Turkish influences with prevailing sensibilities of Indian
architectural and decorative forms. Thus, in the field of architecture, a mix of many structural
techniques, stylized shapes, and surface decorations came about through constant interventions
of acceptance, rejection or modification of architectural elements. These architectural entities or
categories showcasing multiple styles are known as Indo-Saracenic or Indo-Islamic architecture.
1. What do you understand by the term ‘Indo-Islamic’ or ‘Indo-Saracenic’ architecture?
2. How did this architecture evolve in India?
3. Write a short on Sultanate Architecture?
4. Briefly explain Mughal Architecture?
Brown, Percy, Indian Architecture (Islamic Period), (DB Taraporevala Sons & Co., 1942)
Satish Grover, Islamic Architecture in India, (CBS Publishers & Distributors Pvt. Ltd., 2002)
119

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PG PROGRAMME

(ART AND ARCHITECTURE IN ISLAM)

DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

Copyright © Directorate of Distance Education, University of Kashmir

First Edition: 2020

Course Prepared by:

Table of Contents Page No

Unit I Muslim Arts

Unit II Muslim Architecture

A Note to the Students

i) Concept of Art in Islam

ii) Types of Muslim Art-I

iii) Types of Muslim Art-II

iv) Types of Fine Arts

1.1.3 Understanding Art in Islam

1.1.6 Themes in Islamic Architecture

1.1.7 The Spiritual Message of Islamic Art

1.1.9 Check Your Progress

1.1.10 Suggested Readings

Lesson 02: Types of Muslim Art-I

1.2.3 The Nature and Form of Muslim Art

1.2.6 Arabic Calligraphy as an Art Form

1.2.7 Islamic Calligraphy

Figure 5. Kufic calligraphy combined with floral and geometrical decoration

Figure 6. Transcript of Naskhi calligraphy by Mahmud

1.2.8 The Calligraphers

1.2.10 Let Us Sum Up

1.2.11 Check Your Progress

1.2.12 Suggested Readings

Lesson 03: Pottery and Handicrafts

To understand the nuances of Pottery and its relation to Islamic tradition

To delineate on the concept of Handicrafts and its relation to Islamic Art

1.3.3 Understanding Pottery and the Potters of Islam

1.3.4 Innovation of Muslims in Pottery

9th-century lusterware bowl from Iraq

1.3.5 Carpets and Textiles as Handicrafts in the Muslim World

1.3.6 The Ottoman Empire and Carpet Production

1.3.7 Persian Carpets

1.3.8 Indonesian Batik

1.3.10 Check Your Progress

Lesson 04: Types of Fine Arts

Fig.1. Drinking Horn. Probably Egypt, 8th-9th century, Overall L:

Fig. 3.Ewer.Western Asia or Egypt, about 1000. H. 16.0 cm. The

Fig. 4.Flask.Probably Egypt, 11th-12th century. H. 16.6 cm.

Fig. 5. Handled Vase, Egypt or Syria, 1310-1330. H. 30.2. cm. The

Fig. 6.Flask.Syria, probably Aleppo, 1200-1299. H. 6.2 cm. The

Fig. 7.Sprinkler.Iran, 18th-19th century. H. 30.7 cm. The

Fig.8. Mosque Lamp, France, Philippe-Joseph Brocard, 1860-

4. Role of Islamic Glass in Muslim art

i) Concept and Origin of Muslim Architecture

ii) Salient Features of Muslim Architecture

iii) Classical Muslim Architecture (Damascus,

iv) Indo-Muslim Architecture

 Highlight the origin of Muslim architecture

elements in the development of urbanization development in the housing community or the

Lesson 02: Salient Features of Muslim Architecture

 Introduce the meaning and characteristics of Islamic Architecture

2.2.3 Art: An Integral Part of Muslim Life

2.2.4 The Philosophy of Islamic Architecture

2.2.5 General Characteristics of Islamic Art

2.2.6 Art as a Historical Category

2.2.7 Water as the Source of Life

2.2.8 Let Us Sum Up