Fluid 9ed Solution Manual

2.
1: PROBLEM DEFINITION
Find:
How density differs from specific weight
PLAN
Consider their definitions (conceptual and mathematical)
SOLUTION
Density is a [mass]/[unit volume], and specific weight is a [weight]/[unit volume].
Therefore, they are related by the equation γ = ρg, and density differs from specific
weight by the factor g , the acceleration of gravity.
1
‫اﻹﺗﺠﺎه اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ‬-‫ﻟﺠﻨﺔ اﳌﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻚ واﻷوﺗﻮﺗﺮوﻧﻜﺲ‬
2.2: PROBLEM DEFINITION
Find:
Fluids for which we can (usually) assume density to be nearly constant
Fluids for which density should be calculated as a function of temperature and
pressure?
SOLUTION
Density can usually be assumed to be nearly constant for liquids , such as water, mer-
cury and oil. However, even the density of a liquid varies slightly as a function of
either pressure or temperature. Slight changes in the volume occupied by a given
mass of a liquid as a function of pressure can be calculated using the equation for
elasticity.
One must know the temperature and the pressure to determine the density of a gas .
2
www.muslimengineer.net
Find:
Where in this text you can find density data for such fluids as oil and mercury.
SOLUTION
Table A.4 in the Appendix contains density data for such fluids as oil and mercury .
3
Situation:
An engineer needs to know the local density for an experiment with a glider.
z = 2500 ft.
Find:
Calculate density using local conditions.
Compare calculated density with the value from Table A.2, and make a recommen-
dation.
Properties:
From Table A.2, Rair = 287 kg·J K , ρ = 1.22 kg/ m3 .
Local temperature = 74.3 ◦ F = 296.7 K.
Local pressure = 27.3 in.-Hg = 92.45 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the ideal gas law for local conditions.
SOLUTION
Ideal gas law
p
ρ =
RT
92, 450 N/ m2
=
(287 kg/ m3 ) (296.7 K)
= 1.086 kg/m3
ρ = 1.09 kg/m3 (local conditions)

Table value. From Table A.2
ρ = 1.22 kg/m3 (table value)
The density difference (local conditions versus table value) is about 12%. Most
of this difference is due to the effect of elevation on atmospheric pressure.
Recommendation—use the local value of density because the effects of elevation are significant .
REVIEW
Note: Always use absolute pressure when working with the ideal gas law.
4
Situation:
Carbon dioxide.
Find:
Density and specific weight of CO2 .
Properties:
From Table A.2, RCO2 = 189 J/kg·K.
p = 300 kPa, T = 60 ◦ C.
PLAN
1. First, apply the ideal gas law to find density.
2. Then, calculate specific weight using γ = ρg.
SOLUTION
1. Ideal gas law
P
ρCO2 =
RT
300, 000 kPa
=
(189 J/ kg K) (60 + 273) K
ρCO2 = 4.767 kg/m3
2. Specific weight
γ = ρg
Thus
γ CO2 = ρCO2 × g
= 4.767 kg/ m3 × 9.81 m/ s2
γ CO2 = 46.764 N/m3
REVIEW
Always use absolute pressure when working with the ideal gas law.
5
Situation:
Methane gas.
Find:
Density (kg/m3 ).
Specific weight ( N/ m3 ).
Properties:
J
From Table A.2, RMethane = 518 kg· K
.
p = 300 kPa, T = 60 ◦ C.
PLAN
1. Apply the ideal gas law to find density.
2. Calculate specific weight using γ = ρg.
SOLUTION
1. Ideal gas law
P
ρMethane =
RT
300, 000 mN2
=
518 kg·J K (60 + 273 K)
ρMethane = 1.74 kg/m3
2. Specific weight
γ = ρg
Thus
γ Methane = ρMethane × g
= 1.74 kg/ m3 × 9.81 m/ s2
γ Methane = 17.1 N/m3
REVIEW
6
Situation:
Natural gas is stored in a spherical tank.
Find:
Ratio of final mass to initial mass in the tank.
Properties:
patm = 100 kPa, p1 = 100 kPa-gage.
p2 = 200 kPa-gage, T = 10 ◦ C.
PLAN
Use the ideal gas law to develop a formula for the ratio of final mass to initial mass.
SOLUTION
1. Mass in terms of density
M = ρV (1)
2. Ideal gas law
p
ρ= (2)
RT
3. Combine Eqs. (1) and (2)
M = ρV
= (p/RT )V
4. Volume and gas temperature are constant, so

M2 p2
=
M1 p1
and
M2 300 kPa
=
M1 200 kPa
M2
M1
=1.5
7
Situation:
Wind and water at 100 ◦ C and 5 atm.
Find:
Ratio of density of water to density of air.
Properties:
Air, Table A.2: Rair = 287 J/kg·K.
Water (100o C), Table A.5: ρwater = 958 kg/m3 .
PLAN
Apply the ideal gas law to air.
SOLUTION
Ideal gas law
p
ρair =
RT
506, 600 kPa
=
(287 J/ kg K) (100 + 273) K
= 4.73 kg/m3
For water
ρwater = 958 kg/m3
Ratio
ρwater 958 kg/ m3
=
ρair 4.73 kg/ m3
ρwater
= 203
ρair
REVIEW
Always use absolute pressures when working with the ideal gas law.
8
Situation:
Oxygen fills a tank.
V tank = 10 ft3 , Wtank = 150 lbf.
Find:
Weight (tank plus oxygen).
Properties:
From Table A.2, RO2 = 1555 ft·lbf/(slug ·o R) .
p = 500 psia, T = 70 ◦ F.
PLAN
Apply the ideal gas law to find density of oxygen.
Find the weight of the oxygen using specific weight (γ) and add this to the weight of
the tank.
SOLUTION
1. Ideal gas law
pabs. = 500 psia × 144 psf/psi = 72, 000 psf

T = 460 + 70 = 530◦ R
p
ρ =
RT
72, 000 psf
=
(1555 ft lbf/ slugo R) (530o R)
ρ = 0.087 slugs/ft3
2. Specific weight
γ = ρg
slug ft
= 0.087 3 × 32.2 2
ft s
3
γ = 2.80 lbf/ft
3. Weight of filled tank
Woxygen = 2.80 lbf/ft3 × 10 ft3

= 28 lbf
Wtotal = Woxygen + Wtank
= 28.0 lbf + 150 lbf
Wtotal = 178 lbf
REVIEW
9
1. For compressed gas in a tank, pressures are often very high and the ideal gas
assumption is invalid. For this problem the pressure is about 34 atmospheres—it is
a good idea to check a thermodynamics reference to analyze whether or not real gas
effects are significant.
2. Always use absolute pressure when working with the ideal gas law.
10
Situation:
Oxygen is released from a tank through a valve.
V = 10 m3 .
Find:
Mass of oxygen that has been released.
Properties:
RO2 = 260 kg·J K .
p1 = 800 kPa, T1 = 15 ◦ C.
p2 = 600 kPa, T2 = 20 ◦ C.
PLAN
1. Use ideal gas law, expressed in terms of density and the gas-specific (not universal)
gas constant.
2. Find the density for the case before the gas is released; and then mass from
density, given the tank volume.
3. Find the density for the case after the gas is released, and the corresponding mass.
4. Calculate the mass difference, which is the mass released.
SOLUTION
1. Ideal gas law
p
ρ=
RT
2. Density and mass for case 1
800, 000 mN2

ρ1 = N· m
(260 kg· K
)(288 K)
kg
ρ1 = 10.68 3
m
M1 = ρ1 V
kg
= 10.68 × 10 m3
m3
M1 = 106.8 kg
3. Density and mass for case 2
600, 000 mN2

ρ2 = N· m
(260 kg· K
)(288 K)
kg
ρ2 = 8.01 3
m
11
M2 = ρ1 V
kg
= 8.01 × 10 m3
m3
M1 = 80.1 kg
4. Mass released from tank
M1 − M2 = 106.8 − 80.1
M1 − M2 = 26.7 kg
12
Situation:
Properties of air.
Find:
Specific weight (N/m3 ).
Density (kg/m3 ).
Properties:
J
From Table A.2, R = 287 kg· K
.
p = 600 kPa, T = 50 ◦ C.
PLAN
First, apply the ideal gas law to find density. Then, calculate specific weight using
γ = ρg.
SOLUTION
1. Ideal gas law
P
ρair =
RT
600, 000 kPa
=
(287 J/ kg K) (50 + 273) K
ρair = 6.47 kg/m3
2. Specific weight
γ air = ρair × g
= 6.47 kg/ m3 × 9.81 m/ s2
γ air = 63.5 N/ m3
REVIEW
13
Situation:
Consider a mass of air in the atmosphere.
V = 1 mi3 .
Find:
Mass of air using units of slugs and kg.
Properties:
From Table A.2, ρair = 0.00237 slugs/ft3 .
Assumptions:
The density of air is the value at sea level for standard conditions.
SOLUTION
Units of slugs
M = ρV
M = 0.00237 slug
ft3
× (5280)3 ft3
M = 3.49 × 108 slugs

Units of kg µ ¶
¡ 8
¢ kg
M = 3.49 × 10 slug × 14.59
slug
M = 5.09 × 109 kg
REVIEW
The mass will probably be somewhat less than this because density decreases with
altitude.
14
Situation:
For a cyclist, temperature changes affect air density, thereby affecting both aero-
dynamic drag and tire pressure.
Find:
a.) Plot air density versus temperature for a range of -10o C to 50o C.
b.) Plot tire pressure versus temperature for the same temperature range.
Properties:
From Table A.2, Rair = 287 J/kg/K.
Initial conditions for part b: p = 450 kPa, T = 20 ◦ C.
Assumptions:
For part b, assume that the bike tire volume does not change.
PLAN
Apply the ideal gas law.
SOLUTION
a.) Ideal gas law
p 101000 kPa
ρ= =
RT (287 J/ kg K) (273 + T )
1.40
1.35
1.30
Density (kg/m )
3
1.25
1.20
1.15
1.10
1.05
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
o
T emperature ( C )
b.) If the volume is constant, since mass can’t change, then density must be constant.
Thus
p po
=
T To
µ ¶
T
p = 450 kPa
20 ◦ C
15
520
500
Tire pressure, kPa

480
460
440
420
400
380
-20 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
o
Temperature, C
16
Situation:
Design of a CO2 cartridge to inflate a rubber raft.
Inflation pressure = 3 psi above patm = 17.7 psia = 122 kPa abs.
Find:
Estimate the volume of the raft.
Calculate the mass of CO2 (in grams) to inflate the raft.
Sketch:
Assumptions:
CO2 in the raft is at 62 ◦ F = 290 K.
Volume of the raft ≈ Volume of a cylinder with D = 0.45 m & L = 16 m (8 meters
for the length of the sides and 8 meters for the lengths of the ends plus center tubes).
Properties:
CO2 , Table A.2, R = 189 J/kg·K.
PLAN
Since mass is related to volume by m = ρV, the steps are:
1. Find volume using the formula for a cylinder.
2. Find density using the ideal gas law (IGL).
3. Calculate mass.
SOLUTION
1. Volume
πD2
V = ×L
µ4 ¶
π × 0.452
= × 16 m3
4
V = 2.54 m3
17
2. Ideal gas law
p
ρ =
RT
122, 000 N/ m2
=
(189 J/ kg · K) (290 K)
= 2.226 kg/m3
3. Mass of CO2
m = ρV
¡ ¢¡ ¢
= 2.226 kg/m3 2.54 m3
m = 5660 g
REVIEW
The final mass (5.66 kg = 12.5 lbm) is large. This would require a large and potentially
expensive CO2 tank. Thus, this design idea may be impractical for a product that is
driven by cost.
18
Situation:
A helium filled balloon is being designed.
r = 1.3 m, z = 80, 000 ft.
Find:
Weight of helium inside balloon.
Properties:
From Table A.2, RHe = 2077 J/kg·K.
p = 0.89 bar = 89 kPa, T = 22 ◦ C = 295.2 K.
PLAN
Weight is given by W = mg. Mass is related to volume by M = ρ ∗ V. Density can
be found using the ideal gas law.
SOLUTION
Volume in a sphere
4 3
V = πr
3
4
= π (1.3 m)3
3
= 9.203 m3
Ideal gas law

p
ρ =
RT
89, 000 N/ m2
=
(2077 J/ kg · K) (295.2 K)
= 0.145 kg/m3
Weight of helium
W = ρ×V×g
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= 0.145 kg/m3 × 9.203 m3 × 9.81 m/ s2
= 13.10 N
Weight = 13.1 N
19
Situation:
Hydrometers are used to measure alcohol content of wine and beer by measuring
specific weight at various stages of fermentation.
Fermentation is described by the following equation:
C6 H12 O6 → 2(CH3 CH2 OH) + 2(CO2 )
Find:
Final specific gravity of the wine.
Percent alcohol content by volume after fermentation.
Assumptions:
All of the sugar is converted to alcohol.
Initial liquid is only sugar and water.
Properties:
Salcohol = 0.80, Ss = 1.59, Sw = 1.08.
PLAN
Imagine that the initial mixture is pure water plus saturated sugar solution and then
use this visualization to find the mass of sugar that is initially present (per unit
of volume). Next, apply conservation of mass to find the mass of alcohol that is
produced (per unit of volume). Then, solve for the problem unknowns.
SOLUTION
The initial density of the mixture is
ρw V w + ρs V s
ρmix =
Vo
where ρw and ρs are the densities of water and sugar solution (saturated), Vo is the
initial volume of the mixture, and Vs is the volume of sugar solution. The total
volume of the mixture is the volume of the pure water plus the volume of saturated
solution
Vw + Vs = Vo
The specific gravity is initially 1.08. Thus
ρmix Vs ρ Vs
Si = = (1 − ) + s
ρw Vo ρw V o
Vs Vs
1.08 = (1 − ) + 1.59
Vo Vo
Vs
= 0.136
Vo
20
Thus, the mass of sugar per unit volume of mixture
Ms
= 1.59 × 0.136
Vo
= 0.216 kg/m3
The molecular weight of glucose is 180 and ethyl alcohol 46. Thus 1 kg of glucose
converts to 0.51 kg of alcohol so the final density of alcohol is
Ma
= 0.216 × 0.51
Vo
= 0.110 kg/m3
The density of the final mixture based on the initial volume is
Mf
= (1 − 0.136) + 0.110
Vo
= 0.974 kg/m3
The final volume is altered because of conversion
Vf Mw Ma
= +
Vo ρw V o ρa V o
V w 0.51Ms
= +
Vo ρa V o
V w 0.51ρs V s
= +
Vo ρa V o
0.51 × 1.59
= 0.864 + × 0.136
0.8
= 1.002
The final density is
Mf Mf Vo
= ×
Vf Vo Vf
1
= 0.974 ×
1.002
= 0.972 kg/m3
The final specific gravity is
Sf = 0.972
The alcohol content by volume
Va Ma
=
Vf ρa V f
Ma 1 V o
=
V o ρa V f
1 1
= 0.110 × ×
0.8 1.002
= 0.137
21
Thus,
Percent alcohol by volume = 13.7%
22
Situation:
Several preview questions about viscosity are answered.
Find:
(a) The primary dimensions of viscosity and five common units of viscosity.
(b) The viscosity of motor oil (in traditional units).
(c) How and why viscosity of water varies with temperature?
(d) How and why viscosity of air varies with temperature?
SOLUTION
M
a) Primary dimensions of viscosity are [ LT ].
Five common units are:
i) N·
m2
s
; ii) dyn·
cm2
s
; iii) poise; iv) centipoise; and v) lbf· s
ft2
(b) To find the viscosity of SAE 10W-30 motor oil at 115 ◦ F, there are no tablular data
in the text. Therefore, one should use Figure A.2. For traditional units (because
the temperature is given in Fahrenheit) one uses the left-hand axis to report that
μ = 1.2 × 10−3 lbf·
ft2
s
.
Note: one should be careful to identify the correct factor of 10 for the log cycle that
contains the correct data point. For example, in this problem, the answer is between
1 × 10−3 and 1 × 10−2 . One should be able to determine that the answer is 1.2 × 10−3
and not 1 × 10−2 .
(c) The viscosity of water decreases with increasing temperature . This is true for
all liquids, and is because the loose molecular lattice within liquids, which provides a
given resistance to shear at a relatively cool temperature, has smaller energy barriers
resisting movement at higher temperatures.
(d) The viscosity of air increases with increasing temperature . This is true for all
gases, and is because gases do not have a loose molecular lattice. The only resistance
to shear provided in gases is due to random collision between different layers. As
the temperature increases, there are more likely to be more collisions, and therefore
a higher viscosity.
23
Situation:
Change in viscosity and density due to temperature.
T1 = 10 ◦ C, T2 = 70 ◦ C.
Find:
Change in viscosity and density of water.
Change in viscosity and density of air.
Properties:
p = 101 kN/ m2 .
PLAN
For water, use data from Table A.5. For air, use data from Table A.3
SOLUTION
Water
μ70 = 4.04 × 10−4 N·s/m2

μ10 = 1.31 × 10−3 N·s/m2
∆μ = −9. 06 × 10−4 N· s/ m2
ρ70 = 978 kg/m3
ρ10 = 1000 kg/m3
∆ρ = −22 kg/ m3
Air
μ70 = 2.04 × 10−5 N · s/m2
μ10 = 1.76 × 10−5 N · s/m2
∆μ = 2. 8 × 10−6 N · s/ m2
ρ70 = 1.03 kg/m3
ρ10 = 1.25 kg/m3
∆ρ = −0.22 kg/ m3
24
Situation:
Air at certain temperatures.
T1 = 10 ◦ C, T2 = 70 ◦ C.
Find:
Change in kinematic viscosity.
Properties:
From Table A.3, ν 70 = 1.99 × 10−5 m2 /s, ν 10 = 1.41 × 10−5 m2 /s.
PLAN
Use properties found in Table A.3.
SOLUTION
∆vair,10→70 = (1.99 − 1.41) × 10−5

∆vair,10→70 = 5.8×10−6 m2 /s
REVIEW
Sutherland’s equation could also be used to solve this problem.
25
Situation:
Viscosity of SAE 10W-30 oil, kerosene and water.
T = 38 ◦ C = 100 ◦ F.
Find:
Dynamic and kinematic viscosity of each fluid.
PLAN
Use property data found in Table A.4, Fig. A.2 and Table A.5.
SOLUTION
Oil (SAE 10W-30) kerosene water

2
μ(N · s/m ) 6.7×10−2 1.4×10−3 (Fig. A-2) 6.8×10−4
3
ρ(kg/m ) 880 814 993
2
ν(m /s) 7.6×10−5 1.7×10−6
(Fig. A-2) 6.8×10−7
26
Situation:
Dynamic and kinematic viscosity of air and water.
T = 20 ◦ C.
Find:
Ratio of dynamic viscosity of air to that of water.
Ratio of kinematic viscosity of air to that of water.
Properties:
From Table A.3, μair,20◦ C = 1.81 × 10−5 N·s/m2 ; ν = 1.51 × 10−5 m2 /s
From Table A.5, μwater,20◦ C = 1.00 × 10−3 N·s/m2 ; ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 /s
SOLUTION
Dynamic viscosity
μair 1.81 × 10−5 N · s/ m2

=
μwater 1.00 × 10−3 N · s/ m2
μair
= 1.81×10−2
μwater
Kinematic viscosity
ν air 1.51 × 10−5 m2 / s

=
ν water 1.00 × 10−6 m2 / s
ν air
= 5.1
ν water
27
Situation:
Sutherland’s equation and the ideal gas law describe behaviors of common gases.
Find:
Develop an expression for the kinematic viscosity ratio ν/ν o , where ν is at temper-
ature T and pressure p.
Assumptions:
Assume a gas is at temperature To and pressure po , where the subscript ”o” defines
the reference state.
PLAN
Combine the ideal gas law and Sutherland’s equation.
SOLUTION
The ratio of kinematic viscosities is
µ ¶3/2
ν μ ρo T To + S po T
= =
νo μo ρ To T + S p To
µ ¶5/2
ν po T To + S
=
νo p To T +S
28
Situation:
The dynamic viscosity of air.
μo = 1.78 × 10−5 N·s/m2 .
To = 15 ◦ C, T = 100 ◦ C.
Find:
Dynamic viscosity μ.
Properties:
From Table A.2, S = 111K.
SOLUTION
Sutherland’s equation
µ ¶3/2
μ T To + S
=
μo ToT +S
µ ¶3/2
373 K 288 K + 111 K
=
288 K 373 K + 111 K
μ
= 1.21
μo
Thus
μ = 1.21μo
¡ ¢
= 1.21 × 1.78 × 10−5 N · s/ m2
μ = 2.15 × 10−5 N·s/m2
29
Situation:
Methane gas.
vo = 1.59 × 10−5 m2 / s.
To = 15 ◦ C, T = 200 ◦ C.
po = 1 atm, p = 2 atm.
Find:
Kinematic viscosity ( m2 / s).
Properties:
From Table A.2, S = 198 K.
PLAN
Apply the ideal gas law and Sutherland’s equation.
SOLUTION
μ
ν =
ρ
ν μ ρo
=
νo μo ρ
Ideal-gas law
ν μ po T
=
νo μo p To
µ ¶5/2
ν po T To + S
=
νo p To T +S
so
µ ¶5/2
ν 1 473 K 288 K + 198 K
=
νo 2 288 K 473 K + 198 K
= 1.252
and
ν = 1.252 × 1.59 × 10−5 m2 /s

ν = 1.99 × 10−5 m2 / s
30
Situation:
Nitrogen gas.
μo = 3.59 × 10−7 lbf · s/ ft2 .
To = 59 ◦ F, T = 200 ◦ F.
Find:
μ using Sutherland’s equation.
Properties:
From Table A.2, S =192o R.
SOLUTION
µ ¶3/2
μ T To + S
=
μo To T +S
µ ¶3/2
660o R 519o R + 192o R
=
519o R 660o R + 192o R
= 1.197 µ ¶
−7 lbf · s
μ = 1.197 × 3.59 × 10
ft2
= 4. 297 × 10−7
μ = 4.30 × 10−7 lbf-s/ft2
31
Situation:
Helium gas.
vo = 1.22 × 10−3 ft2 / s.
To = 59 ◦ F, T = 30 ◦ F.
po = 1 atm, p = 1.5 atm.
Find:
Kinematic viscosity using Sutherland’s equation.
Properties:
From Table A.2, S =143o R.
PLAN
Combine the ideal gas law and Sutherland’s equation.
SOLUTION
µ ¶5/2
ν po T To + S
=
νo p To T +S
µ ¶5/2
1.5 490o R 519o R + 143o R
=
1 519o R 490o R + 143o R
= 1.359 µ
2¶
−3 ft
ν = 1.359 × 1.22 × 10
s
2
ft
= 1. 658 × 10−3
s
ν = 1.66 × 10−3 ft2 / s
32
Situation:
Absolute viscosity of propane.
To = 100 ◦ C, μo = 1 × 10−5 N s/ m2 .
T = 400 ◦ C, μ = 1.72 × 10−5 N s/ m2 .
Find:
Sutherland’s constant.
SOLUTION
μ
¡ To ¢1/2
S μo T
−1
= ¡ To ¢3/2
To 1− μ
μo T
Also
μ
= 1.72
μo
To 373 K
=
T 673 K
Thus
S
= 0.964
To
S = 360 K
33
Situation:
Ammonia at room temperature.
To = 68 ◦ F, μo = 2.07 × 10−7 lbf s/ ft2 .
T = 392 ◦ F, μ = 3.46 × 10−7 lbf s/ ft2 .
Find:
Sutherland’s constant.
SOLUTION
μ
¡ To ¢1/2
S μo T
−1
= ¡ To ¢3/2 (1)
To 1− μ
μo T
Calculations
μ 3.46 × 10−7 lbf s/ ft2
= = 1.671 (a)
μo 2.07 × 10−7 lbf s/ ft2
To 528 ◦ R
= = 0.6197 (b)
T 852 ◦ R
Substitute (a) and (b) into Eq. (1)
S
= 1.71
To
S = 903 o R
34
Situation:
SAE 10W30 motor oil.
To = 38 ◦ C, μo = 0.067 N s/ m2 .
T = 99 ◦ C, μ = 0.011 N s/ m2 .
Find:
The viscosity of motor oil, μ(60o C), using the equation μ = Ceb/T .
PLAN
Use algebra and known values of viscosity (μ) to solve for the constant b. Then,
solve for the unknown value of viscosity.
SOLUTION
Viscosity variation of a liquid can be expressed as μ = Ceb/T . Thus, evaluate μ at
temperatures T and To and take the ratio:
∙ ¸
μ 1 1
= exp b( − )
μo T To
Take the logarithm and solve for b.
ln (μ/μo )
b=
( T1 − T1o )
Data
0.011 N s/ m2
μ/μo = = 0.164
0.067 N s/ m2
T = 372 K
To = 311 K
Solve for b
b = 3430 (K)
Viscosity ratio at 60o C
∙ µ ¶¸
μ 1 1
= exp 3430 −
μo 333 K 311 K
= 0.4833
μ = 0.4833 × 0.067 N s/ m2
μ = 0.032 N · s/ m2
35
Situation:
Viscosity of grade 100 aviation oil.
To = 100 ◦ F, μo = 4.43 × 10−3 lbf s/ ft2 .
T = 210 ◦ F, μ = 3.9 × 10−4 lbf s/ ft2 .
Find:
μ(150o F), using the equation μ = Ceb/T .
PLAN
Use algebra and known values of viscosity (μ) to solve for the constant b. Then,
solve for the unknown value of viscosity.
SOLUTION
Viscosity variation of a liquid can be expressed as μ = Ceb/T . Thus, evaluate μ at
temperatures T and To and take the ratio:
∙ ¸
μ 1 1
= exp b( − )
μo T To
Take the logarithm and solve for b
ln (μ/μo )
b=
( T1 − T1o )
Data
μ 0.39 × 10−3 lbf s/ ft2
= = 0.08804
μo 4.43 × 10−3 lbf s/ ft2
T = 670o R
To = 560o R
Solve for b
b = 8293 (o R)
Viscosity ratio at 150o F
∙ µ ¶¸
μ 1 1
= exp 8293 −
μo 610o R 560o R
= 0.299 µ ¶
−3 lbf · s
μ = 0.299 × 4.43 × 10
ft2
μ = 1.32 × 10−3 lbf·
ft2
s
36
Situation:
Oil (SAE 10W30) fills the space between two plates.
∆y = 1/8 = 0.125 in, u = 25 ft/ s.
Lower plate is at rest.

Find:
Shear stress in oil.
Properties:
Oil (SAE 10W30 @ 150 ◦ F) from Figure A.2: μ = 5.2 × 10−4 lbf·s/ft2 .
Assumptions:
1.) Assume oil is a Newtonian fluid.
2.) Assume Couette flow (linear velocity profile).
SOLUTION
Rate of strain
du ∆u
=
dy ∆y
25 ft/ s
=
(0.125/12) ft
du
= 2400 s−1
dy
Newton’s law of viscosity
µ ¶
du
τ = μ
dy
µ ¶ µ ¶
−4 lbf · s 1
= 5.2 × 10 × 2400
ft2 s
lbf
= 1. 248 2
ft
lbf
τ = 1.25 ft2
37
Situation:
Properties of air and water.
T = 40 ◦ C, p = 170 kPa.
Find:
Kinematic and dynamic viscosities of air and water.
Properties:
Air data from Table A.3, μair = 1.91 × 10−5 N·s/m2
Water data from Table A.5, μwater = 6.53 × 10−4 N·s/m2 , ρwater = 992 kg/m3 .
PLAN
Apply the ideal gas law to find density. Find kinematic viscosity as the ratio of
dynamic and absolute viscosity.
SOLUTION
A.) Air
Ideal gas law
p
ρair =
RT
170, 000 kPa
=
(287 J/ kg K) (313.2 K)
= 1.89 kg/m3
N· s
μair = 1.91 × 10−5 m2
μ
ν =
ρ
1.91 × 10−5 N s/ m2
=
1.89 kg/ m3
ν air = 10.1 × 10−6 m2 / s

B.) water
μwater = 6.53 × 10−5 N·s/m2
μ
ν =
ρ
6.53 × 10−4 N s/ m2
ν =
992 kg/ m3
ν water = 6.58 × 10−7 m2 /s
38
Situation:
Sliding plate viscometer is used to measure fluid viscosity.
A = 50 × 100 mm, ∆y = 1 mm.
u = 10 m/ s, F = 3 N.
Find:
Viscosity of the fluid.
Assumptions:
Linear velocity distribution.
PLAN
1. The shear force τ is a force/area.
2. Use equation for viscosity to relate shear force to the velocity distribution.
SOLUTION
1. Calculate shear force
F orce
τ =
Area
3N
τ =
50 mm × 100 mm
τ = 600 N
2. Find viscosity
τ
μ = ³ ´
du
dy
600 N
μ =
[10 m/ s] / [1 mm]
μ = 6 × 10−2 N·
m2
s
39
Situation:
Water flows near a wall. The velocity distribution is
³ y ´1/6
u(y) = a
b
a = 10 m/ s, b = 2 mm and y is the distance (mm) from the wall.
Find:
Shear stress in the water at y = 1 mm.
Properties:
Table A.5 (water at 20 ◦ C): μ = 1.00 × 10−3 N · s/ m2 .
SOLUTION
Rate of strain (algebraic equation)
∙ ³ ´ ¸
du d y 1/6
= a
dy dy b
a 1
= 1/6 5/6
b 6y
µ ¶5/6
a b
=
6b y
Rate of strain (at y = 1 mm)

µ ¶5/6
du a b
=
dy 6b y
µ ¶5/6
10 m/ s 2 mm
=
6 × 0.002 m 1 mm
= 1485 s−1
Shear Stress
du
τ y=1 mm = μ
dy
µ ¶
−3 N · s
¡ −1
¢
= 1.00 × 10 1485 s
m2
= 1.485 Pa
τ (y = 1 mm) = 1.49 Pa
40
Situation:
Velocity distribution of crude oil between two walls.
μ = 8 × 10−5 lbf s/ ft2 , B = 0.1 ft.
u = 100y(0.1 − y) ft/ s, T = 100 ◦ F.
Find:
Shear stress at walls.
SOLUTION
Velocity distribution
u = 100y(0.1 − y) = 10y − 100y 2
Rate of strain
du/dy = 10 − 200y
(du/dy)y=0 = 10 s−2 (du/dy)y=0.1 = −10 s−1
Shear stress
du
τ0 = μ = (8 × 10−5 ) × 10
dy
τ 0 = 8×10−4 lbf/ft2
τ 0.1 = 8×10−4 lbf/ft2
Plot
0.10
0.08
Distance
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
Velocity
41
Situation:
A liquid flows between parallel boundaries.
y0 = 0.0 mm, V0 = 0.0 m/ s.
y1 = 1.0 mm, V1 = 1.0 m/ s.
y2 = 2.0 mm, V2 = 1.99 m/ s.
y3 = 3.0 mm, V3 = 2.98 m/ s.
Find:
(a) Maximum shear stress.
(b) Location where minimum shear stress occurs.
SOLUTION
(a) Maximum shear stress
τ = μdV /dy
τ max ≈ μ(∆V /∆y) next to wall
τ max = (10−3 N · s/m2 )((1 m/s)/0.001 m)
τ max = 1.0 N/m2
(b)The minimum shear stress will occur midway between the two walls . Its mag-
nitude will be zero because the velocity gradient is zero at the midpoint.
42
Situation:
Glycerin is flowing in between two stationary plates. The velocity distribution is
1 dp ¡ ¢
u=− By − y 2
2μ dx
dp/dx = −1.6 kPa/ m, B = 5 cm.
Find:
Velocity and shear stress at a distance of 12 mm from wall (i.e. at y = 12 mm).
Velocity and shear stress at the wall (i.e. at y = 0 mm).
Properties:
Glycerin (20 ◦ C), Table A.4: μ = 1.41 N · s/ m2 .
PLAN
Find velocity by direct substitution into the specified velocity distribution.
Find shear stress using the definition of viscosity: τ = μ (du/dy), where the rate-of-
strain (i.e. the derivative du/dy) is found by differentiating the velocity distribution.
SOLUTION
a.) Velocity (at y = 12 mm)
1 dp ¡ ¢
u = − By − y 2
2μ dx
1 ¡ 3
¢¡ 2¢
= − −1600 N/ m (0.05 m) (0.012 m) − (0.012 m)
2 (1.41 N · s/ m2 )
m
= 0.258 7
s
u (y = 12 mm) = 0.259 m/ s
Rate of strain (general expression)
µ ¶
du d 1 dp ¡ 2
¢
= − By − y
dy dy 2μ dx
µ ¶µ ¶
1 dp d ¡ ¢
= − By − y 2
2μ dx dy
µ ¶µ ¶
1 dp
= − (B − 2y)
2μ dx
µ ¶µ ¶
du 1 dp
= − (B − 2y)
dy 2μ dx
µ ¶µ ¶
1 N
= − −1600 3 (0.05 m − 2 × 0.012 m)
2 (1.41 N · s/ m2 ) m
−1
= 14.75 s
43
Definition of viscosity
du
τ = μ
dy
µ ¶
N· s ¡ ¢
= 1.41 2 14.75 s−1
m
= 20. 798 Pa
τ (y = 12 mm) = 20.8 Pa
b.) Velocity (at y = 0 mm)
1 dp ¡ ¢
u = − By − y 2
2μ dx
1 ¡ ¢¡ ¢
= − 2
−1600 N/ m3 (0.05 m) (0 m) − (0 m)2
2 (1.41 N · s/ m )
m
= 0.00
s
u (y = 0 mm) = 0 m/ s
µ ¶µ ¶
du 1 dp
= − (B − 2y)
dy 2μ dx
µ ¶µ ¶
1 N
= − −1600 3 (0.05 m − 2 × 0 m)
2 (1.41 N · s/ m2 ) m
−1
= 28.37 s
Shear stress (at y = 0 mm)
du
τ = μ
dy
µ ¶
N· s ¡ ¢
= 1.41 2 28.37 s−1
m
= 40.00 Pa
τ (y = 0 mm) = 40.0 Pa
REVIEW
1. As expected, the velocity at the wall (i.e. at y = 0) is zero due to the no slip
condition.
2. As expected, the shear stress at the wall is larger than the shear stress away
from the wall. This is because shear stress is maximum at the wall and zero
along the centerline (i.e. at y = B/2).
44
Situation:
Laminar flow occurs between two horizontal parallel plates. The velocity distrib-
ution is
1 dp ¡ ¢ y
u=− Hy − y2 + ut
2μ ds H
Pressure p decreases with distance s, and the speed of the upper plate is ut . Note
that ut has a negative value to represent that the upper plate is moving to the left.
Moving plate: y = H.
Stationary plate: y = 0.
Find:
(a) Whether shear stress is greatest at the moving or stationary plate.
(b) Location of zero shear stress.
(c) Derive an expression for plate speed to make the shear stress zero at y = 0.
Sketch:
ut
u
H y
PLAN
By inspection, the rate of strain (du/dy) or slope of the velocity profile is larger at
the moving plate. Thus, we expect shear stress τ to be larger at y = H. To check
this idea, find shear stress using the definition of viscosity: τ = μ (du/dy). Evaluate
and compare the shear stress at the locations y = H and y = 0.
SOLUTION
Part (a)
1. Shear stress, from definition of viscosity
du
τ = μ
dy
∙ ¸
d 1 dp ¡ 2
¢ y
= μ − Hy − y + ut
dy 2μ ds H
∙ ¸
H dp y dp ut
= μ − + +
2μ ds μ ds H
(H − 2y) dp μut
τ (y) = − +
2 ds H
45
Shear stress at y = H
(H − 2H) dp μut
τ (y = H) = − +
µ 2¶ ds H
H dp μut
= + (1)
2 ds H
2. Shear stress at y = 0
(H − 0) dp μut
τ (y = 0) = − +
µ2 ¶ds H
H dp μut
= − + (2)
2 ds H
Since pressure decreases with distance, the pressure gradient dp/ds is negative. Since
the upper wall moves to the left, ut is negative. Thus, maximum shear stress occurs
at y = H because both terms in Eq. (1) have the same sign (they are both negative.)
In other words,
|τ (y = H)| > |τ (y = 0)|
.
Maximum shear stress occur at y = H .
Part (b)
Use definition of viscosity to find the location (y) of zero shear stress
du
τ = μ
dy
dp ut μ
= −μ(1/2μ) (H − 2y) +
ds H
dp ut μ
= −(1/2) (H − 2y) +
ds H
Set τ = 0 and solve for y
dp ut μ
0 = −(1/2) (H − 2y) +
ds H
H μut
y= −
2 Hdp/ds
Part (c)
46
du
τ = μ = 0 at y = 0
dy
du dp ut
= −(1/2μ) (H − 2y) +
dy ds H
dp ut
Then, at y = 0 : du/dy = 0 = −(1/2μ) H +
ds H
dp
Solve for ut : ut = (1/2μ) H 2
ds
dp
Note : because < 0, ut < 0.
ds
47
Situation:
Oxygen at 50 ◦ F and 100 ◦ F.
Find:
μ100
Ratio of viscosities: μ50
.
SOLUTION
Because the viscosity of gases increases with temperature μ100 /μ50 > 1. Correct
choice is (c) .
48
Situation:
A cylinder falls inside a pipe filled with oil.
d = 100 mm, D = 100.5 mm.
= 200 mm, W = 15 N.
Find:
Speed at which the cylinder slides down the pipe.
Properties:
SAE 20W oil (10o C) from Figure A.2: μ = 0.35 N·s/m2 .
SOLUTION
dV
τ = μ
dy
W μVfall
=
πd (D − d)/2
W (D − d)
Vfall =
2πd μ
15 N(0.5 × 10−3 m)
Vfall =
(2π × 0.1 m × 0.2 m × 3.5 × 10−1 N s/ m2 )
Vfall = 0.17m/s
49
Situation:
A disk is rotated very close to a solid boundary with oil in between.
ωa = 1 rad/ s, r2 = 2 cm, r3 = 3 cm.
ωb = 2 rad/ s, rb = 3 cm.
H = 2 mm, μc = 0.01 N s/ m2 .
Find:
(a) Ratio of shear stress at 2 cm to shear stress at 3 cm.
(b) Speed of oil at contact with disk surface.
(c) Shear stress at disk surface.
Assumptions:
Linear velocity distribution: dV /dy = V /y = ωr/y.
SOLUTION
(a) Ratio of shear stresses
dV μωr
τ = μ =
dy y
τ2 μ × 1 × 2/y
=
τ3 μ × 1 × 3/y
τ2 2
=
τ3 3
(b) Speed of oil
V = ωr = 2 × 0.03
V = 0.06m/s
(c) Shear stress at surface
dV 0.06 m/ s
τ = μ = 0.01 N s/ m2 ×
dy 0.002 m
τ = 0.30N/m2
50
Situation:
A disk is rotated in a container of oil to damp the motion of an instrument.
Find:
Derive an equation for damping torque as a function of D, S, ω and μ.
PLAN
Apply the Newton’s law of viscosity.
SOLUTION
Shear stress
dV
τ = μ
dy
μrω
=
s
Find differential torque–on an elemental strip of area of radius r the differential
shear force will be τ dA or τ (2πrdr). The differential torque will be the product of
the differential shear force and the radius r.
dTone side = r[τ (2πrdr)]

h μrω i
= r (2πrdr)
s
2πμω 3
= r dr
³srπμω ´
dTboth sides = 4 r3 dr
s
Integrate
ZD/2
4πμω 3
T = r dr
s
0
1 πμωD4
T =
16 s
51
Situation:
One type of viscometer involves the use of a rotating cylinder inside a fixed cylinder.
Tmin = 50 ◦ F, Tmax = 200 ◦ F.
Find:
(a) Design a viscometer that can be used to measure the viscosity of motor oil.
Assumptions:
Motor oil is SAE 10W-30. Data from Fig A-2: μ will vary from about 2 × 10−4 lbf-
s/ft2 to 8 × 10−3 lbf-s/ft2 .
Assume the only significant shear stress develops between the rotating cylinder and
the fixed cylinder.
Assume we want the maximum rate of rotation (ω) to be 3 rad/s.
Maximum spacing is 0.05 in.
SOLUTION
One possible design solution is given below.
Design decisions:
1. Let h = 4.0 in. = 0.333 ft

2. Let I.D. of fixed cylinder = 9.00 in. = 0.7500 ft.
3. Let O.D. of rotating cylinder = 8.900 in. = 0.7417 ft.
Let the applied torque, which drives the rotating cylinder, be produced by a force
from a thread or small diameter monofilament line acting at a radial distance rs .
Here rs is the radius of a spool on which the thread of line is wound. The applied
force is produced by a weight and pulley system shown in the sketch below.
Pulley
h r
c W
Δr
The relationship between μ, rs , ω, h, and W is now developed.
T = rc Fs (1)
where T = applied torque
52
rc = outer radius of rotating cylinder
Fs = shearing force developed at the outer radius of the rotating cylinder but Fs =
τ As where As = area in shear = 2πrc h
τ = μdV /dy ≈ μ∆V /∆r where ∆V = rc ω and ∆r = spacing
Then T = rc (μ∆V /∆r)(2πrc h)
rc ω
= rc μ( )(2πrc h) (2)
∆r
But the applied torque T = W rs so Eq. (2) become
h
W rs = rc3 μω(2π)
∆r
Or
W rs ∆r
μ= (3)
2πωhrc3
The weight W will be arbitrarily chosen (say 2 or 3 oz.) and ω will be determined by
measuring the time it takes the weight to travel a given distance. So rs ω = Vfall or
ω = Vfall /rs . Equation (3) then becomes
µ ¶µ 2¶µ ¶
W rs ∆r
μ=
Vf rc3 2πh
In our design let rs = 2 in. = 0.1667 ft. Then
µ ¶
W (0.1667)2 0.004167
μ =
Vf (.3708)3 (2π × .3333)
µ ¶µ ¶
W 0.02779
μ =
V 0.05098
µ f¶
W
μ = (1.085 × 10−3 ) lbf · s/ft2
Vf
Example: If W = 2oz. = 0.125lb. and Vf is measured to be 0.24 ft/s then
0.125
μ = (1.085 × 10−3 ) lbf s/ ft2
0.24
= 0.564 × 10−4 lbf · s/ ft2
REVIEW
Other things that could be noted or considered in the design:
1. Specify dimensions of all parts of the instrument.
2. Neglect friction in bearings of pulley and on shaft of cylinder.
3. Neglect weight of thread or monofilament line.
4. Consider degree of accuracy.
5. Estimate cost of the instrument.
53
Situation:
Elasticity of ethyl alcohol and water.
Eethyl = 1.06 × 109 Pa.
Ewater = 2.15 × 109 Pa.
Find:
Which substance is easier to compress, and why.
PLAN
Consider bulk density equation.
SOLUTION
The bulk modulus of elasticity is given by:
V ∆p
E = −∆p =
∆V dρ/ρ
This means that elasticity is inversely related to change in density, and to the negative
change in volume.
Therefore, the liquid with the smaller elasticity is easier to compress.
Ethyl alcohol is easier to compress because it has the smaller elasticity , because elas-
ticity is inversely related to change in density.
54
Situation:
Pressure is applied to a mass of water.
V = 2000 cm3 , p = 2 × 106 N/ m2 .
Find:
Volume after pressure applied (cm3 ).
Properties:
From Table A.5, E = 2.2 × 109 Pa
PLAN
1. Use modulus of elasticity equation to calculate volume change resulting from
pressure change.
2. Calculate final volume based on original volume and volume change.
SOLUTION
1. Elasticity equation
V
E = −∆p
∆V
∆p
∆V = − V
∙E ¸
(2 × 106 ) Pa
= − 2000 cm3
(2.2 × 109 ) Pa
= −1.82 cm3
2. Final volume
V f inal = V + ∆V
= (2000 − 1.82) cm3
V f inal = 1998 cm3
55
Situation:
Water is subjected to an increase in pressure.
Find:
Pressure increase needed to reduce volume by 2%.
Properties:
From Table A.5, E = 2.2 × 109 Pa.
PLAN
Use modulus of elasticity equation to calculate pressure change required to achieve
the desired volume change.
SOLUTION Modulus of elasticity equation
V
E = −∆p
∆V
∆V
∆p = E
V µ ¶
¡ 9
¢ −0.01 × V
= − 2.2 × 10 Pa
V
¡ 9
¢
= 2.2 × 10 Pa (0.02)
= 4.4 × 107 Pa
∆p = 44 MPa
56
Situation:
Open tank of water.
T20 = 20 ◦ C, T80 = 80 ◦ C.
V = 400 l, d = 3 m.
Hint: Volume change is due to temperature.
Find:
Percentage change in volume.
Water level rise for given diameter.
Properties:
From Table A.5: ρ20 = 998 mkg3 ,and ρ80 = 972 mkg3 .
PLAN
This problem is NOT solved using the elasticity equation, because the volume change
results from a change in temperature causing a density change, NOT a change in
pressure. The tank is open, so the pressure at the surface of the tank is always
atmospheric.
SOLUTION
a. Percentage change in volume must be calculated for this mass of water at two
temperatures.
For the first temperature, the volume is given as V 20 = 400 L = 0.4 m3 .Its density is
ρ20 = 998 mkg3 . Therefore, the mass for both cases is given by.
kg
m = 998 × 0.4 m3
m3
= 399.2 kg
For the second temperature, that mass takes up a larger volume:
m 399.2 kg
V 80 = =
ρ 972 mkg3
= 0.411 m3
Therefore, the percentage change in volume is
0.411 m3 − 0.4 m3
= 0.0275
0.4 m3
volume % change = = 2.8%
b. If the tank has D = 3 m, then V = πr2 h = 7.68h.Therefore:
57
h20 = .052 m
h80 = .054 m
And water level rise is 0.054 − 0.52 m = 0.002 m = 2 mm.

water level rise is = 0.002 m = 2 mm
REVIEW
Density changes can result from temperature changes, as well as pressure changes.
58
Situation:
Surface tension is an energy/area.
Find:
Energy Force
Show that Area
equals Length
.
Energy force · distance

=
Area " area #
L
M T2 · L
=
L2
∙ ¸
M
=
T2
" #
Force M TL2
=
Length L
∙ ¸
M
=
T2
Energy Force
£M ¤
The primary dimensions for Area
and Length
are both T2
, so they are equal.
59
Situation:
Very small spherical droplet of water.
Find:
Pressure inside.
SOLUTION
Refer to Fig. 2-6(a). The surface tension force, 2πrσ, will be resisted by the pressure
force acting on the cut section of the spherical droplet or
p(πr2 ) = 2πrσ
2σ
p =
r
4σ
p=
d
60
Situation:
A spherical soap bubble.
Inside radius R, wall-thickness t, surface tension σ.
Special case: R = 4 mm.
Find:
Derive a formula for the pressure difference across the bubble
Pressure difference for bubble with R = 4 mm.
Assumptions:
The effect of thickness is negligible, and the surface tension is that of pure water.
PLAN
Apply equilibrium, then the surface tension force equation.
SOLUTION
Force balance
2 x 2πRσ
Surface tension force
X
F = 0
∆pπR2 − 2(2πRσ) = 0
Formula for pressure difference

4σ
∆p =
R
Pressure difference
4 × 7.3 × 10−2 N/m

∆p4mm rad. =
0.004 m
∆p4mm rad. = 73.0 N/m2
61
Situation:
A water bug is balanced on the surface of a water pond.
n = 6 legs, = 5 mm/leg.
Find:
Maximum mass of bug to avoid sinking.
Properties:
Surface tension of water, from Table A.4, σ = 0.073 N/m.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Force equilibrium
Upward force due to surface tension = Weight of Bug
FT = mg
To find the force of surface tension (FT ), consider the cross section of one leg of the
bug:
Cross section
of bug leg
Surface tension
force on one
θ side of leg
F F
Assume θ is small
Then cos θ =1; F cos θ= F
FT = (2/leg)(6 legs)σ
= 12σ
= 12(0.073 N/m)(0.005 m)
= 0.00438 N
Apply equilibrium
FT − mg = 0
FT 0.00438 N
m = =
g 9.81 m2 / s
= 0.4465 × 10−3 kg
m = 0.447 × 10−3 kg
62
Situation:
A water column in a glass tube is used to measure pressure.
d1 = 0.25 in, d2 = 1/8 in, d3 = 1/32 in.
Find:
Height of water column due to surface tension effects for all diameters.
Properties:
From Table A.4: surface tension of water is 0.005 lbf/ft.
SOLUTION
4σ 4 × 0.005 lbf/ ft 3.21 × 10−4

∆h = = = ft.
γd 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × d d
1 1 3.21 × 10−4 ft
d = in. = ft.; ∆h = = 0.0154 ft. = 0.185 in.
4 48 1/48
1 1 3.21 × 10−4 ft
d = in. = ft.; ∆h = = 0.0308 ft. = 0.369 in.
8 96 1/96
1 1 3.21 × 10−4 ft
d = in. = ft.; ∆h = = 0.123 ft.= 1.48 in.
32 384 1/384
63
Situation:
Two vertical glass plates
y = 1 mm
Find:
Capillary rise (h) between the plates.
Properties:
From Table A.4, surface tension of water is 7.3 × 10−2 N/m.
PLAN
SOLUTION
θ
y
σ σ
Equilibrium
X
Fy = 0
Force due to surface tension = Weight of fluid that has been pulled upward
(2 ) σ = (h t) γ
Solve for capillary rise (h)
2σ − h tγ = 0
2σ
h =
γt
2 × (7.3 × 10−2 N/ m)
h =
9810 N/ m3 × 0.001 m
= 0.0149 m
h = 14.9 mm
64
Situation:
A spherical water drop.
d = 1 mm
Find:
Pressure inside the droplet (N/m2 )
Properties:
From Table A.4, surface tension of water is 7.3 × 10−2 N/m
PLAN
SOLUTION
Equilibrium (half the water droplet)
Force due to pressure = Force due to surface tension

pA = σL
∆pπR2 = 2πRσ
Solve for pressure
2σ
∆p =
R
2 × 7.3 × 10−2 N/ m
∆p =
(0.5 × 10−3 m)
∆p = 292 N/m2
65
Situation:
A tube employing capillary rise is used to measure temperature of water
T0 = 0 ◦ C, T100 = 100 ◦ C
σ 0 = 0.0756 N/ m, σ100 = 0.0589 N/ m
Find:
Size the tube (this means specify diameter and length).
PLAN
Apply equilibrium and the surface tension force equation.
SOLUTION
The elevation in a column due to surface tension is
4σ
∆h =
γd
where γ is the specific weight and d is the tube diameter. For the change in surface
tension due to temperature, the change in column elevation would be
4∆σ 4 × 0.0167 N/ m 6.8 × 10−6

∆h = = =
γd 9810 N/ m3 × d d
The change in column elevation for a 1-mm diameter tube would be 6.8 mm . Spe-
cial equipment, such the optical system from a microscope, would have to be used to
measure such a small change in deflection It is unlikely that smaller tubes made of
transparent material can be purchased to provide larger deflections.
66
Situation:
A soap bubble and a droplet of water of equal diameter falling in air
d = 2 mm, σbubble = σ droplet
Find:
Which has the greater pressure inside.
SOLUTION
The soap bubble will have the greatest pressure because there are two surfaces (two
surface tension forces) creating the pressure within the bubble. The correct choice is
a)
67
Situation:
A hemispherical drop of water is suspended under a surface
Find:
Diameter of droplet just before separation
Properties:
Table A.5 (20 ◦ C): γ = 9790 N/ m3 , σ = 0.073 N/ m.
SOLUTION
Equilibrium
Weight of droplet = Force due to surface tension

µ ¶
πD3
γ = (πD) σ
12
Solve for D
12σ
D2 =
γ
12 × (0.073 N/m)
= = 8. 948 × 10−5 m2
9790 N/m3
D = 9. 459 × 10−3 m
D = 9.46 mm
68
Situation:
Surface tension is being measured by suspending liquid from a ring
Di = 10 cm, Do = 9.5 cm
W = 10 g, F = 16 g
Find:
Surface tension
PLAN
1. Force equilibrium on the fluid suspended in the ring. For force due to surface
tension, use the form of the equation provided in the text for the special case of a
ring being pulled out of a liquid.
2. Solve for surface tension - all the other forces are known.
SOLUTION 1. Force equilibrium
(Upward force) = (Weight of fluid) + (Force due to surface tension)

F = W + σ(πDi + πDo )
2. Solve for surface tension

F −W
σ =
π(Di + Do )
(0.016 − 0.010) kg × 9.81 m/ s2
σ =
π(0.1 + 0.095) m
kg
= 9.61 × 10−2 2
s
σ = 0.0961 N/m
69
Situation:
A liquid reaches the vapor pressure
Find:
What happens to the liquid
SOLUTION
If a liquid reaches its vapor pressure for a given temperature, it boils .
70
Find:
How does vapor pressure change with increasing temperature?
SOLUTION
The vapor pressure increases with increasing temperature . To get an everyday feel
for this, note from the Appendix that the vapor pressure of water at 212 ◦ F (100 ◦ C)
is 101 kPa (14.7 psia). To get water to boil at a lower temperature, you would have
to exert a vacuum on the water. To keep it from boiling until a higher temperature,
you would have to pressurize it.
71
Situation:
Watar at 60 ◦ F
Find:
The pressure that must be imposed for water to boil
Properties:
Water (60 ◦ F), Table A.5: Pv = 0.363 psia
SOLUTION
The pressure to which the fluid must be exposed is P = 0.363 psia. This is lower
than atmospheric pressure. Therefore, assuming atmospheric pressure is 14.7 psia
gage, or 14.7 psig, the pressure needed could also be reported as P = -14.34 psig .
72
Situation:
T = 20 ◦ C,fluid is water.
Find:
The pressure that must be imposed to cause boiling
Properties:
Water (60 ◦ F), Table A.5: Pv = 2340 Pa abs
SOLUTION
Bubbles will be noticed to be forming when P = Pv .
P = 2340 Pa abs
73
Situation:
Water in a closed tank
T = 20 ◦ C, p = 10400 Pa
Find:
Whether water will bubble into the vapor phase (boil).
Properties:
From Table A.5, at T = 20 ◦ C, Pv = 2340 Pa abs
SOLUTION
The tank pressure is 10,400 Pa abs, and Pv = 2340 Pa abs. So the tank pressure is
higher than the Pv . Therefore the water will not boil .
REVIEW
The water can be made to boil at this temperature only if the pressure is reduced
to 2340 Pa abs. Or, the water can be made to boil at this pressure only if the
temperature is raised to approximately 50 ◦ C.
74
Situation:
The boiling temperature of water decreases with increasing elevation
∆p
∆T
= −3.1
oC
kPa
.
Find:
Boiling temperature at an altitude of 3000 m
Properties:
T = 100o C, p = 101 kN/ m2 .
z3000 = 3000 m, p3000 = 69 kN/ m2 .
Assumptions:
Assume that vapor pressure versus boiling temperature is a linear relationship.
PLAN
Develop a linear equation for boiling temperature as a function of elevation.
SOLUTION
Let BT = "Boiling Temperature." Then, BT as a function of elevation is
µ ¶
∆BT
BT (3000 m) = BT (0 m) + ∆p
∆p
Thus,
µ ¶
◦ −1.0 ◦ C
BT (3000 m) = 100 C + (101 − 69) kPa
3.1 kPa
= 89. 677 ◦ C
Boiling Temperature (3000 m) = 89.7 ◦ C
75
Apply the grid method to cases a, b, c and d.
a.)
Situation:
Pressure values need to be converted.
Find:
Calculate the gage pressure (kPa) corresponding to 8 in. H2 O (vacuum).
Solution:
b.)
Situation:
Find:
Calculate the gage pressure (psig) corresponding to 120 kPa-abs.
Properties:
patm = 14.70psi.
Solution: µ ¶µ ¶
120 kPa 14.70 psi
pabs = = 17.4 psia
1 101.3 kPa
pgage = pabs − patm = (17.4 psia) − (14.70 psia) = 2.71 psi
pgage = 2.71 psig
c.)
Situation:
Find:
Calculate the absolute pressure (psia) corresponding to a pressure of 0.5 bar (gage).
Properties:
patm = 14.70psi.
Solution:
1
µ ¶µ ¶
0.5 bar 14.70 psi
pgage = = 7.25 psig
1 1.013 bar
pabs = patm + pgage = (7.25 psig) + (14.70 psia) = 21.9 psia

pabs = 21.9 psia
d.)
Situation:
Find:
Calculate the pressure (kPa-abs) corresponding to a blood pressure of 120 mm-Hg.
Properties:
Solution:
µ ¶µ ¶
120 mm-Hg 101.3 kPa
pgage = = 17.00 kPa-gage
1 760 mm-Hg
pabs = patm + pgage = (101.3 kPa) + (17.00 kPa-gage) = 118 kPagage

pabs = 118 kPa gage
2
Apply the grid method to:
a.)
Situation:
A sphere contains an ideal gas.
Find:
Calculate the density of helium at a gage pressure of 20 in. H2 O.
Properties:
From Table A.2: Rhelium = 2077 J/ kg · K.
Solution:
µ ¶µ ¶
20 in. H2O 248.8 Pa
pabs = patm + pgage = 101.3 kPa + = 106.3 kPa
1 1.0 in. H2O
Ideal gas law:
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
p 106.3 kPa kg K 1 1000 Pa J N
ρ= =
RT 1 2077 J 293.2 K 1 kPa Nm Pa m2
ρ = 0.175 kg/m3
b.)
Situation:
A sphere contains an ideal gas.
Find:
Calculate the density of argon at a vacuum pressure of 3 psi.
Properties:
From Table A.2: Rmethane = 518 J/ kg · K.
Solution:
µ ¶µ ¶
3 psi 101.3 kPa
pabs = patm − pvacuum = 101.3 kPa − = 80.62 kPa
1 14.696 psi
Ideal gas law:
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
p 80.62 kPa kg K 1 1000 Pa J N
ρ= =
RT 1 518 J 293.2 K 1 kPa Nm Pa m2
ρ = 0.531 kg/m3
3
Using Section 3.1 and other resources, answer the questions below. Strive for depth,
clarity, and accuracy while also combining sketches, words and equations in ways that
enhance the effectiveness of your communication.
a. What are five important facts that engineers need to know about pressure?
• Pressure is often expressed using "gage pressure," where gage pressure is the
difference between local atmospheric pressure and actual pressure.
• Primary dimensions of pressure are M/LT 2 .
• Vacuum pressure = negative gage pressure. Negative vacuum pressure = gage

pressure.
• Pressure is often expressed as length of a fluid column; e.g. the pressure of air
in a duct is 10 inches of water column.
• pressure is defined using a derivative
b. What are five common instances in which people use gage pressure?
4
• car tire pressure is expressed as gage pressure.
• blood pressure measured by a doctor is a gage pressure.
• the pressure inside a pressure cooker is expressed as a gage pressure.
• a Bourdon-tube pressure gage gives a pressure reading as a gage pressure.
• the pressure that a scuba diver feels is usually expressed as a gage pressure; e.g.
a diver at a depth of 10 m will experience a pressure of 1 atm.
c. What are the most common units for pressure?

• Pa, psi, psf
• length of a column of water(in. H20; ft H2O)
• length of a column of mercury (mm Hg; in. Hg)
• bar
d. Why is pressure defined using a derivative?

Pressure is defined as a derivative because pressure can vary at every point along a
surface.
e. How is pressure similar to shear stress? How does pressure differ from shear stress?
• Similarities
— Both pressure and shear stress give a ratio of force to area.

— Both pressure and shear stress apply at a point (they are defined using a
derivative.
— Pressure and shear stress have the same units.
— Both pressure and shear stress are types of "stress."
• Differences: (the easy way to show differences is to make a table as shown

below)
Attribute Pressure Shear Stress
direction of associ- associated with force normal associated with force tan-
ated force to area gent to an area
presence in a hydro- pressure is non-zero shear stress is zero
static fluid
typical magnitude much larger than shear much smaller than pressure
stress
main physical cause associated with weight of associated with motion of
fluid & motion of fluid (non- fluid (viscous effects)
viscous effects)
5
Situation:
A Crosby gage tester is applied to calibrate a pressure gage.
Indicated pressure on the gage is p = 200 kPa.
W = 140 N, D = 0.03 m.
Find:
Percent error in gage reading.
PLAN
1. Calculate the pressure that the gage should be indicating (true pressure).
2. Compare this true pressure with the actual pressure.
SOLUTION
1. True pressure
F
ptrue =
A
140 N
=
(π/4 × 0.032 ) m2
= 198, 049 kPa
2. Percent error
(precorded − ptrue ) 100
% Error =
ptrue
(200 kPa − 198 kPa) 100
=
198 kPa
= 1.0101%
% Error = 1.01%
6
Situation:
A hydraulic machine is used to provide a mechanical advantage.
m1 = 0.025 kg, m2 = 7500 kg.
Find:
(a) Derive an algebraic equation for the mechanical advantage.
(b) Calculate D1 and D2 so the mouse can support the elephant.
Assumptions:
• Neglect the mass of the pistons.
• Neglect the friction between the piston and the cylinder wall.
• The pistons are at the same elevation; thus, the pressure acting on the bottom
of each piston is the same.
• A mouse can fit onto a piston of diameter D1 = 70 mm.
PLAN
1. Define "mechanical advantage."
2. Derive an equation for the pressure acting on piston 1.
3. Derive an equation for the pressure acting on piston 2.
4. Derive an equation for mechanical advantage by combining steps 2 and 3.
5. Calculate D2 by using the result of step 4.
SOLUTION
1. Mechanical advantage.
½ ¾
Mechanical Weight "lifted" by the mouse W2
= = (1)
advantage Weight of the mouse W1
where W2 is the weight of the elephant, and W1 is the weight of the mouse.
7
2. Equilibrium (piston 1):
¶ µ
πD12
W1 = p
4
µ ¶
4
p = W1 (2)
πD12
3. Equilibrium (piston 2):

¶ µ
πD22
W2 = p
4
µ ¶
4
p = W2 (3)
πD22
4. Combine Eqs. (2) and (3):

µ ¶ µ ¶
4 4
p = W1 = W2 (5)
πD12 πD22
Solve Eq. (5) for mechanical advantage:
³ ´2
W2 D2
W1
= D1
5. Calculate D2 .
µ ¶2
W2 D2
=
W1 D1
µ ¶2
(7500 kg) (9.80 m/ s2 ) D2
= 300000 =
(0.025 kg) (9.80 m/ s2 ) 0.07 m
D2 = 38.3 m
√
The ratio of (D2 /D1 ) needs to be 300, 000. If D1 = 70 mm, then D2 = 38.3 m.
REVIEW
1. Notice. The mechanical advantage varies as the diameter ratio squared.
2. The mouse needs a mechanical advantage of 300,000:1. This results in a piston
that is impractical (diameter = 38.3 m = 126 ft !).
8
Situation:
To work the problem, data was recorded from a parked vehicle. Relevant infor-
mation:
• Left front tire of a parked VW Passat 2003 GLX Wagon (with 4-motion).
• Bridgestone snow tires on the vehicle.
• Inflation pressure = 36 psig. This value was found by using a conventional

"stick-type" tire pressure gage.
• Contact Patch: 5.88 in × 7.5 in. The 7.5 inch dimension is across the tread.
These data were found by measuring with a ruler.
• Weight on the front axle = 2514 lbf. This data was recorded from a sticker
on the driver side door jamb. The owners manual states that this is maximum
weight (car + occupants + cargo).
Assumptions:
• The weight on the car axle without a load is 2000 lbf. Thus, the load acting
on the left front tire is 1000 lbf.
• The thickness of the tire tread is 1 inch. The thickness of the tire sidewall is
1/2 inch.
• The contact path is flat and rectangular.
• Neglect any tensile force carried by the material of the tire.
Find:
Measure the size of the contact patch.
Calculate the size of the contact patch.
Compare the measurement with the calculation and discuss.
PLAN
To estimate the area of contact, apply equilibrium to the contact patch.
SOLUTION
Equilibrium in the vertical direction applied to a section of the car tire
pi Ai = Fpavement
9
where pi is the inflation pressure, Ai is the area of the contact patch on the inside of
the tire and Fpavement is the normal force due to the pavement. Thus,
Fpavement
Ai =
pi
1000 lbf
=
36 lbf/ in2
= 27.8 in2
Comparison. The actual contact patch has an area Ao = 5.88 in × 7.5 in = 44.1 in2 .
Using the assumed thickness of rubber, this would correspond to an inside ¡ contact
¢
area of Ao = 4.88 in× 5.5 in¡= 26.8 in¢2 .Thus, the predicted contact area 27.8 in2 and
the measured contact area 26.8 in2 agree to within about 1 part in 25 or about 4%.
REVIEW
The comparison between predicted and measured contact area is highly dependent
on the assumptions made.
10
Problem 3.7
Apply the grid method to calculations involving the hydrostatic equation:
∆p = γ∆z = ρg∆z
Note: Unit cancellations are not shown in this solution.
a.)
Situation:
Pressure varies with elevation.
∆z = 10 ft.
Find:
Pressure change (kPa).
Properties:
ρ = 90 lb/ ft3 .
Solution:
Convert density to units of kg/m3 :
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
90 lbm 35.315 ft3 1.0 kg kg
ρ= 3 3
= 1442 3
ft m 2.2046 lbm m
Calculate the pressure change:

µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
1442 kg 9.81 m 10 ft ³ m ´ Pa · m · s2
∆p = ρg∆z =
m3 s2 1.0 3.208 ft kg
∆p = 43.1 kPa
b.)
Situation:
∆z = 22 m, S = 0.8.
Find:
Pressure change (psf).
Properties:
γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
Solution:
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
(0.8 · 62.4) lbf 22 m 3.2808 ft
∆p = γ∆z = S γ H2O ∆z =
ft3 1.0 m
∆p = 3600 psf
11
c.)
Situation:
∆z = 1000 ft.
Find:
Pressure change (in H2 O).
Properties:
air, ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
Solution:
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶µ ¶
1.2 kg 9.81 m 1000 ft ³ m ´ Pa · m · s2 in.-H2O
∆p = ρg∆z =
m3 s2 1.0 3.281 ft kg 248.4 Pa
∆p = 14.8 in H2 O
d.)
Situation:
∆p = 1/6 atm, S = 13.
Find:
Elevation change (mm).
Properties:
γ = 9810 N/ m3 , patm = 101.3 kPa.
Solution:
d. Calculate ∆z (mm) corresponding to S = 13 and ∆p = 1/6 atm.
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
∆p ∆p 1/6 atm m3 101.3 × 103 Pa 1000 mm
∆z = = =
γ Sγ H2O 1.0 (13 · 9810) N atm 1.0 m
∆z = 132 mm
12
Problem 3.8
a. What does hydrostatic mean? How do engineers identify if a fluid is hydrostatic?

• Each fluid particle within the body is in force equilibrium(z-direction) with the
net force due to pressure balancing the weight of the particle. Here, the z-
direction is aligned with the gravity vector.
• Engineers establish hydrostatic conditions by analyzing the forces acting in the

z-direction.
b. What are common forms of the hydrostatic equation? Are the forms equivalent
or are they different?
• There are three common forms; these are given in Table F.2 (front of book).
• These equations are equivalent because you can start with any of the equations
and derive the other two.
c. What is a datum? How do engineers establish a datum?

• A datum is a fixed reference point from which elevations are measured.
13
• Engineers select a datum that makes calculations easy. For example, select
a datum on the free surface of a river below a dam so that all elevations are
positive.
d. What are the main ideas of Eq. (3.5)? That is, what is the meaning of this
equation?
pz = p + γz = constant
This equation means that the sum of (p + γz) has the same numerical value at every
location within a body of fluid.
e. What assumptions need to be satisfied to apply the hydrostatic equation?
pz = p + γz = constant
This equation is valid when
• the density of the fluid is constant at all locations.
• equilibrium is satisfied in the z-direction (net force of pressure balances weight

of the fluid particle.
14
Problem 3.9
Apply the grid method to each situation below. Unit cancellations are not shown in
these solutions.
a.)
Situation:
∆z = 8 ft.
Find:
Pressure change (Pa).
Properties:
air, ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
Solution:
∆p = ρg∆z
∆p = ρg∆z
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
1.2 kg 9.81 m 8 ft ³ m ´ Pa · m · s2
=
m3 s2 1.0 3.281 ft kg
∆p = 28.7 Pa
b.)
Situation:
Pressure increases with depth in the ocean.
Pressure reading is 2 atm gage.
Find:
Water depth (m).
Properties:
Seawater, Table A.4, S = 1.03, γ = 10070 N/ m3 .
Solution:
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
∆p 2.0 atm m3 101.3 × 103 Pa N
∆z = =
γ 1.0 10070 N atm Pa m2
∆z = 20.1 m
c.)
Situation:
Pressure decreases with elevation in the atmosphere.
∆z = 1200 ft.
Find:
Pressure (mbar).
15
Assumptions:
Density of air is constant.
Properties:
Air, ρ = 1.1 kg/ m3 .
Solution:
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶ µ ¶
1.1 kg 9.81 m −1200 ft ³ m ´ Pa · m · s2
∆p = ρg∆z = = −3947 Pa
m3 s2 1.0 3.281 ft kg
Pressure at summit:
µ ¶µ ¶
3947 Pa 10−2 mbar
psummit = pbase + ∆p = 940 mbar −
1.0 Pa
psummit = 901 mbar (absolute)

d.)
Situation:
Pressure increases with depth in a lake.
∆z = 350 m.
Find:
Pressure (MPa).
Properties:
Water, γ = 9810 N/ m3 .
Solution:
∆p = γ∆z
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
9810 N 350 m Pa · m2 MPa
=
m3 1.0 N 106 Pa
pmax = 3.4 MPa (gage) [about 34 atmospheres]

e.)
Situation:
Pressure increase with water depth in a standpipe.
∆z = 60 m.
Find:
Pressure (kPa).
Properties:
Water, γ = 9810 N/ m3 .
Solution:
16
∆p = γ∆z
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
9810 N 60 m Pa · m2 kPa
=
m3 1.0 N 103 Pa
pmax = 589 kPa (gage) [nearly 6 atmospheres]
17
Situation:
Air above a long tube is pressurized.
Initial state: pair1 = 50 kPa-vacuum
Final state: pair2 = 25 kPa-vacuum.
Find:
Will h increase or decrease?
The change in water column height (∆h) in meters.
Assumptions:
Atmospheric pressure is 100 kPa.
Properties:
Water (20 ◦ C), Table A.5, γ = 9790 N/ m3 .
PLAN
Since pressure increases, the water column height will decrease. Use absolute pressure
in the hydrostatic equation.
1. Find h (initial state) by applying the hydrostatic equation.
2. Find h (final state) by applying the hydrostatic equation.
3. Find the change in height by ∆h = h(final state) − h (initial state) .
SOLUTION
1. Initial State. Locate point 1 on the reservoir surface; point 2 on the water surface
inside the tube:
p1 p2
+ z1 = + z2
γ γ
100 kPa 50 kPa
3
+0 = +h
9790 N/ m 9790 N/ m3
h (initial state) = 5.107 m
18
2. Final State:
p1 p2
+ z1 = + z2
γ γ
100 kPa 75 kPa
3
+0 = +h
9790 N/ m 9790 N/ m3
h (final state) = 2.554 m
3. Change in height:
∆h = h(final state) − h (initial state)

= 2.554 m − 5.107 m = −2.55 m
The height has decreased by 2.55 m.
REVIEW
Tip! In the hydrostatic equation, use gage pressure or absolute pressure. Using
vacuum pressure will give a wrong answer.
19
Situation:
A closed tank contains air, oil, and water.
Find:
Specific gravity of oil.
Pressure at C (kPa-gage).
Sketch:
0.5 m Air A pA = 50.0 kPa
1.0 m Oil
B pB = 58.53 kPa
0.5 m
1.0 m Water
C pC = ?
0.5 m
T = 10°C
CROWE: Fluid Mechanics 8e

Prob. 3-7 w-55
Properties:
PLAN
1. Find the oil specific gravity by applying the hydrostatic equation from A to B.
2. Apply the hydrostatic equation to the water.
3. Apply the hydrostatic equation to the oil.
4. Find the pressure at C by combining results for steps 2 and 3.
SOLUTION
1. Hydrostatic equation (from oil surface to elevation B):
pA + γzA = pB + γzB
50, 000 N/m + γ oil (1 m ) = 58, 530 N/m2 + γ oil (0 m)
2
γ oil = 8530 N/m3
Specific gravity:
γ oil 8530 N/m3
S= =
γ water 9810 N/m3
Soil = 0.87
2. Hydrostatic equation (in water):
pc = (pbtm of oil ) + γ water (1 m)
20
3. Hydrostatic equation (in oil):
pbtm of oil = (58, 530 Pa + γ oil × 0.5 m)
4. Combine equations:
pc = (58, 530 Pa + γ oil × 0.5 m) + γ water (1 m)

¡ ¢
= 58, 530 Pa + 8530 N/ m3 × 0.5 m + 9810 N/ m3 (1 m)
= 72, 605 N/m2
pc = 72.6 kPa-gage
21
Situation:
A manometer is described in the problem statement.
dleft = 1 mm, dright = 3 mm.
Find:
Water surface level in the left tube as compared to the right tube.
SOLUTION
(a) The water surface level in the left tube will be higher because of greater surface
tension effects for that tube.
22
Situation:
A force is applied to a piston.
F1 = 200 N, d1 = 4 cm, d2 = 10 cm.
Find:
Force resisted by piston.
Assumptions:
Neglect piston weight.
PLAN
Apply the hydrostatic equation and equilibrium.
SOLUTION
1. Equilibrium (piston 1)
F1 = p1 A1
F1
p1 =
A1
4 × 200 N
=
π · (0.04 m)2 m2
= 1.592 × 105 Pa
2. Hydrostatic equation
p2 + γz2 = p1 + γz1
p2 = p1 + (Sγ water ) (z1 − z2 )
¡ ¢
= 1.592 × 105 Pa + 0.85 × 9810 N/ m3 (−2 m)
= 1.425 × 105 Pa
23
‫)‪3. Equilibrium (piston 2‬‬
‫‪F2 = p2 A2‬‬
‫‪Ã‬‬ ‫!‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫¡‬ ‫‪¢‬‬ ‫‪π‬‬ ‫‪(0.1‬‬ ‫)‪m‬‬
‫‪= 1.425 × 105 N/ m2‬‬
‫‪4‬‬
‫‪= 1119 N‬‬
‫‪F2 = 1120 N‬‬
‫‪24‬‬
‫ﻟﺠﻨﺔ اﳌﻴﻜﺎﻧﻴﻚ واﻷوﺗﻮﺗﺮوﻧﻜﺲ‪-‬اﻹﺗﺠﺎه اﻹﺳﻼﻣﻲ‬
Situation:
A diver goes underwater.
∆z = 50 m.
Find:
Gage pressure (kPa).
Ratio of pressure to normal atmospheric pressure.
Properties:
PLAN
1. Apply the hydrostatic equation.
2. Calculate the pressure ratio (use absolute pressure values).
SOLUTION
p = γ∆z = 9790 N/ m3 × 50 m
= 489, 500 N/m2
p = 490 kPa gage

2. Calculate pressure ratio
p50 489.5 kPa + 101.3 kPa
=
patm 101.3 kPa
p50
= 5.83
patm
25
Situation:
Water and kerosene are in a tank.
zwater = 1 m, zkerosene = 0.75 m.
Find:
Gage pressure at bottom of tank (kPa-gage).
Properties:
Water (20 ◦ C), Table A.5, γ w = 9790 N/m3 .
Kerosene (20 ◦ C) , Table A.4, γ k = 8010 N/m3 .
SOLUTION
Manometer equation (add up pressure from the top of the tank to the bottom of the
tank).
patm + γ k (0.75 m) + γ w (1.0 m) = pbtm
Solve for pressure
pbtm = 0 + γ k (0.75 m) + γ w (1.0 m)

¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= 8010 N/ m3 (0.75 m) + 9790 N/ m3 (1.0 m)
= 15.8 kPa
pbtm = 15.8 kPa gage
26
Situation:
A hydraulic lift is being designed.
Wmax = 10 ton = 20000 lbf, Wparts = 1000 lbf.
∆L = 6 ft, ∆t = 20 s.
Diameter range: 2 − 8 in.
Pressure range: 200 − 3000 psig.
Available pumping capacity: 5, 10, 15 gpm.
Find:
Select a hydraulic pump capacity (gpm).
Select a cylinder diameter (D).
PLAN
Apply equilibrium to find the smallest bore diameter (D) that works. Then find the
largest bore diameter that works by considering the lift speed requirement. Select
bore and pump combinations that meet the desired specifications.
SOLUTION
Equilibrium (piston)
F = pA
27
where F = 21, 000 lbf is the load that needs to be lifted and p is the pressure on the
bottom of the piston. Maximum pressure is 3000 psig so minimum bore area is
F
Amin =
pmax
21, 000 lbf
=
3000 in2
= 7.0 in2
Corresponding minimum bore diameter is
r
4
D = A
π
Dmin = 2.98 in
The pump needs to provide enough flow to raise the lift in 20 seconds.
A∆L = V̇ ∆t
where A is the bore area, ∆L is stroke (lift height), V̇ is the volume/time of fluid
provided by the pump, and ∆t is the time. Thus, the maximum bore area is
V̇ ∆t
Amax =
∆L
¡ 3¢
Conversion from gallons to cubic feet ft : 7.48 gal=1 ft3 . Thus, the maximum
bore diameter for three pumps (to meet the lift speed specification) is given in the
table below.
pump (gpm) pump (cfm) A (ft2 ) Dmax (in)
5 0.668 0.037 2.61
10 1.337 0.074 3.68
15 2.01 0.116 4.61
Since the minimum bore diameter is 2.98 in., the 5 gpm pump will not work. The 10
gpm pump can be used with a 3 in. bore. The 15 gpm pump can be used with a 3
or 4 in. bore.
1.) The 10 gpm pump will work with a bore diameter between 3.0 and 3.6 inches.
2.) The 15 gpm pump will work with a bore diameter between 3.0 and 4.6 inches.
REVIEW
1. These are preliminary design values. Other issues such as pressure drop in the
hydraulic lines and valves would have to be considered.
2. We recommend selecting the 15 gpm pump and a 4.5 inch bore to provide
latitude to handle pressure losses, and to reduce the maximum system pressure.
28
Situation:
Initial State: Water levels as shown. Valve in open.
Final State: Water is added to the tank with the valve closed.
Find:
Increase of water level ∆ in manometer (in meters).
Properties:
Water (20 ◦ C), Table A.5, γ w =9790 N/m3 .
patm = 100 kPa.
Assumptions: Ideal gas.
PLAN
Apply the hydrostatic equation and the ideal gas law.
SOLUTION
Ideal gas law (mole form; apply to air in the manometer tube)
pV = n<T
Because the number of moles (n) and temperature (T ) are constants, the ideal gas
reduces to Boyle’s equation.
p1 V 1 = p2 V 2 (1)
State 1 (before air is compressed)
p1 = 100, 000 N/m2 abs

(a)
V 1 = 1 m × Atube
State 2 (after air is compressed)
p2 = 100, 000 N/m2 + γ w (1 m − ∆ )

(b)
V 2 = (1 m − ∆ )Atube
29
p1 V 1 = p2 V 2
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
100, 000 N/ m (1 m × Atube ) = 100, 000 N/m2 + γ w (1 m − ∆ ) (1 m − ∆ )Atube
2
¡ ¢
100, 000 N/ m2 = 100, 000 N/ m2 + 9790 N/ m3 (1 − ∆ ) (1 − ∆ )
Solving for ∆
∆ = 0.0824 m
30
Situation:
A tank is fitted with a manometer.
S = 3, z1 = 0.15 m.
Find:
Deflection of the manometer (cm).
Properties:
γ water =9810 N/m3 .
PLAN
Apply the hydrostatic principle to the water and then to the manometer fluid.
SOLUTION
1. Hydrostatic equation (location 1 is on the free surface of the water; location 2 is
the interface)
p1 p2
+ z1 = + z2
γ water γ water
0 Pa p2
3
+ 0.15 m = + 0m
9810 N/ m 9810 N/ m3
¡ ¢
p2 = (0.15 m) 9810 N/ m3
= 1471.5 Pa
2. Hydrostatic equation (manometer fluid; let location 3 be on the free surface)

p2 p3
+ z2 = + z3
γ man. fluid γ man. fluid
1471.5 Pa 0 Pa
3
+ 0m = + ∆h
3 (9810 N/ m ) γ man. fluid
3. Solve for ∆h
1471.5 Pa
∆h =
3 (9810 N/ m3 )
= 0.0500 m
∆h = 5.00 cm
31
Situation:
A mass sits on top of a piston situated above a reservoir of oil.
Weight
w
h2
Piston
h1
Oil
D1
Find:
Derive an equation for h2 in terms of the specified parameters.
Assumptions:
Neglect the mass of the piston.
Neglect friction between the piston and the cylinder wall.
The pressure at the top of the oil column is 0 kPa-gage.
PLAN
1. Relate w to pressure acting on the bottom of the piston using equilibrium.
2. Related pressure on the bottom of the piston to the oil column height using the
hydrostatic equation.
3. Find h2 by combining steps 1 and 2.
SOLUTION
1. Equilibrium (piston): µ ¶
πD12
w = p1 (1)
4
2. Hydrostatic equation. (point 1 at btm of piston; point 2 at top of oil column):
p1 p2
+ z1 = + z2
γ γ
p1
+ 0 = 0 + h2
Sγ water
p1 = S γ water h2 (2)

µ ¶
πD12
mg = S γ water h2
4
4w
Answer: h2 =
(S) (γ water ) (πD12 )
32
REVIEW
1. Notice. Column height h2 increases linearly with increasing weight w.Similarly, h2
decreases linearly with S and decreases quadratically with D1 .
2. Notice. The apparatus involved in the problem could be used to create an instru-
ment for weighing an object.
33
Situation:
A mass sits on top of a piston situated above a reservoir of oil.
m = 10 kg, S = 0.8, h1 = 42 mm.
D1 = 42 mm, D2 = 5 mm.
Weight
w
h2
Piston
h1
Oil
D1
Find:
Calculate h2 (m).
Assumptions:
Neglect the mass of the piston.
Neglect friction between the piston and the cylinder wall.
The pressure at the top of the oil column is 0 kPa-gage.
PLAN
1. Relate mass m to pressure acting on the bottom of the piston using equilibrium.
2. Related pressure on the bottom of the piston to the oil column height using the
hydrostatic equation.
3. Find h2 by combining steps 1 and 2.
SOLUTION
1. Equilibrium (piston): µ ¶
πD12
mg = p1 (1)
4
2. Hydrostatic equation. (point 1 at btm of piston; point 2 at top of oil column):
p1 p2
+ z1 = + z2
γ γ
p1
+ 0 = 0 + h2
Sγ water
p1 = S γ water h2 (2)

µ ¶
πD12
mg = S γ water h2
4
34
4mg 4 (10 kg) (9.81 m/ s2 )
h2 = =
(S) (γ water ) (πD12 ) (0.8) (9810 N/ m3 ) (π) (0.142 m2 )
h2 = 0.812 m
35
Situation:
An odd tank contains water, air and a liquid.
.
Find:
Maximum gage pressure (kPa).
Where will maximum pressure occur.
Hydrostatic force (in kN) on top of the last chamber, surface CD.
Properties:
γ water = 9810 N/m3 .
PLAN
1. To find the maximum pressure, apply the manometer equation.
2. To find the hydrostatic force, multiply pressure times area.
SOLUTION
1. Manometer eqn. (start at surface AB; neglect pressure changes in the air; end at
the bottom of the liquid reservoir)
0 + 4 × γ H2 O + 3 × 3γ H2 O = pmax
pmax = 13 m × 9, 810 N/ m3
= 127, 530 N/m2
pmax = 127.5 kPa
Answer ⇒ Maximum pressure will be at the bottom of the liquid that has a specific
gravity of S = 3.
2. Hydrostatic force
FCD = pA
= (127, 530 N/ m2 − 1 m × 3 × 9810 N/ m3 ) × 1 m2
FCD = 98.1 kN
36
37
Situation:
A steel pipe is connected to a steel chamber.
= 2.5 ft, W = 600 lbf.
D1 = 0.25 , z1 = 5 .
D2 = , S = 1.2.
Find:
Force exerted on chamber by bolts (lbf).
Properties:
γ water = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
Apply equilibrium and the hydrostatic equation.
SOLUTION
1. Equilibrium. (system is the steel structure plus the liquid within)
(Force exerted by bolts) + (Weight of the liquid) +
(Weight of the steel) = (Pressure force acting on the bottom of the free body )
FB + Wliquid + Ws = p2 A2 (1)
2. Hydrostatic equation (location 1 is on surface; location 2 at the bottom)
p1 p2
+ z1 = + z2
γ γ liquid
p2
0+5 = +0
1.2γ water
p2 = 1.2γ water 5
= 1.2 × 62.4 × 5 × 2.5
= 936 psfg
38
3. Area
πD2 π 2 π × (2.5 ft)2
A2 = = = = 4.909 ft2
4 4 4
4. Weight of liquid
µ ¶ µ ¶
πd2 π 3
Wliquid = A2 + 4 γ liquid = A2 + (1.2) γ water
4 16
Ã ! µ ¶
3
¡ 2
¢ π (2.5 ft) lbf
= 4.909 ft (2.5 ft) + (1.2) 62.4 3
16 ft
= 1148. 7 lbf
5. Substitute numbers into Eq. (1)

¡ ¢¡ ¢
FB + (1148. 7 lbf) + (600 lbf) = 936 lbf/ ft2 4.909 ft2
FB = 2846 lbf
FB = 2850 lbf
39
Situation:
A metal dome with water is held down by bolts.
W = 6 kN, = 80 cm, h = 6 .
Dpipe = 0.25 , Dbottom = 2 .
Find:
Force exerted by the bolts (kN).
Properties:
γ water = 9810 N/ m3 .
PLAN
1. To derive an equation for the load on the bolts, apply equilibrium.
2. Calculate intermediate value.
2. Calculate the load on the bolts.
SOLUTION
1. Equilibrium (free body is the water plus the dome)
X
Fz = 0
pbottom Abottom + Fbolts − WH2 O − Wdome = 0

Fbolts = −pbottom Abottom + WH2 O + Wdome (1)
2. Intermediate calculations
pbottom Abottom = 4.8 × 9, 810 N/ m3 × π × (1.6 m)2 = 378.7 kN

WH2 O = 9, 810(3.2 × (π/4) × 0.22 + (2/3)π × 1.63 ) = 85.1 kN
3. Load on bolts (apply Eq. (1))
Fbolts = (−378.7 + 85.1 + 6) kN = −288 kN
Fbolts = 288 kN (acting downward)
40
Situation:
A tank under pressure with a dome on top.
L = 2 ft, Wdome = 1000 lbf.
Gage A reads 5 psig.
Find:
Vertical component of force in metal at the base of the dome (lbf).
Is the metal in tension or compression?
Properties:
γ H2 O = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 , S = 1.5.
PLAN
Apply equilibrium to a free body comprised of the dome plus the water within. Apply
the hydrostatic principle to find the pressure at the base of the dome.
SOLUTION
Equilibrium
1000 lbf
Fd Fd
Wl
p
B
X
Fz = 0 (1)
Fd + pB A − Wliquid − Wdome = 0 (1)
Hydrostatic equation
pB + γzB = pA + γzA
¡ ¢
pB = pA − γ H2 O S∆z
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= (5 psig) 144 in2 / ft2 − 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (1.5) (3 ft)
= 439.2 psfg
41
Weight of the liquid
¡ ¢
Wliquid = γ H2 O (S) (V)
µ ¶
¡ 3
¢ 2 3 3
= 62.4 lbf/ ft (1.5) π2 ft
3
= 1568 lbf
Pressure Force
FB = pB A
¡ ¢
= (439.2 psfg) π × 22 ft2
= 5519 lbf
Substitute into Eq. (1).
Fd = −FB + Wliquid + Wdome

= − (5519 lbf) + (1568 lbf) + (1000 lbf)
= −2951 lbf
Fd = 2950 lbf (metal is in tension)
42
Situation:
Oil is added to the tube so the piston rises 1 inch.
Wpiston = 10 lbf, S = 0.85.
Dp = 4 in, Dtube = 1 in.
Find:
Volume of oil (in3 ) that is added.
SOLUTION
Notice that the oil fills the apparatus as shown below.
Volume
added
Pressure acting on the bottom of the piston

pp Ap = 10 lbf
10 lbf 10 lbf
pp = =
Ap π (4 in)2 /4
= 0.796 psig = 114.6 psfg
Hydrostatic equation (apply to liquid in the tube)
γ oil h = 114.6 psfg
h = 114.6/(62.4 × 0.85) = 2.161 ft = 25.9 in
Calculate volume
V added = V left + V right
π (4 in)2 (1 in) π (1 in)2 (1 in + 25.9 in)
= +
4 4
3
V added = 33.7 in.
43
‫‪44‬‬
Situation:
An air bubble rises from the bottom of a lake.
z34 = 34 ft, z8 = 8 ft.
Find:
Ratio of the density of air within the bubble at different depths.
Assumptions:
Air is ideal gas.
Temperature is constant.
Neglect surface tension effects.
Properties:
γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the hydrostatic equation and the ideal gas law.
SOLUTION
Ideal gas law
p
ρ =
RT
p34 p8
ρ34 = ; ρ8 =
RT RT
ρ34 p34
=
ρ8 p8
where p is absolute pressure (required in ideal gas law).
p8 = patm¡+ γ (8 ft) ¢
= 2120 lbf/ ft2 + 62.4 lbf/ft3 (8 ft)
= 2619 lbf/ft2
p34 = patm¡ + γ (34 ft) ¢

= 2120 lbf/ ft2 + 62.4 lbf/ft3 (34 ft)
= 4241.6 lbf/ft2
Density ratio
ρ34 4241.6 lbf/ft2
=
ρ8 2619 lbf/ft2
= 1. 620
ρ34 /ρ8 = 1.62
45
Situation:
Air is injected into a tank of liquid.
Pressure reading the Bourdon tube gage is pgage = 15 kPa
Find:
Depth d of liquid in tank (m).
Assumptions:
Neglect the change of pressure due to the column of air in the tube.
Properties: γ (water) = 9810 N/ m3 , S = 0.85.
PLAN
1. Find the depth corresponding to p = 15 kPa using the hydrostatic equation.
2. Find d by adding 1.0 m to value from step 1.
SOLUTION
∆p = γ liquid ∆z
∆p 15000 Pa
∆z = = = 1. 80 m
γ liquid 0.85 (9810 N/ m3 )
2. Depth of tank
d = ∆z + 1 m
= 1. 80 m + 1 m
= 2.8 m
d = 2.80 m
46
Problem 3.28
Using the Internet and other resources, answer the following questions:
a. What are three common types of manometers? For each type, make a sketch and
give a brief description.
• Sketches left as a exercise.
• Some possible types of manometer: U-tube manometer, well manometer, in-

clined manometer, micro-manometer.
• Note that many electronic instruments are now called manometers. These
instrument are not really manometers (manometers rely on the change in level
of a liquid column).
b. How would you build manometers from materials that are commonly available?
Sketch your design concept.
• The photo shows a design built by students at the University of Idaho. Some
features to notice:
— Use of green food coloring to enhance the visibility of the liquid.
47
— Attaching the tubing to a board using zip ties (fast, low cost, and effective)
— Adding a ruler so that changes in column height are easy to determine.
48
Problem 3.29
Apply the grid method to a U-tube manometer.
The working equation (i.e. the hydrostatic equation) is:
pgas = γ liquid h

a.)
Situation:
Water in a manometer.
h = 1 ft.
Find:
Absolute pressure (psig).
Properties:
S = 1.5, γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
Solution:
First, find the gage pressure in the gas:
pgas = γ liquid h = Sγ H2O h

µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶2
62.4 lbf 1 ft 1 ft
= (1.5) = 0.650 psig
ft3 1.0 12 in.
Now, find the absolute pressure:
pabs = patm + pgage

= 14.7 psi + 0.650 psi = 15.4 psia
b.)
Situation:
Mercury in a manometer.
Find:
Column rise (mm).
49
Properties:
Table A.4, γ = 133000 N/ m3 .
pgas = 1/6 atm, patm = 101.3 kN.
Solution:
b. Find column rise in mm. The manometer uses mercury (). The gas pressure is
1/6 atm.
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
pgas 1/6 atm m3 101.3 × 103 N
h= = = 0.1269 m
γ liquid 1.0 133000 N 1 atm · m2
h = 127 mm
c.)
Situation:
Liquid in manometer.
h = 6 in.
Find:
Pressure (psfg).
Properties:
ρ = 50 lb/ ft3 .
Solution:
pgas = γ liquid h = ρgh

µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
50 lbm 32.2 ft 6 in lbf · ft2 1.0 ft
=
ft3 s2 1.0 32.2 lbm · ft 12 in
= 25 psfg
d.)
Situation:
Liquid in manometer.
h = 3 m.
Find:
Gage pressure (bar).
Properties:
ρ = 800 kg/ m3 .
Solution:
pgas = γ liquid h = ρgh

µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
800 kg 9.81 m 3m Pa · m · s2 1 bar
=
m3 s2 1.0 kg 105 Pa
= 0.235 bar
50
Situation:
A manometer is connected to a pipe.
Find:
Determine if the gage pressure at the center of the pipe is:
(a) negative
(b) positive
(c) zero
PLAN
Apply the manometer equation and justify the solution using calculations.
SOLUTION
Manometer equation. (add up pressures from the pipe center to the open end of the
manometer)
ppipe + (0.5 ft)(62.4 lbf/ft3 ) + (1 ft)(2 × 62.4 lbf/ft3 ) (1)

−(2.5 ft)(62.4 lbf/ft3 ) = 0
Solve Eq. (1) for the pressure in the pipe
ppipe = (−0.5 − 2 + 2.5) ft (62.4 lbf/ft3 ) = 0
p (center of pipe) = 0.0 lbf/ ft2
51
Situation:
A manometer is connected to a pipe.
h1 = 16 in, h2 = 2 in.
Find:
Gage pressure at the center of the pipe in units of psig.
Properties:
Mercury (68 ◦ F), Table A.4, γ Hg = 847 lbf/ ft3 .
Water (70 ◦ F), Table A.5, γ H2O = 62.3 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
Find pressure (pA ) by applying the manometer equation from point A to the top of
the mercury column.
SOLUTION
Manometer equation:
µ ¶ µ ¶
16 3 2
pA + ft (62.3 lbf/ ft ) − ft (847 lbf/ ft3 ) = 0
12 12
µ ¶µ ¶2
58.1 lbf 1.0 ft
pA =
ft2 12 in
pA = 0.403 psig
52
Situation:
A glass tube (d = 0.5 mm) is connected to a pipe containing water.
Column rise (h = 100 mm) is due to pressure and surface tension.
Find:
Gage pressure at the center of the pipe (Pa-gage).
Assumptions:
The contact angle is small so cos θ ≈ 1 in the capillary rise equation.
Properties:
Water (20 ◦ C), Table A-5: γ = 9790 N/ m3 , σ = 0.073 N/ m.
PLAN
1. Find the column rise due to surface tension by applying the capillary rise equation.
2. Find the column rise due to pressure by applying the hydrostatic equation.
3. Find the total column rise by combining steps 1 and 2.
4. Run calcs.
SOLUTION
1. Capillary rise equation (from chapter 2):
4σ
∆h1 = (1)
γd
2. Hydrostatic equation.
pA
∆h2 = (2)
γ
3. Total column rise:
4σ pA
∆h = ∆h1 + ∆h2 = + (3)
γd γ
4. Calculations:
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
4σ 0.073 N m3 1.0
∆h1 = =4 = 0.05965 m
γd m 9790 N 0.5 × 10−3 m
53
‫¡‬ ‫‪¢‬‬
‫‪pA = (∆h − ∆h1 ) γ = (0.1 m − 0.05965 m) 9790 N/ m3 = 395 Pa‬‬
‫‪pA = 395 Pa gage‬‬
‫‪54‬‬
Situation:
A tube (manometer) is connected to a pipe.
Find:
Pressure at the center of pipe B (kPa-gage).
Properties:
γ 1 = 10 kN/ m3 , γ 2 = 20 kN/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the manometer equation.
SOLUTION
Manometer equation (add up pressures from the open end of the manometer to the
center of pipe B).
pB = 0
¡ ¢
+ 0.30 m × 20, 000 N/ m3
¡ ¢
− 0.1 m × 20, 000 N/ m3
¡ ¢
− 0.5 m × 10, 000 N/ m3
= −1000 Pa
pB = −1.00 kPa gage
55
Situation:
State 1: air at patm , liquid in tube at elevation 1.
State 2: air is pressurized; liquid at elevation 2.
= 0.4 m, Dcontainer = 8Dtube .
Find:
Pressure in the air within the container (Pa).
Properties:
Liquid, ρ = 1200 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
1. Find the decrease in liquid level in the container by applying conservation of mass.
2. Find the air pressure by applying the hydrostatic equation.
SOLUTION
1. Conservation of mass (applied to liquid)
Gain in mass of liq. in tube = Loss of mass of liq. in container

(Volume change in tube) ρliquid = (Volume change in container ) ρliquid
V tube = V container
2 2
(π/4)Dtube × = (π/4)Dcontainer × (∆h)container
µ ¶2
Dtube
(∆h)container =
Dcontainer
(∆h)container = (1/8)2 × 40
= 0.625 cm
pcontainer = ( sin 10◦ + ∆h)ρg

¡ ¢¡ ¢
= [(0.4 m) sin 10o + 0.00625 m] 1200 kg/ m3 9.81 m/ s2
pcontainer = 891 Pa gage
56
Situation:
State 1: air at patm , liquid in tube at elevation 1.
State 2: air is pressurized; liquid at elevation 2.
Dcontainer = 10Dtube , = 3 ft.
Find:
Pressure in the air within the container (psfg).
Properties:
liquid, γ = 50 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
1. Find the decrease in liquid level in the container by using conservation of mass.
2. Find the pressure in the container by apply the manometer equation.
SOLUTION
1. Conservation of mass (applied to liquid)
Gain in mass of liq. in tube = Loss of mass of liq. in container
(Volume change in tube) ρliquid = (Volume change in container ) ρliquid
V tube = V container
2 2
(π/4)Dtube × = (π/4)Dcontainer × (∆h)container
µ ¶2
Dtube
(∆h)container =
Dcontainer
µ ¶2
1
(∆h)container = × 3 ft
10
= 0.03 ft
2. Manometer equation (point 1 = free surface of liquid in the tube; point 2 = free
surface of liquid in the container)
pcontainer = ( sin 10◦ + ∆h)γ
= (3 sin 10◦ + .03) ft × 50 lbf/ ft3
= 27. 548 lbf/ ft2
pcontainer = 27.5 psfg
57
Situation:
A pipe system has a manometer attached to it.
Find:
Gage pressure at center of pipe A (psi, kPa).
Properties:
Mercury, Table A.4: γ = 1.33 × 105 N/ m3 .
Water, Table A.5: γ = 9810 N/ m3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Manometer equation
pA = 1.31 ft × 847 lbf/ ft3 − 4.59 ft × 62.4 lbf/ ft3

= 823.2 psf
pA = 5.72 psig
pA = 0.4 m × 1.33 × 105 N/ m3 − 1.4 m × 9810 N/ m3
pA = 39.5 kPa gage
58
Situation:
A U-tube manometer can be used to measure γ.
Initial state: A U-tube manometer contains water.
Final state: An unknown liquid (V = 2 cm3 ) is added to the right leg
d = 0.5 cm, ∆h = 5 cm.
Find:
Specific weight of unknown fluid (N/m3 ).
SOLUTION
1. Find the length of the column of the unknown liquid.
V = (π/4)(0.5 cm)2 = 2 cm3
Solve for
= 10.186 cm
2. Manometer equation (from water surface in left leg to liquid surface in right leg)
0 + (10.186 cm - 5 cm)(10−2 m/cm)(9810 N/m3 )

−(10.186 cm)(10−2 m/cm)γ liq. = 0
Solve for γ liq.
508.7 Pa − 0.10186γ liq. = 0
γ liq. = 4995 N/m3
59
Situation:
Mercury and water are poured into a tube.
mercury = water = 375 mm.
Find:
Locate the water surface (mm).
Locate the mercury surface (mm).
Find the maximum pressure in the U-tube (kPa gage).
Sketch:
Water (H2O)
Uniform diameter
1 tube
375 mm 4
2 Mercury (Hg)
3
160 mm
Assumptions:
Uniform diameter tube.
Properties:
Mercury (20 ◦ C), Table A.4, γ Hg = 133000 N/ m3 .
PLAN
1. Find p2 by applying the hydrostatic equation.
2. Find (z4 − z2 ) by applying the hydrostatic equation.
3. Solve (z2 − z3 ) by using the fact that the mercury column has a fixed length.
4. Locate the liquid surfaces by using lengths from steps 2 and 3.
5. Solve for the maximum pressure by applying the hydrostatic equation to the
mercury.
SOLUTION
1. Hydrostatic equation (apply to water column):
p1 p2
+ z1 = + z2
γ H2O γ H2O
p2
0 + z1 = + z2
9710 N/ m3
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
p2 = 9710 N/ m3 (z1 − z2 ) = 9710 N/ m3 (0.375 m) = 3641 N/ m2
60
Since the pressure across the water/mercury interface is constant, p2, H2O = p2, Hg .
2. Hydrostatic equation (apply to Hg column):
p4 p2
+ z4 = + z2
γ Hg γ Hg
3641 N/ m2
0 + z4 = + z2
133000 N/ m3
(z4 − z2 ) = 27.38 m
3. Length constraint (length of Hg column is 375 mm):
(z2 − z3 ) + 160 mm + (z2 − z3 ) + 27.38 mm = 375 mm

(z2 − z3 ) = 93.18 mm
4. Locate surfaces:
Water: (z1 − z2 ) + (z2 − z3 ) = 375 mm + 93.18 mm = 468 mm
The surface of the water is located 468 mm above the centerline of the horizontal leg
Mercury: (z4 − z2 ) + (z2 − z3 ) = 27.38 mm + 93.18 mm = 121 mm

The surface of the mercury is located 121 mm above the centerline of the horizontal leg
5. Hydrostatic Equation:
p3 p4
+ z3 = + z4
γ Hg γ Hg
p4 ¡ ¢
p3 = + γ Hg (z4 − z3 ) = 0 + 133000 N/ m3 (0.121 m)
γ Hg
p3 = pmax = 16.1 kPa gage
61
Situation:
A manometer tube is attached to a pipe.
Find:
Pressure at center of pipe A (kPa).
Properties:
SHg = 13.6, Soil = 0.8, γ water = 9810 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
Manometer equation (apply from top of water column to point A)
pA = (0.9 m + 0.6 m × 13.6 − 1.8 m × 0.8 + 1.5 m)9, 810 N/ m3 = 89, 467 Pa
pA = 89.47 kPa
62
Situation:
A system is described in the problem statement.
1 = 1 m, 2 = 0.5 m.
zA = 10 m, zB = 11 m.
Find:
(a) Difference in pressure between points A and B (kPa).
(b) Difference in piezometric head between points A and B (m).
Properties:
γ = 9810 N/ m3 , S = 0.85.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Manometer equation (apply from A to B)
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
pA − (1 m) 0.85 × 9810 N/ m3 + (0.5 m) 0.85 × 9810 N/ m3 = pB
pA − pB = 4169 Pa
pA − pB = 4.17 kPa
Piezometric head
µ ¶ µ ¶
pA pB
hA − hB = + zA − + zB
γ γ
pA − pB
= + (zA − zB )
γ
4169 N/ m2
= − 1m
0.85 × 9810 N/ m3
= −0.5 m
hA − hB = −0.50 m
63
Situation:
A manometer attached to a tank.
Find:
Manometer deflection when pressure in tank is doubled.
Properties:
patm = 100 kPa, p = 150 kPa.
SOLUTION
p − patm = γh
For 150 kPa absolute pressure and an atmospheric pressure of 100 kPa,
γh = 150 − 100 = 50 kPa
For an absolute pressure of 300 kPa
γhnew = 300 − 100 = 200 kPa
Divide equations to eliminate the specific weight

hnew 200
= = 4.0
h 50
so
hnew = 4.0h
64
Situation:
A manometer is tapped into a vertical conduit.
Find:
Difference in pressure between points A and B (psf).
Difference in piezometric head between points A and B (ft).
Properties:
From Table A.4, γ Hg = 847 lbf/ft3 .
γ oil = (0.95)(62.4 lbf/ft3 )
= 59.28 lbf/ft3
SOLUTION
Manometer equation
¡ 18 ¢ ¡2¢ ¡3¢
pA + ft
12 ¡ ¢
(γ oil ) + 12¡ ¢
ft. γ oil + 12
ft γ oil
3 2
− 12 ft γ Hg − 12 ft γ oil = pB
thus
pA − pB = (−1.75 ft.)(59.28 lbf/ft3 ) + (0.25 ft.)(847 lbf/ft3 )
pA − pB = 108 psf
Piezometric head
pA − pB
hA − hB = + zA − zB
γ oil
108.01 lbf/ft2
hA − hB = + (1.5 − 0) ft
59.28 lbf/ft3
hA − hB = 3.32 ft
65
‫‪66‬‬
Situation:
Two manometers attached to an air tank.
Find:
Difference in deflection between manometers (m).
Properties:
pleft = 0.9patm , pright = patm = 100 kPa.
γ w = 9810 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
The pressure in the tank using manometer b is
pt = patm − γ w ∆hb
and using manometer a is

pt = 0.9patm − γ w ∆ha
Combine equations
patm − γ w ∆hb = 0.9patm − γ w ∆ha
or
0.1patm = γ w (∆hb − ∆ha )
Solve for the difference in deflection
0.1patm
∆hb − ∆ha =
γw
0.1 × 105 Pa
=
9.81 × 103 N/ m3
∆hb − ∆ha = 1.02 m
67
Situation:
Manometer—measuring pressure difference in a pipe.
Find:
(a) Pressure difference (pA − pB ) in kPa.
(b) Piezometric pressure difference (pzA − pzB ) in kPa.
Properties:
S = 3.0.
PLAN
Apply the manometer equation. Use the definition of piezometric pressure.
SOLUTION
Manometer equation (apply between points A & B)
pB = pA + 0.03γ f − 0.03γ m − 0.1γ f
or
pA − pB = −0.03(γ f − γ m ) + 0.1γ f
Substitute in values
pA − pB = −0.03 m(9810 N/ m3 − 3 × 9810 N/ m3 ) + 0.1 × 9810 N/ m3
pA − pB = 1.57 kPa
Definition of piezometric pressure
pz ≡ p + γz
Thus
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
pzA − pzB = pA + γ H2O zA − pB + γ H2O zB
= (pA − pB ) + γ H2O (zA − zB )
¡ ¢
= 1.57 kPa + 9.81 kN/ m3 (−0.1 m) = 0.589 kPa
pzA − pzB = 0.589 kPa
68
Situation:
A piston scale is used to measure weight.
Weight range: 60 = 250 lbf.
Height range: 4 − 6 ft tall.
Find:
Select a piston size and standpipe diameter.
SOLUTION
First of all neglect the weight of the piston and find the piston area which will give
reasonable manometer deflections. Equating the force on the piston, the piston area
and the deflection of the manometer gives
W = ∆hγA
where γ is the specific weight of the water. Thus, solving for the area one has
W
A=
γ∆h
For a four foot person weighing 60 lbf, the area for a 4 foot deflection (manometer
near eye level of person) would be
60 lbf
A= = 0.24 ft2
62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 4 ft2
while for a 250 lbf person 6 feet tall would be
250 lbf
A= 3 = 0.66 ft2
62.4 lbf/ ft × 6 ft
It will not be possible to maintain the manometer at the eye level for each person so
take a piston area of 0.5 ft2 . This would give a deflection of 1.92 ft for the 4-foot, 60
lbf person and 8 ft for the 6-foot, 250 lbf person. This is a good compromise.
The size of the standpipe does not affect the pressure. The pipe should be big enough
so the person can easily see the water level and be able to read the calibration on
69
the scale. A 1/2 inch diameter tube would probably suffice. Thus the ratio of the
standpipe area to the piston area would be
Apipe 0.785 × (0.5 in)2

= = 0.0027
Apiston 0.5 × 144 in2 / ft2
This means that when the water level rises to 8 ft, the piston will only have moved
by 0.0027 × 8 = 0.0216 ft or 0.26 inches.
The weight of the piston will cause an initial deflection of the manometer. If the
piston weight is 5 lbf or less, the initial deflection of the manometer would be
Wpiston
∆ho = = 0.16 ft or 1.92 inches
γApiston
This will not significantly affect the range of the manometer (between 2 and 8 feet).
The system would be calibrated by putting knows weights on the scale and marking
the position on the standpipe. The scale would be linear.
70
Situation:
The boiling point of water decreases with elevation because patm decreases.
z1 = 2000 m, z2 = 4000 m.
Find:
Boiling point of water ( ◦ C) at z1 and z2 .
Assumptions:
Tsea level = 296 K= 23◦ C.
Standard atmosphere.
Properties:
Table A.2: R = 287 J/ kg K.
PLAN
The pressure of boiling (pvapor ) corresponds to local atmospheric pressure.
1. Find the atmospheric pressure by calculating the pressure in the troposphere.
2. Find boiling temperature at 2000 m by interpolating in Table A.5.
3. Find boiling temperature at 4000 m by interpolating in Table A.5.
SOLUTION
1. Atmospheric pressure:
∙ ¸g/αR
T0 − α(z − z0 )
p = p0
T0
∙ ¸g/αR
296 K − 5.87 K/ km(z − z0 )
= 101.3 kPa
296 K
where
9.81 m/ s2
g/αR = = 5.823
(5.87 × 10−3 ) K/ m × 287 J/ kg K
So h i5.823
296 K−5.87 K/ km(2.0 km)
p2000 m = 101.3 kPa 296 K
= 80.0 kPa
h i5.823
296 K−5.87 K/ km(4.0 km)
p4000 m = 101.3 kPa 296 K
= 62.6 kPa
2. Boiling temperature @ 2000 m.
µ ¶
◦ (80.0 − 70.1) kPa
T = 90 C + (10 ◦ C) = 93.2 ◦ C
(101.3 − 70.1) kPa
Tboiling, 2000 m ≈ 93.2 ◦ C
3. Boiling temperature @ 4000 m.
µ ¶
◦ (62.6 − 47.4) kPa
T = 80 C + (10 ◦ C) = 86.7 ◦ C
(70.1 − 47.4) kPa
71
‫‪Tboiling, 4000 m ≈ 86.7 ◦ C‬‬
‫‪72‬‬
Situation:
Pressure variation from a lake to atmosphere.
h = 10 m, z2 = 4000 m.
Find:
Plot pressure variation.
Assumptions:
patm = 101.3 kPa.
The lake surface is at sea level.
SOLUTION
Atmosphere pressure variation (troposphere)
µ ¶5.823
5.87 × 10−3 K/ m × z
pA = 101.3 kPa 1 −
296 K
Pressure in water
pw = 101.3 kPa + 9.810 N/ m3 × z
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 220
P re s s u re (k P a )
73
Situation:
A woman breathing.
z = 18000 ft.
Find:
Breathing rate.
Assumptions:
Volume drawn in per breath is the same.
Air is an ideal gas.
Properties:
T = 59 ◦ F, patm = 14.7 psia.
SOLUTION Let bV –ρ = constant where b = breathing rate = number of breaths

for each unit of time, V
–= volume per breath, and ρ = mass density of air. Assume
1 is sea level and point 2 is 18,000 ft. elevation. Then
b1 V 1 ρ1 = b2 V 2 ρ2
b2 = b1 (V 1 /V 2 )(ρ1 /ρ2 )
then b2 = b1 (ρ1 /ρ2 ) but ρ = (p/RT )
Thus, b2 = b1 (p1 /p2 )(T2 /T1 )
p2 = p1 (T2 /T1 )g/αR
p1 /p2 = (T2 /T1 )−g/αR
Then b2 = b1 (T2 /T1 )1−g/αR
Since the volume drawn in per breath is the same
b2 = b1 (ρ1 /ρ2 )
Ideal gas law

b2 = b1 (p1 /p2 )(T2 /T1 )
p1 /p2 = (T2 /T1 )−g/αR
b2 = b1 (T2 /T1 )1−g/αR
where b1 = 16 breaths per minute and T1 = 59◦ F = 519◦ R
T2 = T1 − α(z2 − z1 ) = 519 − 3.221 × 10−3 (18, 000 − 0) = 461.0 o R

−3 ×1,715)
b2 = 16(461.0/519)1−32.2/(3.221×10
b2 = 28.4 breaths per minute
74
Situation:
A pressure gage in an airplane.
z0 = 1 km.
Find:
Elevation (km).
Temperature ( ◦ C).
Properties:
a = 5.87 ◦ C/ km, p0 = 95 kPa.
T0 = 10 ◦ C, p = 75 kPa.
SOLUTION Atmosphere pressure variation (troposphere)
∙ ¸g/αR
T0 − α(z − z0 )
p = p0
T0
∙ ¸9.81/(5.87×10−3 ×287)
283 K − 5.87 K/ km(z − 1) km
75 kPa = 95 kPa
283 K
z = 2.91 km
T = T0 − α(z − z0 )
= 10 ◦ C − 5.87 ◦ C/ km(2.91 − 1) km
T = −1.21o C
75
Situation:
Denver, CO (the mile-high city) is described in the problem statement.
Find:
Pressure in both SI and traditional units.
Temperature in both SI and traditional units.
Density in both SI and traditional units.
Properties:
Air, Table A.2: R = 287 J/ kg K = 1716 ft lbf/ slug◦ R.
SOLUTION
Atmosphere pressure variation (troposphere)
T = T0 − α(z − z0 )
= 533 ◦ R − 3.221 × 10−3 ◦ R/ ft(5, 280 − 0) ft = 516◦ R
= 296 K − 5.87 × 10−3 K/ m(1, 609 − 0) m
T = 287 K = 516 ◦ R
p = p0 (T /T0 )g/αR
= 14.7 psia(516◦ R/533◦ R)5.823
p = 12.2 psia
−3
pa = 101.3 kPa(287 K/296 K)9.81/(5.87×10 ×287)
pa = 86.0 kPa = 12.2 psia
Ideal gas law

p
ρ =
RT
12.2 psia × 144 in2 / ft2
=
1, 715 ft lbf/ slug◦ R × 516◦ R
= 0.00199 slugs/ft3
86, 000 kPa
ρ =
287 K × 287 J/ kg K
ρ = 1.04 kg/m3 = 0.00199 slugs/ft3
76
Situation:
A force due to pressure is acting on an airplane window.
Window is flat & elliptical.
a = 0.3 m, b = 0.2 m.
pinside = 100 kPa, z = 10 km.
Find:
Outward force on the window (in N).
PLAN
Find the force on the window by using F = ∆pA. The steps are
1. Find outside air pressure by applying Eq. (3.16) in EFM9e.
2. Find the area by using formula from Figure A.1 in EFM9e
3. Find the force F.
SOLUTION
1. Atmospheric pressure
g (9.81 m/ s2 )
= = 5.823
αR (5.87 × 10−3 K/ m) (287 J/ kg · K)
∙ ¸g/αR
T0 − α(z − z0 )
poutside = p0
T0
∙ ¸5.823
296 K − (5.87 × 10−3 K/ m) (10000 − 0) m
= 101.3 kPa
296 K
= 27.97 kPa
2. Area
A = πab = π (0.3 m) (0.2 m) = 0.188 5 m2
3. Force
kN ¡ 2
¢
F = ∆pA = (100 − 27.97) 0.188 5 m
m2
F = 13.6 kN
REVIEW
• While the window is small, the force is surprisingly large. This force, which is
about 3100 lbf, is equal to the weight of a car!
77
Situation:
Atmospheric conditions on Mars.
• Temperature at the Martian surface is T = −63 ◦ C = 210 K The pressure at

the Martian surface is p = 7 mbar.
• The atmosphere consists primarily of CO2 (95.3%) with small amounts of ni-
trogen and argon.
• Acceleration due to gravity on the surface is 3.72 m/s2 .
• Temperature distribution: approximately constant from surface to 14 km. Tem-

perature decreases linearly at a lapse rate of 1.5o C/km from 14 to 34 km.
Find:
Pressure at an elevation of 8 km.
Pressure at an elevation of 30 km.
Assumptions:
Assume the atmosphere is totally carbon dioxide.
Properties:
CO2 (from Table A.2): the gas constant is R =189 J/kg·K.
PLAN
Derive equations for atmospheric pressure variation from first principles.
SOLUTION
A.) Elevation of 8 km.
Differential equation describing pressure variation in a hydrostatic fluid
dp
= −ρg (1)
dz
Ideal gas law
p
ρ= (2)
RT
Combine Eqs. (1) and (2)
dp p
=− g (3)
dz RT
Integrate Eq. (3) for constant temperature
p (z − zo )g
ln =− (4)
po RT
78
Substitute in values
p (8000 m) (3.72 m/ s2 )
ln = −
po (189 J/ kg · K) (210 K)
= −0.7498
Thus
p
= exp(−0.7498)
po
= 0.4725
and
p = (7 mbar) × 0.4725
= 3.308 mbar
p(z = 8 km) = 3.31 mbar
B.) Elevation of 30 km.
Apply Eq. (4) to find the pressure at z = 14 km
∙ ¸
p14 km (14000 m) (3.72 m/ s2 )
= exp −
po (189 J/ kg · K) (210 K)
= exp(−1.3122)
= 0.2692
p14 km = (7 mbar) (0.2692)
= 1. 884 mbar
In the region of varying temperature Eq. (3) becomes
dp pg
=
dz R[To + α(z − zo )]
where the subscript o refers to the conditions at 14 km and α is the lapse rate above
14 km. Integrating gives
∙ ¸g/αR
p To − α(z − zo )
=
po To
Calculations for z = 30 km.
∙ ¸3.72/(0.0015×189)
p 210 K − 0.0015 K/ m(30000 − 14000) m
=
(1. 884 mbar) 210 K
= 0.2034
p = (1. 884 mbar) 0.2034
= 0.3832 mbar
p(z = 30 km) = 0.383 mbar
79
Situation:
The US standard atmosphere from 0 to 30 km is described in the problem statement.
Find:
Design a computer program that calculates the pressure and density.
SOLUTION
The following are sample values obtained using computer calculations.
altitude (km) temperature (o C) pressure (kPa) density (kg/m3 )

10 -35.7 27.9 0.409
15 -57.5 12.8 0.208
25 -46.1 2.75 0.042
80
Problem 3.54
clarity, and accuracy while also combining sketches, words and equations in ways
that enhance the effectiveness of your communication. There are many possible
good answers to these questions. Here, we give some examples.
a. For hydrostatic conditions, what do typical pressure distributions on a panel look

like? Sketch three examples that correspond to different situations.
• Arrows (which represent normal stress) are compressive.
• Arrows are normal to the panel.
• Pressure varies linearly with elevation.
• Slope of pressure with respect to elevation (dp/dz) equal the negative of specific
weight (dp/dz = −γ) .
b. What is a center of pressure? What is a centroid of area?

• The center of pressure is an imaginary point. If pressure distribution is replaced
with a statically equivalent "point force," then this resultant force acts at the
"center of pressure."
• The centroid of area is the "geometric center." For a flat plate, the centroid of
area is at the same location as the center of gravity for a thin uniform-density
plate of that shape,
c. In Eq. (3.23), what does p mean? What factors influence the value of p?
• P-bar (p)is the pressure evaluated at the elevation of the centroid of area.
• Typically p = γz. Since this equation has two variable, there are two factors
that influence the value of p :
— The specific weight of the liquid.

— The vertical distance z from liquid surface to the centroid of the panel.
d. What is the relationship between the pressure distribution on a panel and the
resultant force?
¯− ¯ Z
¯→¯
¯ ¯=
F pdA
panel area
e. How far is the center of pressure from the centroid of area? What factors influence
this distance?
81
• Distance is given by I/ (yA). Thus
— The shape of the panel determines I.

— The depth of liquid and the angle of the panel determine y.
— The size of the panel determines A.
82
Situation:
Two submerged gates are described in the problem statement.
Find:
Determine which statements are true.
(a) TA increases with H.
(b) TB increases with H.
(c) TA does not change with H.
(d) TB does not change with H.
PLAN
Apply equilibrium equations. Apply hydrostatic force equations.
SOLUTION
Let the horizontal gate dimension be given as b and the vertical dimension, h.
Torque (Gate A). Equilibrium. Sum moments about the hinge:
TA = F (ycp − ȳ) (1)
Hydrostatic force equation (magnitude)
F = p̄A (2)
µ ¶
h
= γ H− bh
2
Hydrostatic force equation (center of pressure)
I
ycp − ȳ = (3)
ȳA
bh3 1
= ¡ ¢
12 H − h2 bh
Combine eqns. 1 to 3:
TA = F (ycp − ȳ)
∙ µ ¶ ¸" 3 #
h bh 1
= γ H− bh ¡ ¢
2 12 H − h2 bh
bh3
= γ (4)
12
83
Therefore, TA does not change with H.
Torque (gate B). Equilibrium. Sum moments about the hinge:

µ ¶
h
TB = F + ycp − ȳ (5)
2
Combine eqns. 2, 3, and 5:

µ ¶
h
TB = F + ycp − ȳ
2
∙ µ ¶ ¸" #
h h bh3 1
= γ H− bh + ¡ ¢
2 2 12 H − h2 bh
γh2 b (3H − h)
= (6)
6
Thus, TA is constant but TB increases with H.
Case (b) is a correct choice.

Case (c) is a correct choice.
REVIEW
Case A provides an example of how to design a gate so that the torque to hold the
gate closed is independent of water depth.
84
Situation:
This problem involves Gate A (see sketch).
Find:
Choose the statements that are valid for Gate A.
(a) The hydrostatic force acting on the gate increases as H increases.
(b) The distance between the CP on the gate and the centroid of the gate decreases
as H increases.
(c) The distance between the CP on the gate and the centroid of the gate remains
constant as H increases.
(d) The torque applied to the shaft to prevent the gate from turning must be
increased as H increases.
(e) The torque applied to the shaft to prevent the gate from turning remains
constant as H increases.
SOLUTION
Let the horizontal gate dimension be given as b and the vertical dimension, h.
Torque (Gate A). Sum moments about the hinge:
TA = F (ycp − ȳ) (1)
Hydrostatic force equation (magnitude)
F = p̄A (2)
µ ¶
h
= γ H− bh
2
Hydrostatic force equation (center of pressure)
I
ycp − ȳ = (3)
ȳA
bh3 1
= ¡ ¢
12 H − h2 bh
Combine eqns. 1 to 3:
TA = F (ycp − ȳ)
∙ µ ¶ ¸" 3 #
h bh 1
= γ H− bh ¡ ¢
2 12 H − h2 bh
bh3
= γ (4)
12
85
Therefore, TA does not change with H. The correct answers are obtained by reviewing
the above solution.
a, b, and e are valid statements.
86
Situation:
Water exerts a load on square panel.
d = 1 m, h = 2 m
Find:
(a) Depth of the centroid (m).
(b) Resultant force on the panel (kN).
(c) Distance from the centroid to the center of pressure (m).
Properties:
Water (15 ◦ C), Table A.5: γ = 9800 N/ m3 .
PLAN
1. Locate the centroid by inspection (center of the panel).
2. Find the pressure at the depth of the centroid using the hydrostatic equation.
2. Find the resultant force using F = pA.
3. Find the distance between the centroid and the CP using ycp − ȳ = I/ (ȳA)
SOLUTION
1. Depth of the centroid of area:
z = d + h/2 = 1 m + (2 m) /2
z = 2m
2. Hydrostatic equation:
¡ ¢
p = γz = 9800 N/ m3 (2 m) = 19.6 kPa
3. Resultant force:
F = pA = (19.6 kPa) (2 m) (2 m)
F = 78.4 kN
4. Distance to CP:
87
• Find I using formula from Fig. A.1.
bh3 (2 m) (2 m)3
I= = = 1.333 m4
12 12
• Recognize that ȳ = z = 2 m.
• Final calculation:
I (1.333 m4 )
ycp − ȳ = =
ȳA (2 m) (2 m)2
ycp − ȳ = 0.167 m
88
Situation:
Seawater exerts a load on a round viewing window.
h = 1.2 m, θ = 600 , D = 0.8 m
Find:
Hydrostatic force on the window ( kN).
Locate the CP (center of pressure).
Properties:
Seawater: S = 1.03, γ = 1.03 × 9810 N/ m3 = 10100 N/ m3 .
PLAN
1. Find distances using trig.
2. Find the pressure at the depth of the centroid using the hydrostatic equation.
2. Find the resultant force using F = pA.
3. Find the distance between the centroid and the CP using ycp − ȳ = I/ (ȳA)
SOLUTION
1. Distances:
• Slant height
D h 0.8 m 1.2 m
ȳ = + = + = 1.786 m
2 sin θ 2 sin 60o
• Depth of centroid
D 0.8 m
∆z = h + sin 60o = 1.2 m + sin 60o = 1.546 m
2 2
2. Hydrostatic equation:
¡ ¢
p = γ∆z = 10100 N/ m3 (1.546 m) = 15.62 kPa
3. Resultant force:
π (0.8 m)2
F = pA = (15.62 kPa) = 7.85 kN
4
F = 7.85 kN
4. Distance to CP:
89
• Find I¯ using formula from Fig. A.1.
¯ πr4 π (0.4 m)4

I= = = 0.0201 1 m4
4 4
I (0.0201 1 m4 )
ycp − ȳ = = ³ 2
´ = 0.0224 m
ȳA (1.786 m) π(0.84 m)
ycp − ȳ = 22.4 mm
90
Situation:
Water exerts a load on a submerged gate.
Find:
Force of gate on block (kN).
SOLUTION
Hydrostatic force
Fhs = p̄A
= yγA
¡ ¢
= (10 m) × 9810 N/ m3 × (4 × 4) m2
= 1. 569 6 × 106 N
Center of pressure
I
ycp − ȳ =
ȳA
bh3 /12
=
ȳA
(4 × 43 /12) m4
=
(10 m) (4 × 4) m2
= 0.133 33 m
Equilibrium (sum moments about the pivot)
F (y − ȳ) − Fblock (2 m) = 0
¡ 6
¢ hs cp
1. 569 6 × 10 N (0.133 33 m) − Fblock (2 m) = 0
Fblock = 1.046 × 105 N (acts to the left)
Fgate = 105 kN (acts to the right)
91
Situation:
Wet concrete is held in place with forms.
Ties are spaced on 2 feet centers.
Find:
Hydrostatic force per foot on form (lbf/ft).
Force exerted on bottom tie (lbf).
Properties:
Concrete, γ = 150 lbf/ ft3 .
SOLUTION
Hydrostatic force
Fhs = pA = ȳγA
= 4.5 ft × 150 lbf/ ft3 × (9 ft)
Fhs = 6075 lbf
ft
Center of pressure
I
ycp = ȳ +
ȳA
(1 × 93 )/12
= 4.5 +
4.5 × 9
= 6.00 ft
Equilibrium (sum moments about the top tie)
Fhs × ycp
Fbottom tie =
h
2 ft × 6075 lbf/ ft × 6.00 ft
=
9 ft
8100 lbf
92
Fbottom tie = 8100 lbf (tension)
93
Situation:
A rectangular gate is hinged at the water line.
h = 4 ft, b = 10 ft.
Find:
Force to keep gate closed.
Properties:
From Table A.4, γ Water = 62.4 lbf/ft3 .
SOLUTION
Hydrostatic Force (magnitude):
FG = p̄A
¡ ¢¡ ¢
= γ H2 O × ȳ 40 ft2
¡ ¢¡ ¢
= 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 2 ft 40 ft2
= 4992 lbf
Center of pressure. Since the gate extends from the free surface of the water, FG
acts at 2/3 depth or 8/3 ft. below the water surface.
Moment Equilibrium. (sum moments about the hinge)
X
M = 0
(FG × 8/3 ft) − (4 ft) F = 0
4992 lbf × 8/3 ft

F =
4 ft
F = 3330 lbf to the left
94
Situation:
A submerged gate sits at an angle.
h = 6 m, b = 4 m, θ = 30 ◦ .
Find:
Reaction at point A.
Assumptions:
Gate is weightless.
Properties:
PLAN
The reaction at A can be found by summing moments about the stop. The steps are
1. Find the hydrostatic force.
2. Locate the center of pressure.
3. Sum moments about the stop.
SOLUTION
1. Hydrostatic force (magnitude)
F = p̄A
= (3 m + 3 m × cos 30◦ )(9810 N/m3 ) × 24 m2
F = 1, 318, 000 N
2. Center of pressure:
3
ȳ = 3 +
cos 30o
= 6.464 m
I
ycp − y =
ȳA
(4 × 63 /12) m4
=
6.464 m × 24 m2
= 0.4641 m
95
3. Moment equilibrium about the stop:
X
Mstop = 0
(6 m) RA − (3 m − 0.464 m) × 1, 318, 000 N = 0
Thus
RA = 557 kN (acting normal to the gate)
96
Situation:
A submerged gate holds back water.
b = 2m
Find:
Force P required to begin to open gate (kN).
Assumptions:
Gate is weightless.
Properties:
SOLUTION
√
The length of gate is 42 + 32 = 5 m
Hydrostatic force
F = p̄A
= (γ∆z) A
= (9810 N/ m3 )(3 m)(2 m × 5 m)
= 294.3 kN
Center of pressure
I¯
ycp − ȳ =
ȳA
((2 × 53 ) /12) m4
=
(2.5 m + 1.25 m) (2 m × 5 m)
= 0.555 6 m
97
‫‪Equilibrium‬‬
‫‪X‬‬
‫‪Mhinge = 0‬‬
‫‪294.3 kN × (2.5 m + 0.555 6 m) − (3 m) P = 0‬‬
‫‪P = 299. 75 kN‬‬
‫‪P = 300 kN‬‬
‫‪98‬‬
Situation:
A submerged gate opens when the water level reaches a certain value.
Find:
h in terms of to open gate.
PLAN
As depth of water increase, the center of pressure will move upward. The gate will
open when the center of pressure reaches the pivot.
SOLUTION
Center of pressure (when the gate opens)
ycp − ȳ = 0.60 − 0.5
= 0.10 (1)
Center of pressure (formula)
I¯
ycp − ȳ =
ȳA
( × 3 ) /12
= (2)
(h + /2) 2
( × 3 ) /12
0.10 =
(h + /2) 2
0.10 =
12(h + /2)
5 1
h = −
6 2
1
=
3
h = /3
99
Situation:
A butterfly valve is described in the problem statement.
d = 10 ft, θ = 30 ◦ , ȳ = 30 ft.
Find:
Torque required to hold valve in position (ft-lbf).
SOLUTION Hydrostatic force
F = p̄A = yγA
µ ¶
3 D2
= (30 ft × 62.4 lb/ft ) π × ft2
4
Ã !
2
(10 ft)
= 30 ft × 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × π ×
4
= 147, 027 lbf
Center of pressure
I
ycp − ȳ =
ȳA
πr4 /4
=
ȳπr2
(5 ft)2 /4
=
30 ft/0.866
= 0.1804 ft
Torque
Torque = 0.1804 ft × 147, 027 lbf

T = 26, 520 ft-lbf
100
Situation:
A submerged gate may fall due to its weight (or be held in place by pressure).
y1 = 1 m, y2 = 4 m, w = 1 m.
W = 150 kN, α = 45o .
Find:
Will the gate fall or stay in position?
Properties:
SOLUTION
1. Geometry
• Slant height:
y1 + y2 /2 (1 + 4/2) m
ȳ = = = 4.243 m
sin α sin 45o
• Depth of centroid:
µ ¶
y2 4
∆z = y1 + = 1+ m = 3m
2 2
• Panel surface area

³ y ´ µ ¶
2 4m
A= w= (1 m) = 5.657 m2
sin α sin 45o
2. Pressure at Centroid:
¡ ¢
p̄ = γ∆z = 9810 N/ m3 (3 m) = 29.43 kPa
3. Hydrostatic force:
¡ ¢
F = p̄A = (29.43 kPa) 5.657 m2 = 166.5 kN
4. Distance from CP to centroid:
101
• Area moment of inertia from Fig. A.1:
wh3
I¯ =
12
y2 4m
h = = = 5.657 m
sin α sin 45o
¯ wh3 (1 m) (5.657 m)3
I = = = 15. 09 m4
12 12
• Final Calculation:
I¯ (15. 09 m4 )
ycp − ȳ = = = 0.6287 m
ȳA (4.243 m) (5.657 m2 )
5. Torques:
• Torque caused by hydrostatic force:

h 5.657 m
xh = − (ycp − ȳ) = − 0.6287 m = 2.200 m
2 2
THS = F xh = (166.5 kN) (2.2 m) = 366 kN · m
• Torque caused by the weight:
y2 /2 4 m/2
xw = = = 2m
tan α tan 45o
TW = W xw = (150 kN) (2 m) = 300 kN · m
The torque caused by the hydrostatic force exceeds the torque caused by the weight:
So the gate will stay in position.
102
Situation:
A submerged gate may fall due to its weight.
y1 = 3 ft, y2 = 6 ft, w = 3 ft.
W = 18000 lbf, α = 45o .
Find:
Will gate fall or stay in position?
Properties:
Water (50 ◦ F), Table A.5, γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
SOLUTION
1. Hydrostatic Force:
• Area:
y2 6 ft
A= ×w = o
× 3 ft = 25.46 ft2
sin α sin 45
• Depth of the centroid of the plate:
y2 6 ft
∆z = y1 + = 3 ft + = 6 ft
2 2
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
F = p̄A = γ∆zA = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (6 ft) 25.46 ft2 = 9532 lbf
2. Distance from CP to centroid:
• Area moment of inertia from Fig. A.1:
wh3
I¯ =
12
y2 6 ft
h = = = 8.485 ft
sin α sin 45o
¯ wh3 (3 ft) (8.485 ft)3
I = = = 152.7 ft4
12 12
103
• Slant height:
h y1 8.485 ft 3 ft
ȳ = + = + = 8.485 ft
2 sin α 2 sin 45o
¡ ¢
I 152.7 ft4
ycp − ȳ = = ¡ ¢ = 0.7069 ft
ȳA (8.485 ft) 25.46 ft2
3. Torque due to weight:
• Moment arm:
y2 tan α (6 ft) (tan 45o )
x1 = = = 3 ft
2 2
M1 = W x1 = (18000 lbf) (3 ft) = 54000 ft lbf
4. Torque due hydrostatic pressure:
• Moment arm:
8.485 ft
x2 = h/2 − (ycp − ȳ) = − (0.7069 ft) = 3.536 ft
2
M1 = F x2 = (9532 lbf) (3.536 ft) = 33705 ft lbf
Since the torque due to weight exceeds the torque due to hydrostatic pressure:
the gate will fall .
104
Situation:
A submerged gate is described in the problem statement.
Find:
Hydrostatic force (F ) on gate.
Ratio (RT /F ) of the reaction force to the hydrostatic force.
SOLUTION
F = p̄A
µ ¶ µ ¶
2h W h/ sin 60◦
= h+ γ
3 2
5γW h2
F = √
3 3
I W (h/ sin 60◦ )3 Wh
ycp − ȳ = = ×
ȳA (36 × (5h/(3 sin 60 )) 2 sin 60◦
◦
h
= √
15 3
ΣM = 0 ∙µ ¶ µ ¶¸
◦ h h
RT h/ sin 60 = F − √
3 sin 60◦ 15 3
RT 3
=
F 10
105
Situation:
A concrete form is described in the problem statement.
y1 = 1.5 m, θ = 60 ◦ .
Find:
Moment at base of form per meter of length (kN·m/m).
Properties:
Concrete, γ = 24 kN/ m3 .
Assumptions:
Assume that the form has a length of w =1 meter into the paper.
PLAN
Find the moment by muliplying the hydrostatic force by its moment arm. The plan
for reaching the goal is:
1. Calculate the hydrostatic force.
2. Calculate the centroid of area using I = bh3 /12.
3. Calculate the center of pressure.
4. Use results from steps 1 to 4 to calculate the moment.
SOLUTION
1. Hydrostatic force
F = p̄A = γzc hw
µ ¶
1.5 m
h = height of panel = = 1. 732 1 m
sin 60◦
µ ¶
¡ 3
¢ 1.5
F = 24000 N/ m m (1. 732 1 m) (1 m) = 31178 N
2
2. Centroid of area
bh3 (1 m) (1. 732 1 m)3
I= = = 0.4331 m4
12 12
3. Center of pressure
106
I
ycp − ȳ =
ȳA
ȳ = (1. 732 1 m) /2 = 0.866 05 m
A = hw = (1. 732 1 m) (1 m) = 1.7321 m2
(0.4331 m4 )
ycp − ȳ = = 0.288 7 m
(0.866 05 m) (1.7321 m2 )
4. Moment at base
M = (force) (moment arm)

= (31178 N) (1. 732 1 m/2 − 0.288 7 m)
M = 18 kN·m per meter of form
107
Situation:
θ = 45 ◦ .
Find:
Is the gate stable or unstable.
SOLUTION
2 8
ycp = × = 7.54 m
3 cos 45◦
Point B is (8/cos 45◦ ) m - 3.5 m = 7.81 m along the gate from the water surface;
therefore, the gate is unstable.
108
Situation:
Two hemispherical shells are sealed together.
ro = 10.5 cm, ri = 10.75 cm.
Find:
Force required to separate the two shells.
Assumptions:
The pressure seal is at the average radius (r = 10.6 cm)
Properties:
patm = 101.3 kPa, pi = 0.25patm .
PLAN
1. Apply equilibrium to a freebody comprised of the top half of the shell plus the air
inside.
2. Calculate the force.
SOLUTION
1. Equilibrium.
Fpull
patmA
pinsideA
P
Fy = 0
Fpull + pi A − patm A = 0
2. Force to separate shells.
Fpull = (patm − pi ) A = patm (1 − 0.25) A

¡ ¢¡ ¢
= (1 − 0.25) 101000 N/ m2 π (0.106 m)2
= 2670 N
Fpull = 2670 N
109
Situation:
An air chamber is held together by bolts.
d = 20 cm, D = 40 cm.
A-A: 20 bolts, Dbolt = 2.5 cm.
Find:
Number of bolts required at section B-B.
Assumptions:
Same force per bolt at B-B.
SOLUTION
Hydrostatic force
F per bolt at A − A = p(π/4)D2 /20

³ π ´ D2 ³ π ´ d2
p = p
4 20 4 n
µ ¶2
d
n = 20 ×
D
µ ¶2
1
= 20 ×
2
n = 5 bolts
110
Situation:
Submerged rectangular and curved gates.
ȳ = 0.25 .
Find:
Magnitude of reaction at A.
Comparison to that for a plane gate.
SOLUTION
a)
2
FHydr = p̄A = (0.25 + 0.5 × 0.707) × ξW = 0.6036γW
I W 3 /12
ycp − ȳ = =
ȳA ((0.25 /0.707) + 0.5 ) × W
ycp − ȳ = 0.0976
X
Mhinge = 0
2
Then − 0.70RA + (0.5 + 0.0976 ) × 0.6036γW =0
2
RA = 0.510γW
b) The reaction here will be less because if one thinks of the applied hydrostatic
force in terms of vertical and horizontal components, the horizontal component will
be the same in both cases, but the vertical component will be less because there is
less volume of liquid above the curved gate.
111
Situation:
A radial gate holds back water.
Find:
Where the resultant of the pressure force acts.
SOLUTION
dF=pdA
Consider all the differential pressure forces acting on the radial gate as shown. Be-
cause each differential pressure force acts normal to the differential area, then each
differential pressure force must act through the center of curvature of the gate. Be-
cause all the differential pressure forces will be acting through the center of curvature
(the pin), the resultant must also pass through this same point (the pin).
Resultant passes through the pin.
112
Situation:
A curved surface is described in the problem statement.
= 1 m.
Find:
(a) Vertical hydrostatic force.
(b) Horizontal hydrostatic force.
(c) Resultant force.
Properties:
SOLUTION
FV = 1 m × 9, 810 N/ m3 × 1 m2 × +(1/4)π × (1 m)2 × 1 m × 9, 810 N/ m3

FV = 17, 515 N
M0
x =
FV
R1 √
1 × 1 × 1 × 9, 810 × 0.5 + 1 × 9, 810 × 1 − x2 xdx
0
=
17, 515 N
x = 0.467 m
FH = p̄A
= (1 + 0.5)9, 810 N/ m3 × 1 m × 1 m
FH = 14, 715 N
¯
ycp = ȳ + I/ȳA
(1 × 13 ) m4
= 1.5 +
12 × 1.5 m × 1 m × 1 m
ycp = 1.555 m
113
‫‪p‬‬
‫= ‪FR‬‬ ‫‪(14, 715 N)2 + (17, 515 N)2‬‬
‫‪FR = 22, 876 N‬‬
‫‪14, 715 N‬‬
‫= ‪tan θ‬‬
‫‪17, 515 N‬‬
‫‪θ = 40◦ 20‬‬
‫‪114‬‬
Situation:
A radial gate is described in the problem statement.
Find:
Hydrostatic force acting on gate.
SOLUTION
60o
y
x
The resultant must pass through the center of curvature of the gate. The horizontal
component of hydrostatic force acting on the gate will be the hydrostatic force acting
on the vertical projection of the gate or:
Hydrostatic force
FH = p̄A
= 25 ft × 62.4 lb/ft3 × 40 ft × 50 ft
FH = 3, 120, 000 lb
The vertical component of hydrostatic force will be the buoyant force acting on the
radial gate. It will be equal in magnitude to the weight of the displaced liquid (the
weight of water shown by the cross-hatched volume in the above Fig.).
115
Thus,
FV = γV
µ ¶
2 1
where V = 2
[(60/360)π × 50 ft − 50 × 50 cos 30◦ ft2 ] × 40 ft
2
= 226.5 ft2 × 40 ft
= 9600 ft3
Then FV = (62.4 lbf/ft3 )(9060 ft3 ) = 565, 344 lbs
Fresultant = (3, 120, 000 i + 565, 344 j)lbf
acting through the center of curvature of the gate.

Situation:
A plug sits in a hole in the side of a tank.
z = 2 m, ro−ring = 0.2 m, rplug = 0.25 m.
Find:
Horizontal and vertical forces on plug.
Properties:
SOLUTION
Hydrostatic force
Fh = p̄A
= γzA
= 9810 N/ m3 × 2 m × π × (0.2 m)2
Fh = 2465 N
116
The vertical force is simply the buoyant force.
Fv = γV
4
= 9810 N/ m3 × × π × (0.25 m)3
6
Fv = 321 N
117
Situation:
A dome below the water surface is described in the problem statement.
y1 = 1 m, y2 = 2 m.
Find:
Magnitude and direction of force to hold dome in place.
Properties:
SOLUTION
1. Horizontal component of force.
FH = (1 m + 1 m)9810 N/ m3 × π × (1 m)2
= 61, 640 N = 61.64 kN
2. Center of pressure.
I
(ycp − ȳ) =
ȳA
π × (1 m)4 /4
=
2 m × π × (1 m)2
= 0.125 m
3. Vertical component of force

µ ¶Ã !
1 4π × (1 m)3
FV = 9, 810 N/ m3
2 3
= 20, 550 N
FV = 20.6 kN
4. Answer
Fhorizontal = 61.6 kN (applied to the left to hold dome in place)
118
Line of action is 0.125 m below a horizontal line passing through the dome center
Fvertical = 20.6 kN (applied downward to hold dome in place)
119
Situation:
A dome below the water surface.
d = 10 ft
Find:
Force on the dome.
Properties:
Water, Table A.5: γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
SOLUTION
Vertical projection
(4/3)(r/
The horizontal component of the hydrostatic force acting on the dome will be the
hydrostatic force acting on the vertical projection of the bottom half of the dome.
Hydrostatic force
FH = p̄A
µ ¶µ ¶
4 5
p̄ = ft (62.4 lbf/ft3 )
3 π
= 132.4 lbf/ft2
³π ´
FH = (132.4 lbf/ft2 ) (102 ) ft2 = 5, 199 lbf
8
The vertical component of force will be the buoyant force acting on the dome. It
will be the weight of water represented by the cross-hatched region shown in the Fig.
(below).
Dome
120
Thus,
FV = γV
µ ¶
3 (1/6)πD3
= (62.4 lbf/ft ) ft3
4
FV = 8, 168 lbf
The resultant force is then given below. This force acts through the center of curva-
ture of the dome.
Fresult = 5, 199i + 8, 168j lbf
121
Problem 3.80
Apply the grid method to each situation described below. Note: Unit cancellations
are not shown in this solution.
a.)
Situation:
A basketball floating in a lake.
Find:
Find buoyant force (N).
Assumptions:
m = 596 g.
Solution:
Since the basketball is floating, the buoyant force equals the weight of the ball.
The mass of a basketball is between 567 and 624 grams (from encarta.msn.com on
2/12/08). Using a typical mass:
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
596 g 1.0 kg 9.81 m N · s2
FB = Weight = mg = ≈ 5.9 N
1.0 1000 g s2 kg · m
FB ≈ 5.9 N
b.)
Situation:
Copper sphere in kerosene.
D = 1 mm.
Find:
Properties:
Kerosene (20 ◦ C), Table A.4, γ = 8010 N/ m3 .
Solution:
FB = γV
3
πD3 ¡ ¢
3 π (0.001 m)
FB = γ = 8010 N/ m = 4.19 × 10−6 N
6 6
FB = 4.19 × 10−6 N
c.)
Situation:
Helium balloon in air.
D = 12 in.
Find:
122
Properties:
Air (20 ◦ C), Table A.3, γ = 11.8 N/ m3 .
Solution:
FB = γV
Ã !µ ¶3
πD3 ¡ ¢ π (12 in.)3 1.0 m
FB = γ = 11.8 N/ m3 = 0.175 N
6 6 39.37 in.
FB = 0.175 N
123
Problem 3.81
a. Why learn about buoyancy? That is, what are important technical problems that
involve buoyant forces?
• boiling heat transfer—vapor bubbles are acted on by buoyant force.
• particles in liquids—sand carried by a river; mixing of solids in liquids.
• vessel design—ships, submarines, jet-skis, etc.
b. For a buoyant force, where is the center of pressure? Line of action?
• The buoyant force acts through an imaginary point called the center of pressure.
• The center of pressure is at the center-of-mass of the displaced fluid.
• For a uniform density fluid, the center of pressure is at the centroid of volume
of the displaced fluid.
• The buoyant force acts parallel to an imaginary line called the "line of action."
This line in parallel to the gravity vector.
c. What is displaced volume? Why is it important?
• When the object is placed into a fluid, it move fluid away. This volume of this
fluid is called the "displaced volume."
• Displaced volume is important because the buoyant forces is the product of

displaced volume and specific weight.
124
d. What is the relationship between pressure distribution and buoyant force?
• The integral of pressure over surface area gives the buoyant force:
Z
F = −pn̂dA
A
125
Situation:
A rod is floating in a liquid.
Find:
Determine if the liquid is
a. lighter than water
b. must be water
c. heavier than water.
SOLUTION
Rod weight
W = (2LAγ W + LA(2γ W )
W = 4LAγ W (1)
Since part of the rod extends above the liquid,
FB < Vγ Liq = 3LAγ Liq (2)
Equilibrium applied to the rod
W = FB (3)
Combine Eqs. (1), (2) and (3).
4LAγ W < 3LAγ Liq

4
γ Liq > γ .
3 W
The liquid is more dense than water so is answer c).
126
Situation:
A ship is sailing from salt to fresh water.
W = 35000 tons = 70 × 106 lbf.
A = 38000 ft2 , L = 800 ft.
Find:
Will the ship rise or settle?
Amount (ft) the ship will rise or settle.
PLAN
1. To establish whether the ship will rise or settle, apply the equilibrium equation.
2. Determine the volume displaced in both salt and fresh water.
3. Calculate the distance the ship moves.
SOLUTION
1. Equilibrium. The weight of the ship is balanced by the buoyant force
W = FB = γV
As the ship moves into freshwater, the specific weight of the water decreases Thus,
the volume of the displaced water will increase as shown below.
W = FB = (γ ↓) (V ↑)
Thus the ship will settle .
2. Volume displaced (salt water):
W = FB = γ s V s
W 70 × 106 lbf
Vs = = ¡ ¢
γs 1.03 62.4 lbf/ ft3
Volume displaced (fresh water):
W = FB = γ f V f
W 70 × 106 lbf
Vf ==
γf 62.4 lbf/ ft3
3. Distance Moved. The distance moved ∆h is given by
∆V = A∆h
where ∆V is the change in displaced volume and A is the section area of the ship at
the water line. Thus:
µ ¶ Ã !
70 × 106 lbf 70 × 106 lbf ¡ ¢
3 − ¡ 3
¢ = 38000 ft2 ∆h
62.4 lbf/ ft 1.03 62.4 lbf/ ft
Thus:
∆h = 0.860 ft
127
Situation:
A spherical buoy is anchored in salt water.
W = 1200 N, D = 1.2 m.
T = 4500 N, y = 20 m.
Find:
Weight of scrap iron (N) to be sealed in the buoy.
Properties:
Seawater, Table A.4 γ s = 10070 N/ m3 .
PLAN
1. Find the buoyant force using the buoyant force equation.
2. Find the weight of scrap iron by applying equilibrium.
SOLUTION
1. Buoyant force equation:
¡ ¢ π (1.2 m)3
FB = γ s V = 10070 N/ m3 = 9111 N
6
2. Equilibrium
ΣFy = 0
FB = Wbuoy + Wscrap + T
9111 N = 1200 N + Wscrap + 4500 N
Wscrap = 3420 N
128
Situation:
A buoy has a spherical top and conical bottom.
m = 460 kg, D = 1 m, θ = 30 ◦ .
Find:
Location of water level.
Properties:
ρ = 1010 kg/ m3 .
SOLUTION
The buoyant force is equal to the weight.
FB = W
The weight of the buoy is 9.81 × 460 = 4512 N.

The volume of the hemisphere at the bottom of the buoy is
1π 3 π π 3
V= D = 13 = m
26 12 12
The buoyant force due to the hemisphere is
π
FB = (9.81 m/ s2 )(1010 kg/ m3 ) = 2594 N
12
Since this is less than the buoy weight, the water line must lie above the hemisphere.
Let h is the distance from the top of the buoy. The volume of the cone which lies
between the top of the hemisphere and the water line is
π 2 π π
V = ro ho − r2 h = (0.52 × 0.866 − h3 tan2 30)
3 3 3
3
= 0.2267 − 0.349h
129
The additional volume needed to support the weight is
4512 N − 2594 N
V= = 0.1936 m3
9.81 m/ s2 × 1010 kg/ m3
Equating the two volumes and solving for h gives

0.0331
h3 = = 0.0948 m3
0.349
h = 0.456 m
130
Situation:
In air, a rock weighs Wair = 1000 N.
In water, a rock weighs Wwater = 609 kg.
Find:
The volume of the rock (liters).
Properties:
Water (15o C) ,Table A.5, γ = 9800 N/ m3 .
PLAN
1. Apply equilibrium to the rock when it is submerged in water.
2. Solve the equation from step 1 for volume.
SOLUTION
1. Equilibrium:
⎧ ⎫
⎨ Force to hold ⎬ ½ ¾ ½ ¾
Buoyant Force Weight of rock
rock stationary in water + =
⎩ ⎭ on rock in air
(apparent weight)
Wwater + FB = Wair
Wwater + γV = Wair
609 N + 9810 N/ m3 V = 1000 N
2. Solve for volume

1000 N − 609 N
V= 3
= 0.0399 m3
9810 N/ m
V = 39.9 L
131
Situation:
A cube is suspended in carbon tetrachloride.
m1 = 700 g, L = 0.06 m
Find:
The mass of the cube (kg).
Properties:
Carbon Tetrachloride (20o C) ,Table A.4, γ = 15600 N/ m3 .
PLAN
1. Find the force on the balance arm scale by finding the weight of the block.
2. Find m2 by applying equilibrium to the cube.
SOLUTION
1. Force on balance arm:
½ ¾ ½ ¾
Force on Weight ¡ ¢
= = mg = (0.7 kg) 9.81 m/ s2 = 6.867 N
balance arm of block
2. Equilibrium (applied to cube):
½ ¾ ½ ¾
Force on Buoyant Force
+ = {Weight of cube}
balance arm on cube
F + γ (L2 )3 = m2 g
Solve for m2 :
F + γ (L2 )3 (6.867 N) + (15600 N/ m3 ) (0.06 m)3
m2 = =
g 9.81 m/ s2
m2 = 1.04 kg
132
Situation:
A block is submerged in water.
Wwater = 300 N, Wair = 700 N.
Find:
The volume of the block (liters).
The specific weight of the material that was used to make the block (N/m3 ).
Properties:
Water (15o C) ,Table A.5, γ = 9800 N/ m3 .
PLAN
1. Find the block’s volume by applying equilibrium to the block.
2. Find the specific weight by using the definition.
SOLUTION
1. Equilibrium (block submerged in water):
⎧ ⎫
⎨ Force to hold ⎬ ½ ¾ ½ ¾
Buoyant Force Weight of block
block in water + =
⎩ ⎭ on block in air
(apparent weight)
Wwater + FB = Wair
Wwater + γ H2O V = Wair
Solve for volume:

Wair − Wwater
V =
γ H2O
700 N − 300 N
= = 4.08 × 10−2 m3
9800 N/ m3
V = 40.8 L
2. Specific weight (definition):
weight of block 700 N

γ block = = = 17200 N/ m3
volume of block 4.08 × 10−2 m3
γ block = 17.2 kN/ m3
133
Situation:
A cylindrical tank is filled with water.
A cylinder of wood is set afloat in the water.
Dtank = 1 ft, Dwood = 6 in.
Wwood = 2 lbf, Lwood = 3 in.
Find:
Change of water level in tank.
Properties:
PLAN
When the wood enters the tank, it will displace volume. This volume can be visualized
as adding extra water to the tank. Thus, find this volume and use it to determine
the increase in water level.
1. Find the buoyant force by applying equilibrium.
2. Find the displaced volume by applying the buoyancy equation.
3. Find the increase in water level by equating volumes
SOLUTION
1. Equilibrium
weight of block = buoyant force on block
FB = Wblock = 2 lbf
2. Buoyancy equation
FB = γ H2 O V D = 2 lbf
2 lbf 3
VD = 3 = 0.03205 ft
62.4 lbf/ ft
2. Volume
V D = (volume change) = (tank section area) (height change)
3 π (1 ft)2
0.03205 ft = ∆h
4
∆h = 0.041 ft
134
Situation:
An inverted cone contains water (state 1).
A block (S = 0.6) is added (state 2).
V = (π/3) h3 , h1 = 10 cm.
V block = 200 cm3 .
Find:
Change of water level.
SOLUTION
1. Equilibrium (apply to block)
FB = Wblock = (γ block ) (V block )
2. Buoyancy equation
¡ ¢
FB = γ H2 O (V D ) = (γ block ) (V block )
Thus µ ¶
γ block ¡ ¢
(V D ) = (V block ) = (0.6) 200 cm3 = 120 cm3
γ H2 O
3.Volume considerations.
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
final initial water displaced
= +
volume volume volume
Calculate initial water volume

π π
V = h3 = (10 cm)3 = 1047 cm3
3 3
Calculate final volume
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
V final = 1047 cm3 + 120 cm3 = 1167 cm3
4. Increase in water level

π 3
h
V final =
3 f
π
1167 cm3 = h3f
3
135
‫‪hf = 10.368 cm‬‬
‫‪∆h = 10.368 cm − 10 = 0.368 cm‬‬

‫‪∆h = 0.37 cm‬‬
‫‪136‬‬
Situation:
A platform floats in water.
Wplatform = 30 kN, Wcylinder = 1 kN/ m.
y = 1 m, Dcylinder = 1 m.
Find:
Length of cylinder so that the platform floats 1 m above water surface.
Properties:
γ water = 10, 000 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
1.Equilibrium (vertical direction)
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
Weight of Weight of Buoyant force
+4 =4
platform a cylinder on a cylinder
µ ¶
1000 N
(30000 N) + 4L = 4 (γV D )
m
µ ¶ µ ¶Ã !
1000 N 10000 N π (1 m)2
(30000 N) + 4L =4 (L − 1 m)
m m3 4
1. Solve for L
L = 2.24 m
137
Situation:
A block floats in two layered liquids.
b = 6L, h = 3L.
Find:
Depth block will float.
Assumptions:
The block will sink a distance y into the fluid with S = 1.2.
Properties:
ρblock = 0.8ρwater .
SOLUTION
1. Equilibrium.
X
Fy = 0
µ ¶ µ ¶
Weight Pressure force
− + = 0
of block on btm of block
− (V block ) (γ block ) − pbtm A = 0
−(6L)2 × 3L × 0.8γ water + (L × γ water + y × 1.2γ W )36L2 = 0
y = 1.167L
d=y+L
d = 2.17L
138
Situation:
A submerged gate has a concrete block attached to it.
b = 1 m, = 2 m.
Find:
Minimum volume of concrete to keep gate in closed position (m3 ).
Properties:
Concrete γ = 23.6 kN/ m3 .
SOLUTION
Hydrostatic force on gate and CP
F = p̄A = 1 m × 9, 810 N/ m3 × 2 m × 1 m = 19, 620 N
I 1 m × (2 m)3
ycp − ȳ = = = 0.33 m
ȳA 12 × 1 m × 2 m × 1 m
Sum moments about the hinge to find the tension in the cable
1 − 0.33
T = 19, 620 × = 5, 258 N
2.5
Equilibrium applied to concrete block
µ ¶ µ ¶
Tension Buoyant
+ = (Weight)
in cable force
T + Vγ H2 O = Vγ c
Solve for volume of block
T
V =
γ c − γ H2 O
5258 N
=
23, 600 N/ m3 − 9, 810 N/ m3
V = 0.381 m3
139
Situation:
Ice is added to a cylindrical tank holding water.
d = 2 ft, h = 4 ft.
Wice = 5 lb.
Find:
Change of water level in tank after ice is added.
Change in water level after the ice melts.
Explain all processes.
Properties:
SOLUTION
Change in water level (due to addition of ice)
Wice = Fbuoyancy
= ∆V W γ W
So
Wice 5 lbf
∆V W = =
γW 62.4 lbf/ ft3
= 0.0801 ft3
Rise of water in tank (due to addition of ice)
∆V W
∆h =
Acyl
0.0801 ft3
= = 0.02550 ft = 0.3060 in
(π/4)(2 ft)2
∆h = 0.306 in <== (due to addition of ice)
Answer ⇒ When the ice melts, the melted water will occupy the same volume of
water that the ice originally displaced; therefore, there will be no change in water
surface level in the tank after the ice melts.
140
Situation:
A partially submerged wood pole is attached to a wall.
θ = 30 ◦ .
Find:
Density of wood.
Properties:
γ = 9810 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
Mhinge = 0
−Wwood × (0.5L cos 30 ) + FB. × (5/6)L cos 30◦ = 0
◦
µ ¶ µ ¶
◦ 1 5 ◦
−γ wood × AL × (0.5L cos 30 ) + ALγ H2 O × L cos 30 = 0
3 6
¡ ¢
γ wood = 10
18
γ H2 O
γ wood = 5, 450 N/m3
ρwood = 556 kg/m3
141
Situation:
d = 25 cm, W = 200 N.
y = 10 m, L = 1 m.
Find:
Length of chain so that gate just on verge of opening.
PLAN
Apply hydrostatic force equations and then sum moments about the hinge.
SOLUTION
Hydrostatic force
πD2
FH = p̄A = 10 m × 9, 810 N/ m3 ×
4
2 π 2
= 98, 100 N/ m × π (1 m)
4
= 77, 048 N
I
ycp − ȳ =
ȳA
πr4 /4
=
10 m × πD2 /4
r2
ycp − ȳ = = 0.00625 m
40
Equilibrium
142
F
ycp-y
FH
X
MHinge = 0
FH × (0.00625 m) − 1 m × F = 0
But F = Fbuoy − W
= A(10 m − )γ H2 O − 200
π
= (0.25 m)2 (10 − )(9, 810 N/ m3 ) − 200 N
4
= 4815.5 N − 481.5 N − 200 N
= (4615.5 − 481.5 ) N
where = length of chain
77, 048 N × 0.00625 m − 1 m × (4615.5 − 481.5 ) N = 0

(481.55 − 4615.5 + 481.5 ) N m = 0
= 8.59 m
143
Situation:
A balloon is used to carry instruments.
z = 15000 ft, Wballoon = 8.3 psia.
Winstruments = 10 lbf.
Find:
Diameter of spherical balloon.
Assumptions:
Standard atmospheric temperature condition.
Properties:
pair = 8.3 psia.
PLAN
Apply buoyancy force and the ideal gas law.
SOLUTION
Temperature in the atmosphere
T = 533 − 3.221 × 10−3 × 15, 000 = 485R

Ideal gas law
8.3 psia × 144 in2 / ft2

ρair =
1, 715 ft lbf/ slug ◦ R × 485 ◦ R
= 0.001437 slugs/ft3
8.3 psia × 144 in2 / ft2
ρHe =
12, 429 ft lbf/ slug ◦ R × 485 ◦ R
= 0.000198 slugs/ft3
Equilibrium
F
B
WI
144
X
F = 0
= FB − Whelium − Wmaterial − Winstruments
1
= πD3 g(ρair − ρHe ) − πD2 (0.01 lbf/ ft2 ) − 10 lbf
6
= D3 × 16.88(14.37 − 1.98)10−4 − D2 × 3.14 × 10−2 − 10
D = 8.35 ft
145
Situation:
A helium weather balloon is made of flexible material.
pballoon = 10 kPa + patm .
dsea = 1 m, m = 100 g.
Find:
Maximum altitude of balloon.
Assumptions:
T0 = 288 K
SOLUTION
Initial Volume
π 3
V0 = D
6 0
π
= (1 m)3
6
= 0.524 m3
Ideal gas law

p0,He
ρ0,He =
RHe T0
111, 300 kPa
=
(2077 J/ kg K)(288 K)
= 0.186 kg/m3
Conservation of mass
m0 = malt.
V 0 ρ0,He = V alt. ρHe
ρ0,He
V alt. = V 0
ρHe
Equilibrium
X
Fz = 0
Fbuoy. − W = 0
V alt. ρair g − (mg + WHe ) = 0
Eliminate V
–alt. µ ¶
V 0 ρ0
ρair g = (mg + V 0 ρ0,He g)
ρHe
Eliminate ρ’s with equation of state
(V 0 ρ0 )(palt. /Rair )g
= (mg + V 0 ρ0 g)
(palt. + 10, 000)/(RHe )
146
(0.524 m3 )(0.186 kg/ m3 )(9.81 m/ s2 )(2077 J/ kg K)palt.
(palt. + 10, 000)(287 J/ kg K)
= (0.1 kg)(9.81 m/ s2 ) + (0.524 m3 )(0.186 kg/ m3 )(9.81 m/ s2 )
Solve
palt. = 3888 Pa
Check to see if palt. is in the troposphere or stratosphere. Using Eq. (3.15) solve for
pressure at top of troposphere.
∙ ¸g/αR
T0 − α(z − z0 )
p = p0
T0
∙ ¸5.823
296 K − 5.87 × 10−3 K/ m(13, 720 m)
= 101, 300 Pa
296 K
= 15, 940 Pa
Because palt. < pat top of troposphere we know that palt. occurs above the stratosphere.
The stratosphere extends to 16.8 km where the temperature is constant at -57.5o C.
The pressure at the top of the stratosphere is given by Eq. (3.16)
∙ p = p0 e−(z−z0 )g/RT ¸
9.81 m/ s2
= 15.9 kPa exp −(16, 800 − 13, 720) m ×
287 J/ kg K × 215.5 K
= 9.75 kPa
Thus the balloon is above the stratosphere where the temperature increases linearly
at 1.387o C/km. In this region the pressure varies as
∙ ¸−g/αR
T0 + α(z − z0 )
p = p0
T0
Using this equation to solve for the altitude, we have

∙ ¸−9.81/(0.001387×287)
3888 kPa 215.5 K + 1.387 K/ km × (z − 16.8) km
=
9750 kPa 215.5 K
0.399 = [1 + 0.00644 × (z − 16.8)]−24.6
z = 22.8 km
147
Situation:
A hydrometer in water.
V bulb = 1 cm3 , Astem = 0.1 cm2 .
z = 5.3 cm.
Find:
Weight of hydrometer.
Properties:
Water, γ W = 9810 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
Equilibrium
Fbuoy. = W
V DγW = W
Calculations
(1 cm3 + (5.3 cm)(0.1 cm2 ))(0.1m)3 /cm3 (γ W ) = W

(1.53 cm3 )(10−6 m3 /cm3 )(9810 N/m3 ) = W
W = 1.50 × 10−2 N
148
Situation:
A hydrometer is floating in oil.
V bulb = 1 cm3 , Astem = 0.1 cm2 .
z = 6.3 cm (not 5.3 cm as shown in sketch), W = 0.015 N.
Find:
Specific gravity of oil.
Properties:
γ W = 9810 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
1. Equilibrium
Fbuoy. = W
V D γ oil = W
2. Calculations
(1 cm3 + (6.3 cm)(0.1 cm2 ))(0.013 ) m3 /cm3 γ oil = 0.015 N

(1 + 0.63) × 10−6 m3 γ oil = 0.015 N
γ oil = 9202 N/m3
3. Definition of S
γ oil
S =
γ H2 O
9202 N/ m3
=
9810 N/ m3
S = 0.938
149
Situation:
A hydrometer is described in the problem statement.
Find:
Weight of each ball.
Properties:
S10% = 1.012, S50% = 1.065.
γ water = 9810 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
Equilibrium (for a ball to just float, the buoyant force equals the weight)
FB = W (1)
Buoyancy force µ ¶
πD3
FB = γ fluid (2)
6
Combine Eq. (1) and (2) and let D = 0.01 m.
µ ¶
πD3
W = Sγ water
6
Ã !
π (0.01)3
= S (9810)
6
= 5.136 × 10−3 S (3)
The following table (from Eq. 3) shows the weights of the balls needed for the required
specific gravity intervals.
ball number 1 2 3 4 5 6
sp. gr. 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06
weight (mN) 5.19 5.24 5.29 5.34 5.38 5.44
150
Situation:
A hydrometer floats in a liquid.
Liquid levels range from btm to top of stem.
d1 = 1 cm, d2 = 2 cm.
L1 = 8 cm, L2 = 8 cm.
W = 35 g.
Find:
Range of specific gravities.
Properties:
γ H2 O = 9810 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
When only the bulb is submerged
FB = W
V D γ H2 O = W
π£ ¤
(0.02 m)2 × 0.08 m × 9810 N/ m3 × S = 0.035 kg × 9.81 m/ s2
4
S = 1.39
When the full stem is submerged
π£ ¤
(0.02 m)2 × (0.08 m) + (0.01 m)2 × (0.08 m) 9, 810 N/ m3 ×S = 0.035 kg×9.81 m/ s2
4
S = 1.11
Thus, the range is
1.11 ≤ S ≤ 1.39
151
Situation:
A barge is floating in water.
l = 50 ft, b = 20 ft.
W = 400, 000 lbf.
Find:
Stability of barge.
Properties:
SOLUTION
400000 lbf
Draft =
50 ft × 20 ft × 62.4 lbf/ ft3
= 6.41 ft < 8 ft
I00
GM = − CG
V
(50 ft × (20 ft)3 /12)
= − (8 − 3.205) ft
(6.41 ft × 50 ft × 20 ft)
= 0.40 ft
Will float stable
152
Situation:
A floating body is in water.
Find:
Location of water line for stability.
Specific gravity of material.
SOLUTION
For neutral stability, the distance to the metacenter is zero. In other words
Ioo
GM = − GC = 0
V
where GC is the distance from the center of gravity to the center of buoyancy.
Moment of inertia at the waterline

w3 L
Ioo =
12
where L is the length of the body. The volume of liquid displaced is wL so
w3 L w2
GC = =
12 wL 12
The value for GC is the distance from the center of buoyancy to the center of gravity,
or
w
GC = −
2 2
So
w w2
− =
2 2 12
or µ ¶2
1
− + =0
w w 6
Solving for /w gives 0.789 and 0.211. The first root gives a physically unreasonable
solution. Therefore
= 0.211
w
153
The weight of the body is equal to the weight of water displaced.
γbVb = γf Vf
Therefore
γb w L
S= = 2 = = 0.211
γf w L w
S = 0.211
The specific gravity is smaller than this value, thus the body will be unstable (floats
too high).
154
Situation:
A block of wood.
d = 1 m, L = 1 m.
Find:
Stability.
Properties:
γ wood = 7500 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
1 × 7500 N/ m3
draft = = 0.7645 m
9, 810 N/ m3
0.7645 m
cfrom bottom = = 0.3823 m
2
Metacentric height
G = 0.500 m; CG = 0.500 − 0.3823 = 0.1177 m

I
GM = − CG
V
πR4 /4
= − 0.1177
0.7645 × πR2
= 0.0818 m − 0.1177 m (negative)
Thus, block is unstable with axis vertical.
155
Situation: A block of wood.
d = 1 m, L = 1 m.
Find:
Stability.
Properties:
γ wood = 5000 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
5000 N/ m3
draft = 1m ×
9810 N/ m3
= 0.5097 m
Metacentric height
I00
GM = − CG
"V # µ ¶
4
π × (0.5 m) /4 0.5097
= − 0.5 − m
0.5097 m × π × (0.5 m)2 2
= −0.122 m, negative
So will not float stable with its ends horizontal.
156
Situation:
A floating block is described in the problem statement.
W = 2H, L = 3H.
Find:
Stability.
SOLUTION
Analyze longitudinal axis
I00
GM = − CG
V
3H(2H)3 H
= −
12 × H × 2H × 3H 2
H
= −
6
Not stable about longitudinal axis.
Analyze transverse axis.
2H × (3H)3 3H
GM = −
12 × H × 2H × 3H 4
= 0
Neutrally stable about transverse axis.

Not stable
157
Situation:
Unsteady flow.
Find:
Identify five examples of an unsteady flow explain what features classify them as
unsteady?
SOLUTION
1. Gust of wind blowing past a pole.
2. Flow next to a rock in a natural river.
3. Flow past the lips due to inhaling and exhaling.
4. The motion of water at the center of a boiling pot.
5. At the outlet hose of a manual tire pump.
1
Situation:
Pouring a heavy syrup on pancakes.
Find:
Would the thin film of syrup be a laminar or turbulent flow?
SOLUTION
The velocity is very low, the viscosity is high and the thickness of the layer is thin.
These conditions favor laminar flow.
2
Situation:
Breathing through your mouth.
Find:
Sense the air flow patterns near your face. Discuss the type of flow associated with
these flow processes.
Why is it easier to blow out a candle by exhaling than by inhaling?
SOLUTION
The main point to this question is that while inhaling, the air is drawn into your
mouth without any separation occurring in the flow that is approaching your mouth.
Thus there is no concentrated flow; all air velocities in the vicinity of your face are
relatively low. However, when exhaling as the air passes by your lips separation
occurs thereby concentrating the flow of air which allows you to easily blow out a
candle.
3
Situation:
The valve in a system is gradually opened to have a constant rate of increase in
discharge.
Find:
Describe the flow at points A and B.
SOLUTION
A: Unsteady, uniform.
B: Non-uniform, unsteady.
4
Situation:
Water flows in a passage with flow rate decreasing with time.
Find:
Describe the flow.
SOLUTION
(b) Unsteady and (d) non-uniform.
5
Situation:
A flow pattern has converging streamlines.
Find:
Classify the flow.
SOLUTION
Non-uniform; steady or unsteady.
6
Situation:
A fluid flows in a straight conduit. The conduit has a section with constant
diameter, followed by a section with changing diameter.
Find:
Match the given flow labels with the mathematical descriptions.
SOLUTION
Steady flow corresponds to ∂Vs /∂t = 0.
Unsteady flow corresponds to ∂Vs /∂t 6= 0.
Uniform flow corresponds to ∂Vs /∂s = 0.
Non-uniform flow corresponds to ∂Vs /∂s 6= 0.
7
Situation:
A series of flows are either one, two or three dimensional.
Find:
Classify the flows as one, two or three dimensional.
(a) Water flow over the crest of a long spillway of a dam.
(b) Flow in a straight horizontal pipe.
(c) Flow in a constant-diameter pipeline that follows the contour of the ground in
hilly country.
(d) Airflow from a slit in a plate at the end of a large rectangular duct.
(e) Airflow past an automobile.
(f) Air flow past a house.
(g) Water flow past a pipe that is laid normal to the flow across the bottom of a
wide rectangular channel.
SOLUTION
a. Two dimensional e. Three dimensional

b. One dimensional f. Three dimensional
c. One dimensional g. Two dimensional
d. Two dimensional
8
Situation:
Path of a fluid particle.
Find:
If a light was attached to a fluid particle and take a time exposure, would the image
you photographed be a pathline or streakline?
SOLUTION
The pathline is defined as the path taken by a fluid particle moving through a field.
The photograph would yield this line.
9
Situation:
Smoke rising from a chimney.
Find:
The pattern produced by smoke rising from a chimney on a windy day is analogous
to a pathline or streakline?
SOLUTION
The streakline is defined as a line generated by a tracer injected into flow at starting
point. The tracer is the smoke and the starting point is the chimney so smokes pattern
is analogous to a streakline. The diffusion of the smoke prevents achieving a fine line.
10
Situation:
Dye is injected into a flow field and produces a streakline.
Pathline starts at t = 4 s, ends at t = 10 s. Flow speed is constant.
Find:
Draw a pathline of the particle.
SOLUTION
The streakline shows that the velocity field was originally in the horizontal direction
to the right and then the flow field changed upward to the left. The pathline starts
off to the right and then continues upward to the left.
Streakline
Pathline
11
Situation:
A dye streak was started, and a particle was released.
For 0 ≤ t ≤ 5 s, u = 2 m/ s, v = 0.
For 5 < t ≤ 10 s, u = 3 m/ s, v = −4 m/ s.
Find:
For t = 10 s, draw to scale the streakline, pathline of the particle, and streamlines.
SOLUTION
From 0<t<5, the dye in the streakline moved to the right for a distance of 10 m. At
the same time a particle is released from the origin and travels 10 m to the right.
Then from 5<t<10, the original line of dye is transported in whole downward to the
right while more dye is released from the origin. The pathline of the particle proceeds
from its location at t=5 sec downward to the right.
At 10 sec, the streamlines are downward to the right.
12
Situation:
A dye streak is produced in a flow that has a constant speed.
Find:
Sketch a streamline at t = 8 s.
Sketch a particle pathline at t = 10 s for a particle that was released from point A
at time t = 2 s.
Sketch:
SOLUTION
At 8 seconds (near 10 sec) the streamlines of the flow are horizontal to the right.
Streamlines at t = 8 s
Initially the flow is downward to the right and then switches to the horizontal direction
to the right. Thus one has the following pathline.
Particle pathline for a particle released at t = 2 s
13
Situation:
Acceleration.
Find:
Is the acceleration vector always aligned with the velocity vector?
SOLUTION
No. For flow along a curved path, there is a centripetal acceleration which is normal
to the velocity vector.
14
Situation:
Rotating bodies.
Find:
Is the acceleration toward the center of rotation a centripetal or centrifugal accel-
eration?
SOLUTION
The acceleration toward the center of rotation is centripetal acceleration. "Petal"
comes from Latin word"petere" which means to move toward so "centripetal" means
moving toward center. "Fugal" comes from Latin "fugere" which means to flee so
"centrifugal" means moving from center.
15
Situation:
Flow past a circular cylinder with constant approach velocity.
Find:
Describe the flow as:
(a) Steady or unsteady.
(b) One dimensional, two dimensional, or three dimensional.
(c) Locally accelerating or not, and is so, where.
(d) Convectively accelerating or not, and if so, where.
SOLUTION
(a) Steady.
(b) Two-dimensional.
(c) No.
(d) Convective acceleration is present at each where a fluid particles changes speed
as it moves along the streamline. Centripetal acceleration, which is also a form of
convective acceleration occurs where there is stfreamline curvature.
16
Situation:
A path line is given with velocity as a function of distance and time.
V = s2 t1/2 , r = 0.5 m.
s = 2 m, t = 0.5 s.
Find:
Acceleration along and normal to pathline (m/s2 ).
PLAN
Apply Eq. 4.5 for acceleration along pathline.
SOLUTION
Equation 4.5 µ ¶
∂V ∂V V2
a = (V + )et + en
∂s ∂t r
Evaluation of velocity and derivatives at s = 2 m and t = 0.5 sec.
V = s2 t1/2 = 22 × 0.51/2 = 2.83 m/s

∂V
= 2st1/2 = 2 × 2 × 0.51/2 = 2.83 1/s
∂s
∂V 1 2 −1/2 1
= st = × 22 × 0.5−1/2 = 2.83 m/s2
∂t 2 2
Evaluation of the acceleration
µ ¶
2.832
a = (2.83 × 2.83 + 2.83)et + en
0.5
a = 10.8et + 16.0en (m/s2 )
17
Situation:
Air is flowing around a sphere in a wind tunnel.
u = −Uo (1 − ro3 /x3 ).
Find:
An expression for the acceleration of a fluid particle on the x-axis. The form of the
answer should be ax = ax (x, ro , Uo ).
PLAN
Use Eq. 4.5 along x-axis which is a pathline. Replace V with u and s with x.
SOLUTION
∂u ∂u
ax = u +
∂x µ ∂t ¶ µ µ ¶¶ µ µ ¶¶
r03 ∂ r03 ∂ r03
= −U0 1 − 3 −U0 1 − 3 + −U0 1 − 3
x ∂x x ∂t x
µ 3
¶µ 3
¶
r r
= U02 1 − 03 −3 04 + 0
x x
r03 r03
ax = −(3 U02 )(1 − )
x4 x3
18
Situation:
Flow occurs in a tapered passage. The velocity is given as
V = 5 m/ s − 2.25 tto m/ s, ∂V /∂s = +2 s−1 , t0 = 0.5 s.
Find:
(a) local acceleration at section AA ( m/ s2 ).
(b) Convective acceleration at section AA ( m/ s2 ).
SOLUTION
a) Local acceleration
∂V 2.25
al = =−
∂t t0
2.25
= −
0.5
al = −4.5 m/s2
b) Convective acceleration
∂V
ac = V
∂s
0.5
= (5 − 2.25 × ) m/s × 2 1/s
0.5
ac = 5.5 m/s2
19
Situation:
One-dimensional flow occurs in a nozzle.
Vtip = 4 ft/ s, Vbase = 1 ft/ s, L = 1.5 ft.
Find:
Convective acceleration ( ft/ s2 ).
SOLUTION
Velocity gradient.
dV Vtip − Vbase
=
ds L
(4 − 1) ft/ s
=
1.5 ft
−1
= 2s
Acceleration at mid-point
(1 + 4) ft/ s
V =
2
= 2.5 ft/s
dV
ac = V
ds
= 2.5 ft/ s × 2
ac = 5 ft/ s2
20
Situation:
One-dimensional flow occurs in a nozzle and the velocity varies linearly with dis-
tance along the nozzle.
Vtip = 4t ft/ s, Vbase = 1t ft/ s, t = 2 s.
Find:
Local acceleration midway in the nozzle ( ft/ s2 ).
SOLUTION
∂V
a =
∂t
t + 4t
V =
2
= 2.5t (ft/s)
Then
∂
a = (2.5t)
∂t
a = 2.5 ft/s2
21
Situation:
Flow in¡ a ¢two-dimensional
³ ´ slot.
V = 2 qbo tto , x = 2B, y = 0 in.
Find:
An expression for local acceleration midway in nozzle.
SOLUTION
µ ¶µ ¶
qo t
V = 2 but b = B/2
b to
µ ¶µ ¶
4qo t
V =
B to
∂V
al =
∂t
4qo
al =
Bto
22
Situation:
Flow in a two-dimensional slot and velocity varies as
¡ qo ¢ ³ t ´
V =2 b to
, x = 2B, y = 0 in.
Find:
An expression for convective acceleration midway in nozzle.
SOLUTION
V ∂V
ac =
∂x
The width varies as
x
b=B−
8
µ ¶ ³
q0 x ´−1
V = 2t B −
t 8
µ 0¶ µ ¶³
∂V q0 1 x ´−2
= 2t B−
∂x t0 8 8
2 2
V ∂V (q0 /t0 ) 4t (1/8)
ac = =
∂x (B − (1/8)x)−3
At x = 2B
µ ¶2
q0 t2
ac = (1/2)
t0 ((3/4)B)−3
µ ¶2 2
q0 t
ac = 32/27
t0 B3
23
Situation:
Water flow in a nozzle with
2t
V =
(1 − 0.5x/L)2
L = 4 ft, x = 0.5L, t = 3 s.
Find:
Local acceleration ( ft/ s2 ).
Convective acceleration ( ft/ s2 ).
SOLUTION
a = ∂V /∂t
= ∂/∂t[2t/(1 − 0.5x/L)2 ]
= 2/(1 − 0.5x/L)2
= 2/(1 − 0.5 × 0.5L/L)2
a = 3.56 ft/s2
ac = V (∂V /∂x)
= [2t/(1 − 0.5x/L)2 ]∂/∂x[2t/(1 − 0.5x/L)2 ]
µ ¶
4t2 0.5
= (−2) −
L(1 − 0.5x/L)5 L
2
4×3
=
4 × (1 − 0.5 × 0.5L/L)5
ac = 37.9 ft/s2
24
Situation:
State Newton’s second law of motion.
Find:
Are there any limitations on the use of Newton’s second law?
SOLUTION
Newtons second law states
F = ma
where m is the mass of the system. The velocity (and acceleration) must be measured
with respect to an inertial reference frame and the mass must be constant.
25
Situation:
Force weight and force pressure.
Find:
What is the difference between a force due to weight and a force due to pressure?
SOLUTION
The force due to weight is the gravitational attraction on the mass and the magnitude
of the force depends on the mass. The force due to pressure is the force acting on a
surface and depends on the magnitude of the pressure and the area of the surface.
26
Situation:
Flow through an inclined pipe at 30o from horizontal.
a = −0.3g.
Find:
Pressure gradient in flow direction.
PLAN
Apply Euler’s equation.
SOLUTION
o
30
Euler’s equation
∂
(p + γz) = −ρa
∂
∂p ∂z
+γ = −ρa
∂ ∂
∂p ∂z
= −ρa − γ
∂ ∂
γ
= − × (−0.30g) − γ sin 30◦
g
= γ(0.30 − 0.50)
∂p
= −0.20γ
∂
27
Situation:
Kerosene is accelerated upward in vertical pipe.
S = 0.81, az = 0.3g.
Find:
Pressure gradient required to accelerate flow ( lbf/ ft3 ).
Properties:
γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN Apply Euler’s equation.
SOLUTION Applying Euler’s equation in the z direction.
∂(p + γz) γ
= −ρaz = − × 0.30g
∂z g
∂p
+ γ = −0.30γ
∂z
∂p
= γ(−1 − 0.30)
∂z ¡ ¢
= 0.81 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (−1.30)
∂p
= −65.7 lbf/ft3
∂z
28
Situation:
A hypothetical liquid flows through a vertical tube.
v = 0.
Find:
Direction of acceleration.
Properties:
γ = 10 kN/ m3 , pB − pA = 12 kPa.
PLAN Apply Euler’s equation.
SOLUTION Euler’s equation
∂
ρa = − (p + γz)
∂
µ ¶
1 ∂p ∂z
a = − −γ
ρ ∂ ∂
Let be positive upward. Then ∂z/∂ = +1 and ∂p/∂ = (pA − pB )/1 = −12, 000
Pa/m. Thus
g
a = (12, 000 − γ)
γ
µ ¶
12, 000
a = g −1
γ
a = g(1.2 − 1.0) m/s2
a has a positive value; therefore, acceleration is upward. Correct answer is a).
29
Situation:
A piston and water accelerating upward at 0.5g.
a = 0.5g, z = 2 ft.
Find:
Pressure in water column (psfg).
Properties:
ρ = 62.4 lbm/ ft3 , γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation
∂
ρa = − (p + γz)
∂
Let be positive upward.
∂p ∂z
ρ(0.5g) = − −γ
∂ ∂
γ ∂p
( )(0.5g) = − − γ(1)
g ∂
∂p
= −γ(0.5 + 1) = −1.5γ
∂
Thus the pressure decreases upward at a rate of 1.5γ. The pressure at the top is
atmospheric. At a depth of 2 ft.:
p2 = (1.5γ)(2) = 3γ
= 3 ft. × 62.4 lbf/ft3
p2 = 187 psfg
30
Situation:
Water stands with depth of 10 ft in a vertical pipe open at top and supported by
piston at the bottom.
z = 0 ft, z2 = 10 ft.
Find:
Acceleration of piston ( ft/ s2 ).
Properties:
γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 , ρ = 1.94 slug/ ft3 .
p1 = 8 psig, p2 = 0 psig.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation
∂
(p + γz) = −ρas
∂s
Take s as vertically upward with point 1 at piston surface and point 2 at water surface.
−∆(p + γz) = ρas ∆s

−(p2 − p1 ) − γ(z2 − z1 ) = ρas ∆s
−(0 − 8 psig × 144 in2 / ft2 ) − 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 10 ft = 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 10as
(8 psig × 144 in2 / ft2 − 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 10 ft)
as =
19.4 slug/ ft3
as = 27.2 ft/s2
31
Situation:
Water accelerates in a horizontal pipe.
as = 6 m/ s2 , ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 .
Find:
Pressure gradient ( N/ m3 ).
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation with no change in elevation
∂p
= −ρas
∂s
= −1, 000 kg/ m3 × 6 m/ s2
∂p
= −6, 000 N/m3
∂s
32
Situation:
Water accelerated from rest in horizontal pipe.
L = 100 m, D = 30 cm, as = 5 m/ s2 .
Find:
Pressure at upstream end ( kPa).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 , pdownstream = 90 kPa.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation with no change in elevation
∂p
= −ρas
∂s
= −1, 000 kg/ m3 × 5 m/ s2
= −5, 000 N/m3
∂p
pdownstream − pupstream = ∆s
∂s ¡ ¢
pupstream = 90, 000 Pa + 5, 000 N/ m3 (100 m)
= 590, 000 Pa, gage
pupstream = 590 kPa, gage
33
Situation:
Water stands in a vertical pipe closed at the bottom by a piston.
z = 10 ft.
Find:
Maximum downward acceleration before vaporization ( ft/ s2 ).
Assumptions:
Vapor pressure is zero.
Properties:
ρ = 62.4 lbm/ ft3 = 1.94 slug/ ft3 , γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Applying Euler’s equation in the z-direction with p = 0 at the piston surface
∂
(p + γz) = −ρaz
∂z
∆(p + γz) = −ρaz ∆z
(p + γz)at water surface − (p + γz)at piston = −ρaz (zsurface − zpiston )
patm − pv + γ(zsurface − zpiston ) = −12 ρaz
¡ ¢
14.7psi (144psf/psi) − 0 + 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (10 ft) = −10 × 1.94 slug/ ft3 × az
az = −141 ft/s2
34
Situation:
A liquid flows through a conduit.
Find:
Which statements can be discerned with certainty:
(a) The velocity is in the positive direction.
(b) The velocity is in the negative direction.
(c) The acceleration is in the positive direction.
(d) The acceleration is in the negative direction.
Assumptions:
Viscosity is zero.
Properties:
pA = 170 psf, pB = 100 psf, γ = 100 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation
∂
−
(p + γz) = ρa
∂
∂p ∂z
− −γ = ρa
∂ ∂
where ∂p/∂ = (pB − pA )/ = (100 − 170)/2 = −35 lb/ft3 and ∂z/∂ = sin 30◦ = 0.5.
Then
1
a = (35 lb/ ft3 − (100)(0.5))
ρ
1
= (−15 ) lbf/ft3
ρ
• Because a has a negative value we conclude that Answer ⇒ (d) the accelera-
tion is in the negative direction .
• Answer ⇒ The flow direction cannot be established; so answer (d) is the only
answer that can be discerned with certainty.
35
Situation:
Velocity varies linearly with distance in water nozzle.
L = 1 ft, V1 = 30 ft/ s, V2 = 80 ft/ s.
Find: Pressure gradient midway in the nozzle (psf/ft).
Properties:
ρ = 62.4 lbm/ ft3 = 1.94 slug/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation
∂
(p + γz) = −ρax
∂x
but z =const.; therefore
∂p
= −ρax
∂x
∂V
ax = aconvective = V
∂x
∂V
= (80 − 30)/1 = 50 s−1
∂x
Vmid = (80 ft/ s + 30 ft/ s)/2 = 55 ft/s
= (55 ft/s)(50 ft/s/ft) = 2, 750 ft/s2
Finally
∂p
= (−1.94 slug/ft3 )(2, 750 ft/s2 )
∂x
∂p
= −5, 330 psf/ft
∂x
36
Situation:
Closed tank is full of liquid.
L = 3 ft, H = 4 ft, ax = 0.9g.
a = 1.5g, S = 1.2.
Find:
(a) pC − pA (psf).
(b) pB − pA (psf).
Properties:
ρ = 1.94 slug/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation. Take in the z-direction.
dp d
− − γ = ρal
d d
dp
= −ρ(g + a )
d ¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= −1.2 1.94 slug/ ft3 (32.2 ft/ s2 − 1.5 32.2 ft/ s2 )
= 37.5 psf/ft
pB − pA = −37.5 psf/ft × 4 ft
pB − pA = −150 psf
Take in the x-direction. Euler’s equation becomes

dp
− = ρax
dx
pC − pB = ρax L
= 1.2 × 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 0.9g × 3 ft
= 202.4 psf
pC − pA = pC − pB + (pB − pA )
pC − pA = 202.4 − 150
pC − pA = 52.4 psf
37
Situation:
Closed tank is full of liquid.
L = 2.5 m, H = 3 m, ax = 2/3g, a = 1.2g, S = 1.3.
Find:
(a) pC − pA ( kPa).
(b) pB − pA ( kPa).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Euler’s equation in z direction
dp
+ γ = −ρaz
dz
dp
= −ρ(g + az )
dz
dp ¡ ¢
= −1.3 1, 000 kg/ m3 (9.81 m/ s2 − 6.54 m/ s2 )
dz
= −4, 251 N/m3
¡ ¢
pB − pA = 4, 251 N/ m3 (3 m)
= 12, 753 Pa
pB − pA = 12.7 kPa
Euler’s equation in x-direction

dp
− = ρax
dx
pC − pB = ρax L
= 1.3 × 1, 000 × 9.81 × 2.5
= 31, 882 Pa
pC − pA = pC − pB + (pB − pA )
pC − pA = 31, 882 + 12, 753
= 44, 635 Pa
pC − pA = 44.6 kPa
38
Situation:
Stirring a liquid in a cup.
Find:
Report on the contour of the surface. Provide an explanation for the observed
shape.
SOLUTION
Stirring the cup of liquid creates a surface depressed at the center and higher at the
wall of the cup. The difference in depth between the wall and the cup center creates
an inward radial force to keep the fluid moving in a circle.
39
Situation:
A cyclonic separator separates solid particles from a gas stream by inducing a spin
in the gas stream
Find:
Explain the mechanism by which the particles are separated from the gas.
SOLUTION
With no particles in the separator, the pressure gradient in the gas is just sufficient
to provide a force equal to the centripetal acceleration and keep the gas moving in
a circle. The pressure force is insufficient to keep the heavier particles moving in a
circle and they migrate to the outer walls.
40
Situation:
A closed tank filled with water is rotated about a vertical axis.
D = 4 ft, ω = 10 rad/ s.
Find:
Pressure at bottom center of tank (psig).
Properties:
PLAN
Apply the equation for pressure variation equation- rotating flow.
SOLUTION
Pressure variation equation- rotating flow
ρr2 ω 2 ρrp2 ω 2
p + γz − = pp + γzp −
2 2
where pp = 0, rp = 3 ft and r = 0, then
ρ
p = − (rω)2 + γ(zp − z)
µ2 ¶
1.94 slug/ ft3 ¡ ¢
= (3 ft × 10)2 + 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (2.5 ft)
2
= −717 psfg = −4.98 psig
p = −4.98 psig
41
Situation:
A tank of liquid is rotated on an arm.
S = 0.80, D = 1 ft.
h = 1 ft, r = 2 ft.
VA = 20 ft/ s, pA = 25 psf.
Find:
Pressure at B (psf).
Properties:
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation- rotating flow from point A to point B.
SOLUTION
2 2
ρrA ω ρr2 ω2
pA + γzA − = pB + γzB − B
2 2
ρ 2 2
pB = pA + (ω )(rB − rA2 ) + γ(zA − zB )
2
where ω = VA /rA = 20/1.5 = 13.333 rad/s and ρ = 0.8 × 1.94 slugs/ft3 . Then
£ ¤ £ ¤
pB = 25psf + 1.94 slug/ ft3 (0.80/2) (13.33 rad/ s2 ) (2.5 ft)2 − (1.5 ft)2 + 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (0.8) (−1)
= 25 + 551.5 − 49.9
pB = 527 psf
42
Situation:
A cream separator is in operation.
D = 20 cm, f = 9000 rpm.
Find:
Centripetal acceleration (m/s2 ).
RCF.
SOLUTION
The centripetal acceleration is
V2
ar = = ω2r
r
The rotational rate of the separator is
µ ¶
9000rpm
ω = 2π = 942.5 rad/s
60 s/ min
The radius of the separator is 10 cm or 0.1 m. The acceleration is
ar = (942.5 rad/ s)2 (0.1 m)

ar = 88831 m/s2
The RCF is
RCF = 88831 m/s2 /9.81 m/s2

RCF = 9055
43
Situation:
A closed tank with liquid is rotated about the vertical axis.
ω = 10 rad/s, rB = 0.5 m, az = 4 m/ s2 .
Find:
Difference in pressure between points A and B (kPa).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 , S = 1.2.
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow between points B & C. Let
point C be at the center bottom of the tank.
SOLUTION
2 2
ρrB ω ρr2 ω2
pB − = pC − C
2 2
where rB = 0.5 m, rC = 0 and ω = 10 rad/s. Then
ρ 2 2
pB − pC = (ω )(r )
2
1200 kg/ m3
= (100 rad2 / s2 )(0.25 m2 )
2
= 15, 000 Pa
pC − pA = 2γ + ρaz
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢¡ ¢
= 2 11, 772 N/ m3 + 1, 200 kg/ m3 4 m/ s2 (2)
= 33.1 kPa
Then
pB − pA = pB − pC + (pC − pA )
= 15, 000 Pa + 33, 144 Pa
= 48, 144 Pa
pB − pA = 48.1 kPa
44
Situation:
A U-tube rotating about the leg on the right side.
r1 = 0.5 m, z1 = 0.5 m.
z2 = 0 m, r2 = 0 m.
Find:
Maximum rotational speed so that no liquid escapes from the leg on the left side
(rad/s).
PLAN
Since the fluid is in rigid body rotation, apply the pressure variation equation for
rotating flow. At the condition of imminent spilling, the liquid will be to the top of
the left leg and at the bottom of the right leg. Thus, locate point 1 be at top of the
left (outside) leg. Locate point 2 at the bottom of the right (inside) leg.
SOLUTION

ρr12 ω 2 ρr2 ω 2
p1 + γz1 − = p2 + γz2 − 2 (1)
2 2
Term-by-term analysis
p1 = p2 = 0 kPa-gage
z1 = 0.5 m
r1 = 0.5 m
z2 = 0m
r2 = 0m
Substitute values into Eq. 1.
ρr12 ω 2 ρr2 ω 2
p1 + γz1 − = p2 + γz2 − 2
2 2
2 2 2
ρ (0.5 m ) ω
0 + ρg (0.5 m) − =0+0−0
2
(0.52 m2 ) ω 2
g (0.5 m) − =0
2
ω 2 = 4g
√
ω=2 g
ω = 6.26 rad/s
45
Situation:
A stagnation tube in a tank is rotated.
ω = 100 rad/ s, r = 20 cm, γ = 10000 N/ m3 .
Find:
Location of liquid surface in central tube.
PLAN
Pressure variation equation for rotating flow from pt. 1 to pt. 2 where pt. 1 is at
liquid surface in vertical part of tube and pt. 2 is just inside the open end of the
Pitot tube.
SOLUTION
1 0
2
10 cm
Elevation view Plan view
p1 V12 p2 V22
− + z1 = − + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
p2 r2 ω2
0 − 0 + (0.10 + ) = − −0 (1)
γ 2g
where z1 = z2 . If we reference the velocity of the liquid to the tip of the Pitot tube
then we have steady flow and Bernoulli’s equation will apply from pt. 0 (point ahead
of the Pitot tube) to point 2 (point at tip of Pitot tube).
p0 V02 p2 V22
+ + z0 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
0.1γ r2 ω2 p2
+ = +0 (2)
γ 2g γ
Solve Eqs. (1) & (2) for

= 0 liquid surface in the tube is the same as the elevation as outside liquid surface.
46
Situation:
A U-tube partially full of liquid is rotating about one leg.
f = 50 rpm, S = 3.0, r1 = 1 ft.
Find:
Specific gravity of other fluid.
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow between points 1 & 2.
SOLUTION
2 1
S=3.0
ρr22 ω 2 ρr12 ω 2
p2 + γz2 − = p1 + γz1 −
2 2
where z2 = z1 , r1 = 0, r2 = 1 ft. and ω = (50/60) × 2π = 5.236 rad/s. Then
£ ¡ 3
¢¤ 2 (5.236 rad/ s)
2
p2 = 3 1.94 slug/ ft (1 ft) = 79.78 psfg (1)
2
Also, by hydrostatics, because there is no acceleration in the vertical direction
1
p2 = 0 + × γf (2)
2
where γ f is the specific weight of the other fluid. Solve for γ f between Eqs. (1) &
(2)
γ f = 159.6 lbf/ft3
γf
S =
γ H2 O
159.6
=
62.4
S = 2.56
47
Situation:
A manometer is rotated about one leg.
∆z = 20 cm, r = 10 cm, S = 0.8.
Find:
Acceleration in g’s in leg with greatest amount of oil.
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow between the liquid surfaces of
1 & 2Let leg 1 be the leg on the axis of rotation. Let leg 2 be the other leg of the
manometer.
SOLUTION
ρr12 ω2 ρr2 ω2
p1 + γz1 − = p2 + γz2 − 2
2 2
γ r22 ω 2
0 + γz1 − 0 = γz2 −
g 2
2 2
r2 ω
= z2 − z1
2g
an = rω 2
(z2 − z1 )2g
=
r2
(0.20)(2g)
=
0.1
an = 4g
48
Situation:
A fuel tank rotated in zero-gravity environment.
f = 3 rpm, r1 = 1.5 m, zA = 1 m.
Find:
Pressure at exit (Pa).
Properties:
ρ = 800 kg/ m3 , p1 = 0.1 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow from liquid surface to point
A. Call the liquid surface point 1.
SOLUTION
ρr12 ω 2 ρr2 ω 2
p1 + γz1 − = pA + γzA − A
2 2
2
ρω 2
pA = p1 + (r − r12 ) + γ(z1 − zA )
2 A
However γ(z1 − zA ) = 0 in zero-g environment. Thus
µ ¶2
800 kg/m3 6π
pA = p1 + ((1.5 m)2 − (1 m)2 )
2 60 rad/s
= 100 Pa + 49.3 Pa
pA = 149 Pa
49
Situation:
A rotating set of tubes has liquid in the bottom of it.
D1 = 2d, D2 = d.
r2 = , z2 = 4 .
Find:
Derive a formula for the angular speed when the water will begin to spill.
PLAN
Start with pressure variation equation for rotating flow. Let point 1 be at the liquid
surface in the large tube and point 2 be at the liquid surface in the small tube.
SOLUTION
ρr12 ω 2 ρr2 ω 2
p1 + γz1 − = p2 + γz2 − 2
2 2
3.75 l
The change in volume in leg 1 has to be the same as leg 2. So
∆h1 d21 = ∆h2 d22

µ 2¶
d2
∆h1 = ∆h2
d21
∆h2
=
4
The elevation difference between 1 and 2 will be
3
z2 − z1 = 3 +
4
= 3.75
Then p1 = p2 = 0 gage, r2 = , and z2 − z1 = 3.75 so
50
‫‪ρr22 ω 2‬‬
‫) ‪= γ(3.75‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫‪γ 2 2‬‬
‫‪( )ω = 3.75γ‬‬
‫‪2g‬‬
‫‪7.5g‬‬
‫= ‪ω2‬‬
‫‪r‬‬
‫‪7.5g‬‬
‫=‪ω‬‬
‫‪51‬‬
Situation:
Water fills a tube that is closed at one end.
D = 1 cm, r = 40 cm, ω = 50 rad/s.
Find:
Force exerted on closed end (N).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow from the open end of the tube
to the closed end.
SOLUTION
ρr12 ω 2 ρr2 ω 2
p1 = γz1 − = p2 + γz2 − 2
2 2
where z1 = z2 . Also let point 2 be at the closed end; therefore r1 = 0 and r2 = 0.40
m.
ρ
p2 = (0.4 m)2 (50 rad/s)2
2 ¡ ¢¡ ¢
= 500 kg/ m3 0.16 m2 2500 rad2 / s2
= 200 kPa
Then
F = p2 A = 200, 000 Pa(π/4)(.01 m)2

F = 15.7 N
52
Situation:
Water sits in a U-tube that is closed at one end.
D = 1 cm, L = 40 cm, ω = 50 rad/s.
Find:
Rotational speed when water will begin to spill from open tube (rad/s).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 , γ = 9810 N/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow between water surface in leg
A-A to water surface in open leg after rotation.
SOLUTION
When the water is on the verge of spilling from the open tube, the air volume in the
closed part of the tube will have doubled. Therefore, we can get the pressure in the
air volume with this condition.
pi V i = pf V f
and i and f refer to initial and final conditions
Vi 1
pf = pi = 101 kPa ×
Vf 2
pf = 50.5 kPa, abs = −50.5 kPa, gage

2 2
ρrA ω ρropen ω2
pA + γzA − = popen + γzopen −
2 2
2 2
ρ(6 ) ω
pA + 0 − 0 = 0 + γ × 6 −
2 µ 2¶
3 3
¡ 3
¢ 2 ω
−50.5 × 10 Pa = 9810 N/ m (6) (0.1 m) − 1000 kg/ m (0.6 m)
2
3 2
−50.5 × 10 = 5886 − 180ω
w2 = 313.3
ω = 17.7 rad/s
53
Situation:
Water is pumped from a reservoir by a centrifugal pump consisting of a disk with
radial ports.
r = 5 cm, f = 3000 rpm, z1 = 0 m.
Find:
Maximum operational height (m).
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow
Locate point 1 at the liquid surface where z = 0.
Locate point 2 at the outer edge of the rotating disk.
SOLUTION
Pressure variation equation
ρr12 ω2 ρr2 ω2
p1 + γz1 − = p2 + γz2 − 2
2 2
ρr22 ω2
0 + 0 − 0 = 0 + γz2 −
2
2 2
r ω
z2 = 2
2g
Rotational Rate
ω = (3000 rev/min)(1min/60 s)(2π rad/rev) = 314.1 rad/s
Find z2
r22 ω 2 (0.05 m)2 (314.1 rad/ s)2

z2 = = =
2g 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
z2 = 12.6 m
54
Situation:
A tank rotated about the horizontal axis and water in tank rotates as a solid body.
V = rω, z = −1, 0, +1 m, ω = 5 rad/ s.
Find:
Pressure gradient each value of z (kPa/m).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow.
SOLUTION
Pressure variation equation- rotating flow.
∂p ∂p
+γ = −ρrω 2
∂r ∂r
∂p
= −γ − ρrω 2
∂z
when z = −1 m
∂p
= −γ − ρω 2
∂z µ ¶
ω2
= −γ 1 +
g
25
= −9, 810 N/ m3 (1 + )
9.81 m/ s2
∂p
= −34.8 kPa/m
∂z
when z = +1 m
∂p
= −γ + ρω 2
∂z µ ¶
ω2
= −γ 1 +
g
µ ¶
3 25
= −9810 N/ m × 1 −
9.81 m/ s2
∂p
= 15.2 kPa/m
∂z
55
At z = 0
∂p
= −γ
∂z
∂p
= −9.81 kPa/m
∂z
56
Situation:
A tank rotated about the horizontal axis and water in tank rotates as a solid body.
Find:
Derive an equation for the maximum pressure difference.
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation for rotating flow.
SOLUTION
Below the axis both gravity and acceleration cause pressure to increase with decrease
in elevation; therefore, the maximum pressure will occur at the bottom of the cylin-
der. Above the axis the pressure initially decreases with elevation (due to gravity);
however, this is counteracted by acceleration due to rotation. Where these two ef-
fects completely counter-balance each other is where the minimum pressure will occur
(∂p/∂z = 0). Thus, above the axis:
∂p
= 0 = −γ + rω2 ρ minimum pressure condition
∂z
Solving: r = γ/ρω 2 ; pmin occurs at zmin = +g/ω 2 .Using the equation for pressure
variation in rotating flows between the tank bottom where the pressure is a maximum
( zmax = −r0 ) and the point of minimum pressure.
ρr02 ω 2 ρr2 ω2
pmax + γzmax − = pmin + γzmin − min
2 2
2 2
ρr ω γg ρ(g/ω2 )2 ω2
pmax − γr0 − 0 = pmin + 2 −
2 ω 2
∙ ¸
ρω 2 2 ³ g ´2 ³ g´
pmax − pmin = ∆pmax = r0 − + γ r0 +
2 ω2 ω2
Rewriting
ρω 2 r02 γg
∆pmax = + γr0 + 2
2 2ω
57
Situation:
A tank 4 ft in diameter and 12 feet long rotated about horizontal axis and water
in tank rotates as a solid body. Maximum velocity is 25 ft/s.
V = rω, Vmax = 25 ft/ s.
D = 4 ft, L = 12 ft.
Find:
Maximum pressure difference in tank (psf).
Point of minimum pressure (ft).
Properties:
PLAN
Same solution procedure applies as in Prob. 4.55.
SOLUTION
From the solution to Prob. 4.55 pmin occurs at z = γ/ρω 2 where ω = (25 ft/s)/2.0 ft
= 12.5 rad/s. Then
γ
zmin =
ρω 2
g
=
ω2
32.2 ft/ s2
=
(12.5 rad/ s)2
zmin = 0.206 ft above axis
The maximum change in pressure is given from solution of Problem 4.55
ρω 2 r02 γg
∆pmax = + γr0 + 2
2 2ω ¡ ¢
1.94 slug/ ft (12.5 rad/ s)2 (2 ft)2
3
3 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (32.2 ft/ s2 )
= + 62.4 lbf/ ft (2 ft) +
2 2 (12.5 rad/ s)2
= 606.2 + 124.8 + 6.43
∆pmax = 737 psf
58
Situation:
High winds.
Find:
Applying the Bernoulli equation, explain how a roof might be lifted from a house.
SOLUTION
If a building has a flat roof as air flows over the top of the building separation will
occur at the sharp edge between the wall and roof. Therefore, most if not all of
the roof will be in the separation zone. Because the zone of separation will have a
pressure much lower than the normal atmospheric pressure a net upward force will
be exerted on the roof thus tending to lift the roof.
Even if the building has a peaked roof much of the roof will be in zones of separation.
These zones of separation will occur downwind of the peak. Therefore, peaked roof
buildings will also tend to have their roofs uplifted in high winds.
59
Situation:
Aspirators.
Find:
How does an aspirator work?
SOLUTION
Air is forced through a constriction in a duct There is a port at the smallest area
connected to a reservoir of fluid to be aspirated. The Bernoulli equation predicts
a minimum pressure at the contraction which pulls fluid into the air flow from the
reservoir and breaks it up into droplets that emerge from the aspirator.
60
Situation:
A water jet fires vertically from a nozzle.
V = 20 ft/ s.
Find:
Height jet will rise.
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation from the nozzle to the top of the jet. Let point 1 be
in the jet at the nozzle and point 2 at the top.
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
where p1 = p2 = 0 gage
V1 = 20 ft/s
V2 = 0
(20 ft/ s)2
0+ + z1 = 0 + 0 + z2
2g
400 ft2 / s2
z2 − z1 = h =
64.4 ft/ s2
h = 6.21 ft
61
Situation:
Water discharges from a pressurized tank.
z1 = 0.5 m, z2 = 0 m, V1 = 0 m/ s.
Find:
Velocity of water at outlet (m/s).
Properties:
Water (20 ◦ C, 10 kPa), Table A.5: ρ = 998 kg/ m3 , γ = 9790 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
Apply the Bernoulli equation between the water surface in the tank (1) and the outlet
(2)
V2 V2
p1 + γz1 + ρ 1 = p2 + γz2 + ρ 2
2 2
Neglect V1 (V1 ¿ V2 ).Also p2 = 0 gage. The Bernoulli equation reduces to
V22
ρ = p1 + γ(z1 − z2 )
2 s
2 (p1 + γ(z1 − z2 ))
V2 =
ρ
Elevation difference z1 − z2 = 0.5 m. For water at 20o C, ρ = 998kg/m3 and γ = 9790

N/m3 .Therefore
s
2(10, 000 Pa + 9790 N/ m3 (0.5 m))
V2 =
998 kg/ m3
V2 = 5.46 m/ s
62
Situation:
Water flows through a vertical venturi configuration.
V1 = 10 ft/ s, ∆z = 0.5 ft.
Find:
Velocity at minimum area (ft/s).
Properties:
T = 68 ◦ F.
SOLUTION
Apply the Bernoulli equation between the pipe (1) and the minimum area (2)
V12 V2
p1 + γz1 + ρ = p2 + γz2 + ρ 2
2 2
From problem statement, V1 = 10 ft/s. Rewriting equation
V22 V2
ρ = ρ 1 + (p1 + γz1 ) − (p2 + γz2 )
2 2
The difference in the elevation in piezometers gives the change in piezometric pressure,
(p1 + γz1 ) − (p2 + γz2 ) = γ∆h so
s
q
2 2γ∆h
V2 = V1 + = V12 + 2g∆h
ρ
q ¡ ¢
= 102 (ft/s)2 + 2 32.2 ft/s2 (0.5 ft)
V2 = 11.5 ft/ s
63
Situation:
Kerosene flows through a contraction section and a pressure is measured between
pipe and contraction section.
V2 = 10 m/ s.
Find:
Velocity in upstream pipe (m/s).
Properties:
Table A.4: ρ = 814 kg/ m3 .
T = 20 ◦ C, ∆p = 20 kPa.
SOLUTION
Apply the Bernoulli equation between pipe (1) and contraction section (2)
V12 V2
p1 + γz1 + ρ = p2 + γz2 + ρ 2
2 2
V12 V22
pz1 + ρ = pz2 + ρ
2 2
The pressure gage measures the difference in piezometric pressure, pz1 −pz2 = 20 kPa.
Rewrite the Bernoulli equation for V1
V12 V2
ρ = ρ 2 − (pz1 − pz2 )
2 s2
2(pz1 − pz2 )
V1 = V22 −
ρ
The density of kerosene at 20o C is 814 kg/m3 .Solving for V1

s
2(20, 000 kPa)
V1 = (10 m/ s)2 −
(814 kg/ m3 )
V1 = 7.13 m/ s
64
Situation:
A Pitot tube on an airplane is used to measure airspeed
z2 = 10000 ft, hH2 O = 10 in.
T = 23 ◦ F, p = 10 psia.
Find:
Airspeed ( ft/ s).
Properties:
Water (23 ◦ F), Table A.5: γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
Air. Table A.2: R = 1716 J/ kg K.
PLAN
Since the airspeed can be found by applying the Pitot-static tube equation, the steps
to reach the goal are:
1. Find ∆pz by using the hydrostatic equation.
2. Find density by applying the ideal gas law.
3. Substitute values into the Pitot-static tube equation.
SOLUTION
1. Hydrostatic equation.
∆pz = γ H2 O hH2 O
10
= 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × ft
12
= 52 psf
2. Ideal gas law

p
ρ =
RT
(10psi)(144psi/psf)
=
((1, 716 lbf · ft/ slug · R)(483 R))
= 0.00174 slugs/ft3
3. Pitot-Static Tube equation.

s
2∆pz
V =
ρ
s
2 × 52 lbf/ft2
V =
(0.00174 slugs/ft3 )
V = 244 ft/s
65
Situation:
A glass tube with 90o bend inserted into a stream of water.
V = 4 m/ s.
Find:
Rise in vertical leg above water surface (m).
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation.
SOLUTION
Hydrostatic equation (between stagnation point and water surface in tube)
ps
=h+d
γ
where d is depth below surface and h is distance above water surface.
Bernoulli equation (between free stream and stagnation point)
ps V2
= d+
γ 2g
V2
h+d = d+
2g
2
V
h =
2g
(4 m/ s)2
h =
2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
h = 0.815 m
66
Situation:
A Bourdon tube gage attached to plate in an air stream.
D = 1 ft, V0 = 40 ft/ s.
Find:
Pressure read by gage (>, =, <) ρV02 /2.
SOLUTION
Because it is a Bourdon tube gage, the difference in pressure that is sensed will be
between the stagnation point and the separation zone downstream of the plate.
Therefore
∆Cp = 1 − (Cp,back of plate )

∆Cp = 1 − (neg. number)
∆p
∴ = 1 + positive number
ρV02 /2
µ 2¶
ρV0
∆p = (1 + positive number)
2
Case (c) is the correct choice.
67
Situation:
An air-water manometer is connected to a Pitot-static tube to measure air velocity.
T = 60 ◦ F, ∆h = 2 in.
Find:
Velocity ( ft/ s).
Properties:
Table A.2: R = 1716 J/ kg K.
Water (60 ◦ F, 15 psia), Table A.5: γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN Apply the Pitot tube equation calculate velocity. Apply the ideal gas law
to solve for density.
SOLUTION Ideal gas law
p
ρ =
RT
15 psia × 144 in2 / ft2
=
(1, 715 J/ kg K)(60 + 460) K
= 0.00242 slugs/ft
Pitot tube equation

µ ¶1/2
2∆pz
V =
ρ
From the manometer equation
µ ¶
γa
∆pz = γ w ∆h 1 −
γw
but γ a /γ w ¿ 1 so
µ ¶1/2
2γ w ∆h
V =
ρ
" ¡ ¢ #1/2
2 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (2.0/12) ft
=
0.00242 slug/ ft
V = 92.7 ft/ s
68
Situation:
A flow-metering device is described in the problem.
V2 = 2V1 , ∆h = 10 cm.
Find:
Velocity at station 2 ( m/ s).
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation and the manometer equation.
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
p1 V12 p2 V22 pt
+ = + =
γ 2g γ 2g γ
Manometer equation
neglect
z }| {
p1 + 0.1 × 9810 − 0.1 × 1.2 × 9.81 = pt
ρV12
pt − p1 = 981 N/m2 =
2
2
2 (981 N/ m )
V12 =
1.2 kg/ m3
V1 = 40.4 m/ s
V2 = 2V1
V2 = 80.8 m/ s
69
Situation:
A spherical Pitot tube is used to measure the flow velocity in water.
V2 = 1.5V0 , ∆h = 10 cm.
Find:
Free stream velocity ( m/ s).
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 , ∆p = 2 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation between the two points. Let point 1 be the stagnation
point and point 2 at 90◦ around the sphere.
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
ρV12 ρV 2
pz1 + = pz2 + 2
2 2
ρ(1.5V0 )2
pz1 + 0 = pz2 +
2
pz1 − pz2 = 1.125ρV02
2, 000 Pa
V02 = = 1.778 m2 /s2
1.125 (1, 000 kg/ m3 )
V0 = 1.33 m/ s
70
Situation:
A device for measuring the water velocity in a pipe consists of a cylinder with
pressure taps at forward stagnation point and at the back on the cylinder.
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 , ∆p = 500 Pa, Pressure Coefficient is -0.3.
Find:
Water velocity ( m/ s).
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation between the location of the two pressure taps. Let point
1 be the forward stagnation point and point 2 in the wake of the cylinder.
SOLUTION
The piezometric pressure at the forward pressure tap (stagnation point, Cp = 1) is
V2
pz1 = pz0 + ρ
2
At the rearward pressure tap
pz2 − pz0
V02
= −0.3
ρ 2
or
V02
pz2 = pz0 − 0.3ρ
2
The pressure difference is
V02
pz1 − pz2 = 1.3ρ
2
The pressure gage records the difference in piezometric pressure so
µ ¶1/2
2
V0 = ∆pz
1.3ρ
∙ ¸1/2
2
= (500 Pa)
1.3 (1000 kg/ m3 )
= 0.88 m/ s
V0 = 0.88 m/ s
71
Situation:
A Pitot tube measures the flow direction and velocity in water.
Find:
Explain how to design the Pitot tube.
SOLUTION
Three pressure taps could be located on a sphere at an equal distance from the
nominal stagnation point. The taps would be at intervals of 120o . Then when the
probe is mounted in the stream, its orientation could be changed in such a way as to
make the pressure the same at the three taps. Then the axis of the probe would be
aligned with the free stream velocity.
72
Situation:
Two Pitot tubes are connected to air-water manometers to measure air and water
velocities.
Find:
The relationship between VA and VW .
s
p 2∆pz
V = 2g∆h =
ρ
SOLUTION
The ∆pz is the same for both; however,
ρw >> ρa
Therefore VA > VW . The correct choice is b).
73
Situation:
A Pitot tube measures the velocity of kerosene at center of a pipe.
D = 12 in, ∆h = 4 in,
Find:
Velocity ( ft/ s).
Properties:
From Table A.4: ρker = 1.58 slugs/ft3 .
T = 68 ◦ F, γ ker = 51 lbf/ft3 , γ HG = 847 lbf/ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the Pitot tube equation and the hydrostatic equation.
SOLUTION
∆pz = ∆h(γ HG − γ ker )

4
= ft(847 − 51) lbf/ ft3
12
= 265.3 psf
Pitot tube equation
µ ¶1/2
2∆pz
V =
ρ
∙ ¸1/2
2 (265.3psf)
=
1.58 slug/ ft3
V = 18.3 ft/ s
74
Situation:
A Pitot tube for measuring velocity of air.
Find:
Air velocity ( m/ s).
Properties:
Air (20o C), Table A.3: ρ = 1.2 kg/m3 .
∆pz = 3 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the Pitot tube equation.
SOLUTION
Pitot tube equation
µ ¶1/2
2∆pz
V =
ρ
∙ ¸1/2
2 (3, 000 kPa)
=
1.2 kg/ m3
V = 70.7 m/ s
75
Situation:
A Pitot tube is used to measure the velocity of air.
∆pz = 11 psf, T = 60 ◦ F.
Find:
Air velocity ( ft/ s).
Properties:
Air (60o F), Table A.3: ρ = 0.00237 slug/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Pitot tube equation
s
2∆pz
V =
ρ
∙ ¸1/2
2 (11psf)
V =
0.00237 slug/ ft3
V = 96.3 ft/ s
76
Situation:
A Pitot tube measures gas velocity in a duct.
Find:
Gas velocity in duct ( ft/ s).
Properties:
∆pz = 1 psi, ρ = 0.12 lb/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Pitot tube equation The density is 0.12 lbm/ft3 /32.2 = 0.00373 slugs/ft3
s
2∆pz
V =
ρ
∙ ¸1/2
2 (1psi) (144psf/psi)
=
0.00373 slug/ ft3
V = 278 ft/s
77
Situation:
A sphere moving horizontally through still water.
V0 = 11 ft/ s, VA = 1 ft/ s.
Find:
Pressure ratio: pA /p0
PLAN
SOLUTION
1 ft/s
By referencing velocities to the spheres a steady flow case will be developed. Thus,
for the steady flow case V0 = 11 ft/s and VA = 10 ft/s. Then when Bernoulli’s
equation is applied between points 0 and A it will be found that pA /p0 > 1 (case c)
78
Situation:
A body moving horizontally through still water.
VA = 13 m/ s, VB = 5 m/ s, VC = 3 m/ s.
Find:
pB − pC ( kPa).
SOLUTION
ρ
pB − pC = (VC2 − VB2 ) (1)
2
Reference all velocities to an observer situated on the sphere. From this reference
frame, the flow is steady and the Bernoulli equation is applicable.
VC = 13 m/ s − 3 m/ s = 10 m/ s (2)
VB = 13 m/ s − 5 m/ s = 8 m/ s (3)
Combine Eqs. (1) to (3)

ρ 2
pB − pC = (V − VB2 )
2 C
1, 000 kg/ m3
pB − pC = ( )[(10 m/ s)2 − (8 m/ s)2 ]
2
= 18, 000 Pa
pB − pC = 18 kPa
79
Situation:
Water is in a flume with a pressure gage along the bottom.
Da = Db , Va = 0 m/ s, Vb = 3 m/ s.
Find:
If gage A will read greater or less than gage B.
SOLUTION
Both gage A and B will read the same, due to hydrostatic pressure distribution in
the vertical in both cases. There is no acceleration in the vertical direction.
80
Situation:
An apparatus is used to measure the air velocity in a duct. It is connected to a
slant tube manometer with a 30o leg with the indicated deflection.
D = 10 cm, Dstagn = 2 mm
1 = 6.7 cm, 2 = 2.3 cm.
Find:
Air velocity ( m/ s).
Properties:
Table A.2: R = 287 J/ kg K.
T = 20 ◦ C, pstagn = 150 kPa, S = 0.7
PLAN
SOLUTION
The side tube samples the static pressure for the undisturbed flow and the central
tube senses the stagnation pressure.
Bernoulli equation
ρV02
p0 + = pstagn. + 0
2 r
2
or V0 = (pstagn. − p0 )
ρ
But
pstagn. − p0 = ( 1 − 2 ) sin θ(γ m − γ air )

but γ m À γ air
¡ ¢
pstagn. − p0 = (0.067 m − 0.023 m) sin 30◦ (0.7) 9, 810 N/ m3 = 151.1 Pa
p 150, 000 Pa
ρ = = = 1.784 kg/m3
RT (287 J/ kg K) (273 + 20) K
Then
s
2
V0 = (151.1 Pa)
1.784 kg/ m3
V0 = 13.0 m/ s
81
Situation:
An instrument used to find gas velocity in smoke stacks.
CpA = 1, CpB = −0.3, ∆h = 5 mm.
Find:
Velocity of stack gases ( m/ s).
Properties:
T = 20 ◦ C, R = 200 J/ kg K.
Tgas = 250 ◦ C, pgas = 101 kPa.
SOLUTION
Ideal gas law
p
ρ =
RT
101, 000 Pa
=
(200 J/ kg K) (250 + 273) K
= 0.966 kg/m2
Manometer equation
∆pz = (γ w − γ a )∆h
but γ w À γ a so
∆pz = γ w ∆h
= 9790 N/ m3 (0.005 m)
= 48.9 Pa
ρV02
(pA − pB )z = (CpA − CpB )
2
ρV02
(pA − pB )z = 1.3
2
2 (48.9 Pa)
V02 =
1.3 (0.966 kg/ m2 )
V0 = 8.82 m/s
82
Situation:
The wake of a sphere which separates at 120o .
V0 = 100 m/ s.
V = 1.5V0 , θ = 120 ◦ .
Find:
(a) Gage pressure ( kPa).
(b) Pressure coefficient.
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation from the free stream to the point of separation and the
pressure coefficient equation.
SOLUTION
Pressure coefficient
p − p0
Cp =
ρV 2 /2
Bernoulli equation
ρU 2 ρu2
p0 + = p+
2 2
ρ 2
p − p0 = (U − u2 )
2
or ³ u ´2
p − p0
= (1 − )
ρU 2 /2 U
but
u = 1.5U sin θ
u = 1.5U sin 120◦
u = 1.5U × 0.866
83
At the separation point
u
= 1.299
U
³ u ´2
= 1.687
U
Cp = 1 − 1.687
Cp = −0.687
³ρ´
pgage = Cp U2
2
= (−0.687)(1.2 kg/ m3 /2)(100 m/ s)2
= −4, 122 Pa
pgage = −4.12 kPa gage
84
Situation:
An airplane uses a Pitot-static tube to measure airspeed.
z2 = 3000 m, Vind = 70 m/ s.
Find:
True air-speed (m/s).
Properties:
TSL = 17 ◦ C, T = −6.3 ◦ C.
pSL = 101 kPa, p = 70 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the Pitot-tube equation and correct for density change.
SOLUTION
The Pitot-static tube equation is
µ ¶1/2
2∆p
V =
ρ
Multiplying and dividing by the sea level density

µ ¶1/2 µ ¶1/2
2∆p ρSL
V =
ρSL ρ
³ ´1/2
2∆p
The factor ρSL
is the indicated airspeed so
µ ¶1/2
ρSL
Vtrue = Vind
ρ
From the ideal gas law
ρSL pSL T 101 kPa (273 − 6.3) K

= = = 1.327
ρ TSL p 70 kPa (273 + 17) K
True air speed

√
Vtrue = 70 m/s × 1.327
Vtrue = 80.6 m/ s
85
Situation:
An airplane uses a Pitot-static tube to measure airspeed.
z = 10000 ft.
Find:
Speed of aircraft (mph).
Properties:
T2 = 25 ◦ F, p = 9.8 psig, ∆p = 0.5 psid.
SOLUTION
The temperature is 25 degrees F and the pressure is 9.8 psia. The pressure difference
is 0.5 psid. The pressure is 144×9.8 = 1411 psfa. The temperature is 460+25=485
R. The gas constant is 1545/29=53.3 ft-lbf/lbm-R.
The density is
p 1411 psfa
ρ= = = 0.0546 lbm/ft3 = 0.00169 slugs/ft3
RT 53.3ft-lbf/lbm-R × 485 ◦ R
. The differential pressure is 0.5 × 144 = 72 psf.
The pitot equation is
µ ¶1/2 ∙ ¸1/2
2∆p 2 (72psf)
V = = = (8.52 × 104 )1/2 = 292 ft/s
ρ 0.00169 slug/ ft3
V = 199 mph
86
Situation:
Check equations for pitot tube velocity measurement provided by instrument com-
pany. p
V = 1096.7 hv /d, d = 1.325Pa /T .
Find:
Validity of Pitot tube equations provided.
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation
SOLUTION
Applying the Bernoulli equation to the Pitot tube, the velocity is related to the change
in piezometric pressure by
V2
∆pz = ρ
2
3
where ∆pz is in psf, ρ is in slugs/ft and V is in ft/s. The piezometric pressure
difference is related to the "velocity pressure" by
2 γ w (lbf/ft3 )hv (in)

∆pz (lbf/ft ) =
12(in/ft)
62.4 × hv
=
12
= 5.2hv
The density in slugs/ft3 is given by
3 d (lbm/ft3 )
ρ(slug/ft ) =
gc (lbm/slug)
d
=
32.2
= 0.03106d
The velocity in ft/min is obtained by multiplying the velocity in ft/s by 60. Thus
r
2 × 5.2hv
V = 60
r0.03106d
hv
= 1098
d
This differs by less than 0.1% from the manufacturer’s recommendations. This could
be due to the value used for gc but the difference is probably not significant compared
to accuracy of "velocity pressure" measurement.
87
From the ideal gas law, the density is given by
p
ρ=
RT
where ρ is in slugs/ft3 , p in psfa and T in o R. The gas constant for air is 1716 ft-
lbf/slug-o R. The pressure in psfg is given by
Pa (in-Hg) × 13.6 × 62.4 (lbf/ft3 )

p (psfg) =
12(in/ft)
= 70.72Pa
where 13.6 is the specific gravity of mercury. The density in lbm/ft3 is
d = gc ρ
70.72Pa
= 32.2 ×
1716 × T
Pa
= 1.327
T
which is within 0.2% of the manufacturer’s recommendation.
88
Situation:
The flow of water over different surfaces.
Find:
Relationship of pressures.
(a) pC > pB > pA.
(b) pB > pC > pA.
(c) pC = pB = pA.
(d) pB < pC < pA.
(e) pA < pB < pC.
SOLUTION
The flow curvature requires that pB > pD + γd where d is the liquid depth. Also,
because of hydrostatics pC = pD + γd. Therefore pB > pC . Also pA < pD + γd so
pA < pC . So pB > pC > pA .
The valid statement is (b).
89
Situation:
Fluid element rotation.
Find:
What is meant by rotation of a fluid element?
SOLUTION
An arbitrary cubical element is selected in a flow. One side lies along the x-axis. As
the element moves through the flow it will be deformed. If the angle between the
bisectors of the sides and the x-axis does not change, there is no rotation.
90
Situation:
A spherical fluid element in an inviscid fluid.
Find:
If pressure and gravitational forces are the only forces acting on the element, can
they cause the element to rotate?
SOLUTION
The result force due to pressure passes through the center of the sphere so no moment
arm to create rotation. The resultant forces due to gravity also pass though the center
so cannot cause rotation.
91
Situation:
A two-dimensional velocity field is represented by the vector V = 10xi − 10yj.
Find:
Is the flow irrotational?
SOLUTION
In a two dimensional flow in the x − y plane, the flow is irrotational if (Eq. 4.34a)
∂v ∂u
=
∂x ∂y
The velocity components and derivatives are
∂u
u = 10x =0
∂y
∂v
v = −10y =0
∂x
Therefore the flow is irrotational.
92
Situation:
A flow field has velocity components described by u = −ωy and v = ωx.
Find:
Vorticity.
Rate of rotation.
SOLUTION
Rate of rotation
∂v ∂u
ωz = (1/2)( − )
∂x ∂y
1
= (ω − (−ω))
2
1
= (2ω)
2
ωz = ω
Vorticity is twice the average rate of rotation; therefore, the vorticity = 2ω
93
Situation:
A two-dimensional velocity field is given by:
u = (x2Cx
+y 2 )2
, v = (x2Cy
+y 2 )2
.
Find:
Check if flow is irrotational.
SOLUTION
Apply equations for flow rotation in x − y plane.
∙ ¸
∂v ∂u −2xCy 2yCx
− = − −
∂x ∂y (x2 + y 2 )2 (x2 + y 2 )2
= 0
The flow is irrotational
94
Situation:
A two=dimensional flow field is defined by:
u = x2 − y 2 , v = −2xy.
x = 1 m, y = 1 m, t = 1 s.
Find:
If the flow is rotational or irrotational.
SOLUTION
Rate of flow rotation about the z-axis,
µ ¶
1 ∂u ∂v
Ωz = −
2 ∂y ∂x
1
= (−2y + 2y) = 0
2
Therefore, the flow is irrotational.
95
Situation:
Fluid flows between two stationary plates.
u = 2(1 − 4y 2 ), Vmax = 2 cm/ s.
Find:
Find rotation of fluid element when it moves 1 cm downstream
PLAN
Apply equations for rotation rate of fluid element..
SOLUTION
The rate of rotation for this planar (two-dimensional) flow is
1 ∂v ∂u
ωz = ( − )
2 ∂x ∂y
In this problem, v = 0 so
1 ∂u
ωz = −
2 ∂y
= 16y
The time to travel 1 cm is

1
∆t =
u
1
=
2(1 − 4y 2 )
The amount of rotation in 1 cm travel is
∆θ = ω z ∆t
8y
∆θ = (1−4y 2 )
96
Situation:
A velocity distribution is provided for a combination of free and forced vortex.
vθ = 1r [1 − exp(−r2 )], r = 0.5, 1.0, 1.5.
2θ̇z = dv
dr
θ
+ vrθ = 1r dr
d
(vθ r).
Find:
Find how much a fluid element rotates in one circuit around the vortex as a function
of radius.
SOLUTION
The rate of rotation is given by
11 d
θ̇ = (vθ r)
2 r dr
11 d
= [1 − exp(−r2 )]
2 r dr
= exp(−r2 )
The time to complete one circuit is
2πr
∆t =
vθ
2πr2
=
[1 − exp(−r2 )]
So, the total rotation in one circuit is given by
∆θ = θ̇∆t
∆θ exp(−r2 )
(rad) = r2
2π 1 − exp(−r2 )
A plot of the rotation in one circuit is shown. Note that the rotation is 2π for r→ 0
(rigid body rotation) and approaches zero (irrotational) as r becomes larger.
97
98
Situation:
Incompressible and inviscid liquid flows around a bend.
V = 1r , ri = 1 m, ro = 3 m.
Find:
Depth of liquid from inside to outside radius (m).
PLAN
Flow field is irotational so apply the Bernoulli equation across streamlines between
the outside of the bend at the surface (point 2) and the inside of the bend at the
surface (point 1).
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
p2 V22 p1 V12
+ + z2 = + + z1
γ 2g γ 2g
V2 V2
0 + 2 + z2 = 0 + 1 + z1
2g 2g
2
V V2
z2 − z1 = 1 − 2
2g 2g
where V2 = (1/3) m/s; V1 = (1/1) m/s. Then
1
z2 − z1 = ((1 m/ s)2 − (0.33 m/ s)2 )
2g
z2 − z1 = 0.045 m
99
Situation:
An outlet pipe from a reservoir.
V = 16 ft/ s, h = 15 ft.
Find:
Pressure at point A (psig).
PLAN
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation. Let point 1 be at surface in reservoir.
p1 V12 pA VA2
+ + z1 = + + zA
γ 2g γ 2g
pA (16 ft/ s)2
0 + 0 + 15 = + +0
62.4 lbf/ ft3 2 × 32.2 ft/ s2
pA = (15 ft − 3.98 ft) × 62.4 lbf/ ft3
pA = 688 psfg
pA = 4.78 psig
100
Situation:
An outlet pipe from a reservoir.
V = 6 m/ s, h = 15 m.
Find:
Pressure at point A (kPa).
Assumptions:
Flow is irrotational.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation. Let point 1 be at reservoir surface.
p1 V12 pA VA2
+ + z1 = + + zA
γ 2g γ 2g
pA (6 m/ s)2
0 + 0 + 15 = + +0
9810 N/ m3 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
¡ ¢
pA = (15 m − 1.83 m) 9810 N/ m3
pA = 129, 200 Pa, gage
pA = 129 kPa, gage
101
Situation:
Air flows past a cylinder. Highest velocity at the maximum width of sphere is twice
the free stream velocity.
V0 = 40 m/ s, Vmax = 2V0 .
Find:
Pressure difference between highest and lowest pressure (kPa).
Assumptions:
Hydrostatic effects are negligible and the wind has density of 1.2 kg/m3 .
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation between points of highest and lowest pressure.
SOLUTION
The maximum pressure will occur at the stagnation point where V = 0 and the point
of lowest pressure will be where the velocity is highest (Vmax = 80 m/s).
Bernoulli equation
ρVh2 ρV 2
ph + = p +
2 2
ρ 2
ph + 0 = p + (Vmax )
2
1.2 kg/ m3
ph − p = (80 m/ s)2
2
= 3, 840 Pa
ph − p = 3.84 kPa
102
Situation:
Velocity and pressure given at two points in a duct.
V1 = 1 m/ s, V2 = 2 m/ s.
Find:
Determine which is true:
(a) Flow in contration in nonuniform and irrotational.
(b) Flow in contration is uniform and irrotational.
(c) Flow in contration is nonuniform and rotational.
(d) Flow in contration is uniform and rotational.
Assumptions:
Elevations are equal.
Properties:
p1 = 10 kPa, p2 = 7 kPa.
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Check to see if it is irrotational by seeing if it satisfies Bernoulli’s equation.
SOLUTION
The flow is non-uniform.
Bernoulli equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
10, 000 Pa (1 m/ s)2 7, 000 Pa (2 m/ s)2
+ +0 = + +0
9, 810 N/ m3 2 (9.81 m/ s2 ) 9, 810 N/ m3 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
1.070 6= 0.917
Flow is rotational. The correct choice is c.
103
Situation:
Water flowing from a large orifice in bottom of tank.
VA = 8 ft/ s, VB = 20 ft/ s.
zA = 1 ft, zB = 0 ft.
Find:
pA − pB (psf).
Properties:
ρ = 62.4 lb/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
pA V2 pB V2
+ zA + A = + zB + B
γ 2g γ 2g
∙ 2 2
¸
(VB − VA )
pA − pB = γ − zA
2g
∙ 2 2
¸
3 (400 − 64) ft / s
= 62.4 lb/ ft − 1 ft
2 (32.2 ft/ s2 )
pA − pB = 263 psf
104
Situation:
A flow pattern past an airfoil.
V0 = 80 m/ s, V1 = 85 m/ s, V2 = 75 m/ s.
Find:
Pressure difference between bottom and top (kPa).
Assumptions:
The pressure due to elevation difference between points is negligible.
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
SOLUTION
The flow is ideal and irrotational so the Bernoulli equation applies between any two
points in the flow field
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
ρ 2
p2 − p1 = (V − V22 )
2 1
1.2 kg/ m3 2
p2 − p1 = (85 − 752 ) m/ s
2
= 960 Pa
p2 − p1 = 0.96 kPa
105
Situation:
Flow of water between parallel plates.
Find:
Is the Bernoulli equation valid between plates?
SOLUTION
The flow between the two plates is rotational. The Bernoulli equation cannot be
applied across streamlines in rotational flows.
106
Situation:
Category 5 hurricane.
Vmax = 175 mi/ h.
Find:
Calculate pressure at center (mbar).
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 , pcenter = 902 mbar, patm = 1 bar.
SOLUTION
The pressure change from the exterior to the core of a hurricane using the model of
a rotating core surrounded by a free vortex is
2
∆p = ρVmax
The speed of 175 mph in m/s is
miles 1 hr 5280 ft 1m
V = 175 × × × = 84.21 m/s
hr 3600 s 1 mile 3.048 ft
The pressure difference is
∆p = 1.2 × 84.212 = 8510 Pa
To convert to mbar, 1 mbar=102 Pa so the pressure difference is 85.10 mbar and the
estimated pressure at the center of the hurricane is
p = 1000 − 85.10
p = 914 mbar
This is slightly higher than the recorded pressure. The discrepancy probably lies in
the simplicity of the model. Also the presence of water droplets in the air will may
increase the effective density giving rise to a higher pressure difference.
107
Situation:
Pressure drop in a tornado.
Find:
Estimate maximum velocity (m/s).
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 , pcenter = 100 mbar.
SOLUTION
Assume an air density of 1.2 kg/m3 .The pressure depression in a tornado is estimated
as
2
∆p = ρVmax
so
s
∆p
Vmax =
ρ
s
0.1 (100, 000 Pa)
=
1.2 kg/m3
Vmax = 91.3 m/s
108
Situation:
A whirlpool modeled as free and forced vortex.
Vmax = 10 m/ s, r = 10 m.
Find:
Shape of the water surface to 50 meter radius.
Properties:
patm = 0.
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation to the free vortex region.
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
2
Vmax V2
z10 + =z+ =0
2g 2g
The elevation at the juncture of the forced and free vortex and a point far from the
vortex center where the velocity is zero is given by
2
Vmax
z10 = −
2g
In the forced vortex region, the equation relating elevation and speed is
2
Vmax V2
z10 − =z−
2g 2g
At the vortex center, V = 0, so
2
Vmax V2 V2 V2
z0 = z10 − = − max − max = − max
2g 2g 2g g
102
z = − = −10.2 m
9.81
In the forced vortex region
r
V = 10 m/s = r
10
so the elevation is given by
r2
z = −10.2 +
2g
In the free vortex region
109
10
V = 10
r
so the elevation is given by
µ ¶2
V2 100 10 −510
z = z10 + max − =
2g 2g r r2
-2
Elevation, m
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
0 10 20 30 40 50
Radius, m
110
Situation:
Tornado modeled as combination of forced and free vortex.
Vmax = 350 km/ h. r = 50 m.
Find:
Variation in pressure.
Properties:
patm = 100 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the pressure variation equation-rotating flow to the vortex center and the
Bernoulli equation in the free vortex region.
SOLUTION
From the pressure variation equation-rotating flow, the pressure reduction from at-
mospheric pressure at the vortex center is
2
∆p = −ρVmax
which gives
1000 2
∆p = −1.2 × (350 × ) = −11.3 kPa
3600
or a pressure of p(0) = 100−11.3 = 88.7 kPa. In the forced vortex region the pressure
varies as
V2
p(0) = p − ρ
2
In this region, the fluid rotates as a solid body so the velocity is
r
V = Vmax = 1.94r
50
The equation for pressure becomes
p = 88.7 + 2.26r2 /1000 for r ≤ 50 m

The factor of 1000 is to change the pressure to kPa. A the point of highest velocity
the pressure is 94.3 kPa.
Bernoulli equation
1 2 1
p(50) + ρVmax = p + ρV 2
2 2
In the free vortex region so the equation for pressure becomes
111
∙ ¸
1 2 50 2
p = p(50) + ρVmax 1 − ( ) for r ≥ 50 m
2 r
∙ ¸
50 2
p = 94.3 + 5.65 × 1 − ( )
r
102
100
Pressure (kPa) 98
96
94
92
90
88
0 50 100 150 200 250
Radius (m)
112
Situation:
A weather balloon in a tornado modeled as a forced-free vortex.
Find:
Where the balloon will move.
SOLUTION
The fluid in a tornado moves in a circular path because the pressure gradient pro-
vides the force for the centripetal acceleration. For a fluid element of volume V the
relationship between the centripetal acceleration and the pressure gradient is
V2 dp
ρ =V
r dr
The density of a weather balloon would be less than the local air so the pressure
gradient would be higher than the centripetal acceleration so the
balloon would move toward the vortex center.
113
Situation:
The pressure distribution in a tornado.
Find:
If the Bernoulli equation over predicts or under predicts the pressure drop.
SOLUTION
As the pressure decreases the density becomes less. This means that a smaller pressure
gradient is needed to provide the centripetal force to maintain the circular motion.
This means that the Bernoulli equation will over predict the pressure drop.
114
Situation:
Flow over a sphere.
uθ = 1.5U sin θ, p = −2.5 in H2 O.
V = 100 ft/ s.
Find:
Angle of separation point.
Properties:
ρ = 0.07 lb/ ft3 .
SOLUTION
Since the fluid is air, neglect the contribution of hydrostatic in the Bernoulli equation
The pressure coefficient defined by
(p − p∞ )
Cp = 1
2
ρU 2
can be expressed in terms of velocities as

µ ¶2
V
Cp = 1 −
U
by application of the Bernoulli equation. The pressure in psfg at the stagnation point
is
1 ft lbf
psep = −2.5 inch H2 O × × 62.4 3
12 in ft
= −13.0 lbf/ft2
In order to have the correct units, the density has to be in slugs/ft3 .
lbm 1slug slugs

ρ = 0.07 3 = 0.00217
ft 32.2 lbm ft3
The dynamic pressure is
1 2 1 slugs ft2
ρV = × 0.00217 3 × 1002 2 = 10.85 psf
2 2 ft s
The pressure coefficient at the separation point is
−13.0
Cp = = −1.198
10.85
so µ ¶2
V
−1.198 = 1 − = 1 − 1.52 sin2 θ
U
115
Solving for sin θ gives
sin θ = 0.988
There are two solutions
θ = 81.1o , 98.9o
Separation occurs on windward side so
θsep = 81.1o
116
Situation:
Application of the Bernoulli equation between a point upstream and in the wake
of a sphere.
Find:
Is the Bernoulli equation valid between these two points?
SOLUTION
The flow in the wake is irrotational so the Bernoulii equation cannot be applied
between two arbitrary points
117
Situation:
A two dimensional flow in the x − y plane is described in the problem statement.
Find:
2 2
(a) Show that d( u +v
2
+ gh) = 0.
V2
(b) Show 2g+h is constant in all directions.
SOLUTION
a) Substituting the equation for the streamline into the Euler equation gives
u ∂u
∂x
dx + u ∂u
∂y
dy = −g ∂h
∂x
dx
∂v ∂v ∂h
v ∂x dx + v ∂y dy = −g ∂y dy
or
³ 2´
∂ u ∂ u2
∂x
dx + ( )dy = −g ∂h dx
³ 22 ´ ∂y 2 ∂x
∂ v ∂ v2
∂x 2
dx + ( )dy
∂y 2
= −g ∂h
∂y
dy
Adding both equations
µ ¶ µ ¶
∂ u2 + v 2 ∂ u2 + v2 ∂h ∂h
dx + dy = −g( dx + dy)
∂x 2 ∂y 2 ∂x ∂y
or
u2 + v 2
d( + gh) = 0
2
b) Substituting the irrotationality condition into Euler’s equation gives
u ∂u
∂x
∂v
+ v ∂x = −g ∂h
∂x
v ∂y + u ∂y dy = −g ∂h
∂v ∂u
∂y
or
∂ u2 +v 2
∂x
( 2 + gh) = 0
∂ u2 +v2
∂y
( 2 + gh) = 0
118
Situation:
Consider an automobile gas tank being filled by a nozzle.
Find:
(a) Discharge (gpm).
(b) Time to put 50 gallons in the tank (min).
(c) Cross-sectional area (ft2 ) of the nozzle and velocity at the exit (ft/s).
SOLUTION
a)
1 gal 60 s
Q = ×
10s 1 min
Q = 6 gpm
b)
50 gal
t =
6 gpm
t = 8.3 min
c)
π 2 π 1 ft2
A = D = (1 in)2
4 4 (12 in)2
A = 0.00545 ft2
Discharge in cfs (ft3 /s).
6 gal 1 min 35.29 ft3 ft3

× × = 0.0133
min 60 s 264.2 gal s
Discharge velocity.
Q 0.0133 ft3 /s
V = =
A 0.00545 ft2
V = 2.44 ft/ s
1
Situation:
Water is released through Grand Coulee Dam.
A = W d, W = 100 yd = 300 ft.
Q = 110000 ft3 / s.
Find:
Calculate river depth (ft).
Assumptions:
Make a reasonable estimate of the river velocity (V = 5 mi/ h = 7.3 ft/ s).
PLAN
Apply flow rate equation.
SOLUTION
The discharge is given by
Q = AV
Solving for depth
Q 110, 000 ft3 /s

d = =
VW 300 × 7.3 ft2 s
d = 50.2 ft
2
Situation:
Fill a jar with water and measure the time to fill.
Find:
Calculate discharge ( m3 / s).
Calculate velocity ( m/ s).
Assumptions:
Make an estimate of the cross-sectional area for the faucet (d = 0.5 in).
V = 2 L, t = 13 s.
PLAN
Apply flow rate equation.
SOLUTION
The discharge is
2L 0.001 m3
Q = ×
13 s 1L
Q = 0.000154 m3 / s
Faucet outlet area

µ ¶2
π π 1m
A = D2 = (0.5 in)2 × = 0.000127 m2
4 4 39.37 in
Discharge velocity
Q 0.000154 m3 /s
V = =
A 0.000127 m2
V = 1.2 m/ s
3
Situation:
Liquid flows through a pipe at constant velocity.
Find:
Flow rate is (a) halved, (b) doubled, (c) quadrupled if pipe diameter is doubled
but velocity remains the same.
SOLUTION
Use discharge equation, Q = AV .
Since the diameter is doubled, the area is quadrupled so correct answer is c) .
4
Situation:
Water flows in a pipe.
Q = 0.05 m3 /s, D = 0.25 m.
Find:
Mean velocity (m/s).
PLAN
Apply the flow rate equation.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
0.05 m3 / s
= π
4
(0.25 m)2
V = 1.02 m/s
5
Situation:
V = 3 ft/s, D = 16 in.
Find:
Discharge in cfs and gpm.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q = VA
π
= (3 ft/ s)( (1.333 ft)2 )
4
Q = 4.19 ft3 /s
= (4.19 ft3 /s)(449 gpm/ft3 /s)
Q = 1880 gpm
6
Situation:
V = 4 m/ s, D = 2 m.
Find:
Discharge in m3 /s and cfs.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q = VA
³π ´
= (4 m/ s) (2 m)2
4
Q = 12.6 m3 /s
Q = (12.6 m3 /s)(1/0.02832)(ft3 /s)/(m3 /s)
Q = 445 cfs
7
Situation:
A pipe carries air.
V = 20 m/ s, D = 0.08 m.
Find:
Mass flow rate ( kg/ m3 ).
Properties:
Air (20 ◦ C, 200 kPa) Table A.2: R = 287 J/ kg K.
PLAN
1. Use Ideal Gas Law to find density.
2. Use Mass Flow Rate equation to find ṁ.
SOLUTION
1. Ideal gas law
p
ρ =
RT
200, 000 Pa
=
(287 J/ kg K) (273 + 20) K
ρ = 2.378 kg/ m3
2. Flow rate equation
ṁ = ρV A
= 2.378 × 20 × (π × 0.082 /4)
ṁ = 0.239 kg/s
8
Situation:
A pipe carries natural gas.
V = 20 m/ s, D = 1 m.
Find:
Mass flow rate ( kg/ m3 ).
Properties:
Methane (15 ◦ C, 150 kPa gage) Table A.4: R = 518 J/ kg K.
PLAN
1. Apply the ideal gas law to find ρ.
2. Use the flow rate equation to find ṁ.
SOLUTION
1. Ideal gas law
p
ρ =
RT
(101 + 150)103 Pa
=
(518 J/ kg K) (273 + 15) K
= 1.682 kg/ m3
ṁ = ρV A
= 1.682 × 20 × π × 0.52
ṁ = 26.4 kg/ s
9
Situation:
A duct is attached to an aircraft engine.
ṁ = 200 kg/ s, V = 240 m/ s.
Find:
Pipe diameter (m).
Properties:
Air (−18 ◦ C, 50 kPa) Table A.2: R = 287 J/ kg K.
p = 50 kPa.
PLAN
1. Apply the ideal gas law to find ρ.
2. Use the flow rate equation to find A from ṁ and then find D.
SOLUTION
1. Ideal gas law
p
ρ =
RT
(50 × 103 Pa)
=
(287 J/ kg K)(273 − 18) K
= 0.683 kg/m3

ṁ = ρAV
So
ṁ
A =
ρV
200 kg/ s
=
(0.683 kg/ m3 )(240 m/ s)
= 1.22 m2
A = (π/4)D2 = 1.22
µ ¶1/2
4 × 1.22 m2
D =
π
D = 1.25 m
10
Situation:
Air flows in a rectangular air duct.
A = 1.0 m × 0.2 m, Q = 1000 m3 / h.
Find:
Air velocity (m/s).
Properties:
Air (30 ◦ C, 100 kPa).
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
1000 m3 / h (1 h/3600 s)
=
(1.0 m × 0.2 m)
V = 1.39 m/ s
11
Situation: ¡ ¢
In a circular duct the velocity profile is v(r) = V0 1 − Rr .
Find:
V̄
Ratio of mean velocity to center line velocity, V0
.
PLAN
Apply the integral form of the flow rate equation, because velocity is not constant
across the cross-section.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation Z
Q= vdA
where dA = 2πrdr. Then

Z ³R ³ r ´´
Q = V0 1 − 2πrdr
0 R
µ 2 ¶
r r3
= V0 (2π) − |R
2 3R 0
µ 2 ¶
R R2
= 2πV0 −
2 3
2
= (2/6)πV0 R
Average Velocity
Q
V̄ =
A
V̄ Q 1
=
V0 A V0
(2/6)πV0 R2 1
=
πR2 V0
V̄ 1
Vo
= 3
12
Situation:
Two dimensional
³ flow ín³ a channel
´ of width W and depth D.
4x2 y2
V (x, y) = VS 1 − W 2 1 − D2 .
Find:
An expression for the discharge: Q = Q(VS , D, W ).
PLAN
Apply the integral form of the flow rate equation, because v is not constant over the
cross-section.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Z Z Z
Q = V · dA = V (x, y)dxdy
Z W/2 Z D µ ¶µ ¶
4x2 y2
= VS 1 − 2 1 − 2 dydx
−W/2 y=0 W D
Q = ( 49 )VS W D
13
Situation:
Water flows in a pipe with a linear velocity profile.
Vmax = 15 ft/ s, Vmin = 12 ft/ s.
D = 4 ft.
Find:
Discharge in cfs and gpm.
PLAN
Apply the integral form of the flow rate equation with area expressed as a function
of radius.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Z
Q = V dA
ZAr0
= V 2πrdr
0
The equation for the velocity distribution is a straight line in the form V = mr + b
with V = 15 ft/s at r = 0 and V = 12 ft/s at r = r0 yielding V = 15 ft/s−3r/r0 .
Z r0 µ µ ¶¶
3r
Q = 15 − 2πrdr
0 r0
µ ¶
2 15 3
= 2πr0 −
2 3
∙ µ ¶¸
15 3
= 2π 4.00 −
2 3
Q = 163 cfs
µ ¶
3 gal/ min
= 163.4 ft / s 449
ft3 / s
Q = 73, 400 gpm
14
Situation:
Water flows in a pipe with a linear velocity profile.
Vmax = 8 m/ s, Vmin = 6 m/ s.
D = 2 m.
Find:
Discharge (m3 / s).
Mean velocity (m/ s).
PLAN
Apply the integral form of the flow rate equation with area expressed as a function
of radius.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Z
Q = V dA
ZAr0
= V 2πrdr
0
The equation for the velocity distribution is a straight line in the form V = mr + b
with V = 8 m/s at r = 0 and V = 6 m/s at r = r0 yielding V = 8 m/s−2r/r0 .
Z r0 µ µ ¶¶
2r
Q = 8− 2πrdr
0 r0
µ ¶
2 8 2
= 2πr0 −
2 3
µ ¶
8 2
= 2π × 1.0 −
2 3
Q = 20.9 m3 /s
Mean velocity
Q
V =
A
20.9 m3 /s
=
π (1 m)2
V = 6.67 m/ s
15
Situation:
Air flows in a square duct with velocity profile shown in the figure.
D = 1 m, Vmax = 10 m/ s.
Find:
(a) Volume flow rate ( m3 / s).
(b) Mean velocity ( m/ s).
(c) Mass flow rate ( kg/ s).
Properties:
Air: ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Use various form of the flow rate equation.
Use the integral form of the flow rate equation because velocity is not constant of the
area.
SOLUTION
The velocity profile is V = 20y.
dQ = V dA
dQ = (20y)dy
Z 0.5
Q = 2 V dA
0
Z 0.5
= 2 20ydy
0
40y2 0.5
= |
2 0
= 20 × 0.25
Q = 5 m3 /s
Mean velocity
Q
V =
A
5 m3 / s
=
1 m2
V = 5 m/s
Mass flow rate
ṁ = ρQ
= (1.2 kg/m3 )(5 m3 /s)
ṁ = 6.0 kg/s
16
Situation:
An open channel flow has a 30o incline.
V = 18 ft/ s.
Depth = y = 4 ft.
Width = x = 30 ft.
Find:
Discharge (cfs).
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q = V ×A
= (18 ft/ s) (4 ft cos 30◦ ) (30 ft)
Q = 1, 870 cfs
17
Situation:
A rectangular channel has a 30o incline.
u = y 1/3 m/ s.
Depth = y = 1 m.
Width = x = 1.5 m.
d = 1 m × cos(30o ) = 0.866 m
Find:
Discharge ( m3 / s).
PLAN
Apply the integral form of the flow rate equation becuse velocity is not constant over
the area.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Z 0.866
Q = y 1/3 (1.5 dy)
0
Z 0.866
= 1.5 y 1/3 dy
µ 0¶
1.5
= y 4/3 |00.866 m
4/3
Q = 0.93 m3 /s
18
Situation:
A rectangular channel has a 30o incline.
u = 10[exp(y) − 1] m/ s.
y = 1 m, x = 2 m.
Find:
Discharge (m3 / s).
Mean velocity ( m/ s).
PLAN
Apply the integral form of the flow rate equation becuse velocity is not constant over
the area.
SOLUTION
Discharge.
Z 0.866
Q = V dy
0
Z 0.866
Q = (10)(ey − 1)2 dy
0
= [(2)(10)(ey − y)]0.866
0
Q = 10.23 m3 /s
Mean velocity
Q
V̄ =
A
10.23 m3 /s
=
2 × 0.866 m2
V̄ = 5.91 m/s
19
Situation:
Water enters a weigh tank from a pipe.
t = 20 min, W = 20 kN.
Find:
Discharge (m3 /s).
Properties:
Water (20 ◦ C), Table A.5: γ = 9790 N/m3 .
PLAN
Definition of discharge is a volume/time.
SOLUTION
V
Q =
∆t
W
=
γ∆t
20, 000 N
=
9790 N/ m3 × 20 min × 60 s/ min
Q = 1.70 × 10−3 m3 /s
20
Situation:
Water enters a lock for a ship canal through 180 ports.
Ap = 2 ft × 2 ft, Arise = 105 ft × 900 ft.
Vrise = 6 ft/ min.
Find:
Mean velocity in each port (ft/ s).
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
X
Vp Ap = Vrise × Arise
µ ¶
2 6
180 × Vp × (2 × 2) ft = ft/ s × (105 × 900) ft2
60
Vport = 13.1 ft/s
21
Situation:
Water flows through a rectangular and horizontal open channel.
u = umax (y/d)n , umax = 3 m/ s.
d = 1.2 m, and n = 1/6.
Find:
Discharge per meter of channel width (m2 / s).
PLAN
Apply the flow rate equation, considering that velocity is not constant of the cross-
sectional area.
SOLUTION
Discharge per meter
Z d ³ y ń umax d
q = umax dy =
0 d n+1
3 m/ s × 1.2 m
= 1
6
+1
q = 3.09 m2 /s
Mean velocity
q
V =
d
3.09 m2 / s
=
1.2 m
V = 2.57 m/s
22
Situation:
A flow with a linear velocity profile occurs in a triangular-shaped open channel.
Vmax = 6 ft/ s, d = 1 ft, wmax = 0.5 ft.
Find:
Discharge (cfs).
PLAN
Apply the flow rate equation, considering that velocity is not constant of the cross-
sectional area.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation Z
Q= V dA
where V = 5y ft/s, dA = xdy = 0.5 ydy ft2

Z 1
q = (6y) × (0.5ydy)
0
3y3 1
= |
3 0
q = 1 cfs
23
Situation:
Flow in a circular pipe.
V = Vc (1 − (r/ro ))n .
Find:
Mean velocity of the form V = V (Vc , n).
PLAN
Apply the flow rate equation, considering that velocity is not constant across the
cross-sectional area.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Z
Q = V dA
ZAr0
∙ µ ¶¸n
r
= Vc 1 − 2πrdr
0 r02
Z ro Ã µ ¶2 !n µ ¶
2 r −2r
= −πr0 Vc 1− dr
0 r0 r02
This integral is in the form of

Z U
U n+1
un du =
0 n+1
so the result is
µ ³ ´2 ¶n+1
1 − rr0
Q = −πr02 Vc |r00
µ ¶ n+1
1
= Vc πr02
n+1
Q
V =
A
¡ 1 ¢
V = n+1 Vc
24
Situation:
Flow in a pipe.
V = 12(1 − r2 /ro2 ).
D = 1 m, Vc = 12 m/ s.
Find:
Plot the velocity profile.
Discharge (m3 /s).
PLAN
1. Velocity profile is V = f (r).
2. Apply the flow rate equation, considering that velocity is not constant across the
cross-sectional area.
SOLUTION
1. Velocity
r/r0 1 − (r/r0 )2 V (m/s)

0.0 1.00 12.0
0.2 0.96 11.5
0.4 0.84 10.1
0.6 0.64 7.68
0.8 0.36 4.32
1.0 0.00 0.0
25
Z
Q = V dA
ZAr0 µ ¶
r
= 12 1 − 2 2πrdr
0 r0
Z ro µ ¶
r3
= 24π r − 2 dr
0 r0
µ 2 4
¶
r r
= 24π − 2 |r00
2 4r0
µ 2 ¶
r0 r02
= 2Vc π −
2 4
µ 2¶
r
= 2Vc π 0
4
Q
V =
A
V = (1/2)Vc
V = 6 m/s
Q = VA
= (6 ft/ s) (π/4) (1 m)2
Q = 4.71 m3 /s
26
Situation:
D = 2 in, ṁ = 80 lb/ min.
Find:
Mean velocity (ft/s).
Properties:
Water (60 ◦ F), Table A.5: ρ = 1.94 slug/ ft3 = 62.37 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
ṁ
V =
ρA
80 lb/ min
60 s/ min
V =
62.37 lbf/ ft3 ( π4 × 2
( 12 ft)2 )
V = 0.979 ft/s
27
Situation:
D = 0.20 m, ṁ = 1000 kg/ min.
Find:
Properties:
Water (20 ◦ C), Table A.5: ρ = 998 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
ṁ
V =
ρA
1000 kg/ min
60 s/ min
=
998 kg/ m3 ( π4 × (0.2 m)2 )
V = 0.532 m/s
28
Situation:
Water enters a weigh tank.
W = 4765 lbf, t = 15 min.
Find:
Discharge in units of cfs and gpm.
Properties:
SOLUTION
V
Q =
∆t
∆W
=
γ∆t
4765 lbf
= ¡ 3
¢
62.37 lbf/ ft (15 min) (60 s/ min)
Q = 0.0849 cfs
264.2 gps 60 s
= 0.08449 cfs × ×
35.31 cfs 1 min
Q = 37.9 gpm
29
Situation:
A shell and tube heat exchanger with one pipe inside another pipe. Liquids flow
in opposite directions.
Vo = Vi , Qo = Qi .
Find:
Find ratio of diameters.
PLAN
Use discharge equation Q = AV and neglect pipe wall thickness.
SOLUTION
Discharge and velocity the same so
Q = Ainner V = Aouter V
Therefore
π 2 π
(Do − Di2 ) = Di2
4 4
so √
Do
Di
= 2
30
Situation:
A heat exchanger has three pipes enclosed in a larger pipe.
V = 10 m/ s, Dsmall = 2.5 cm with wall thickness 3 mm.
Dlarge = 8 cm.
Find:
Discharge inside larger pipe.
PLAN
Use discharge equation, Q = AV where A is net area inside large pipe.
SOLUTION
The outside cross-sectional area of each smaller pipe is

π
A= (2.5 + 0.6)2 = 7.55 cm2
4
The cross-sectional area between the large pipe and the small pipes is
π 2
A= 8 − 3 × 7.55 = 27.61 cm2 = 0.002761 m2
4
The discharge is
Q = AV = 0.002761 m2 × 10 m/ s
Q = 0.0276 m3 / s
31
Situation:
V = 10 ft/ s, D = 4 in = 0.333 ft.
Find:
Discharge in units of cfs and gpm.
Mass flow rate (kg/s).
Properties:
Water (60 ◦ F), Table A.5: ρ = 1.94 slug/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q = VA
³π ´
= (10 ft/ s) × (0.333 ft)2
4
Q = 0.873 cfs
264.2 gps 60 s
= 0.873 cfs × ×
35.31 cfs 1 min
Q = 392 gpm
Mass flow rate
ṁ = ρQ
= 0.8731 cfs × 1.94 slugs/ft3
ṁ = 1.69 slugs/s
32
Situation:
Control surface and volume.
Find:
What is a control surface and control volume?
Can mass pass through a control surface?
SOLUTION
A control volume is volume defined in space and the control surface encloses the
control volume. The control volume can translate, rotate and dilate or contract with
time.
Mass can pass through the control surface and, hence, through the control volume.
33
Situation:
Properties.
Find:
What is the difference between an intensive and extensive property?
SOLUTION
The value of an extensive property depends on the amount matter and an intensive
property is independent of the amount of matter. An example of an extensive property
is volume because the volume depends on the amount of matter contained in the
volume. Volume per unit mass (reciprocal density) is independent of the amount of
mass.
34
Situation:
Lagrangian and Eulerian descriptions.
Find:
Difference between Lagrangian and Eulerian descriptions of flow field.
SOLUTION
In the Lagrangian description, the difference in properties between two points in a field
is determined by applying Euler equation or the Bernoulli equation along a pathline
that passes through the two points. Thus a flow field is determined by starting with a
known initial state and calculating the flow properties at other points by integrating
along pathlines to those points. In the Eulerian description, the flow field is solved
for properties at a given point.
35
Situation:
Flow fields.
Find:
Shorcomings of using Lagrangian description.
SOLUTION
When using the Lagrangian description, in order to evaluate properties at an arbitrary
point in a flow field, the pathline that starts where the flow field is known and passes
through the desired point must be located. This is not a straight forward technique.
The problem is accentuated with unsteady flow where different pathlines may pass
through the same point at different times.
36
Situation:
Reynolds transport theorem.
Find:
The purpose of Reynolds transport theorem.
SOLUTION
The Reynolds transport theorem is used to relate the Lagrangian equations to the
Eulerian equations. The Lagrangian for mass, momentum and energy can be con-
verted to the Eulerian form by application of the Reynolds transport equation.
37
Situation:
Mass is flowing into and out of a tank.
Vi = 10 m/ s, Ai = 0.10 m2 , ρi = 3.00 kg/ m3 .
Vo = 5 m/ s, Ao = 0.20 m2 , ρo = 2.00 kg/ m3 .
Find:
Select the statement(s) that are true.
SOLUTION
Mass flow out
ṁo = (ρAV )2
¡ ¢
= 2 kg/ m3 (0.2 m) (5 m/ s)
= 2 kg/s
Mass flow in
ṁi = (ρAV )1
¡ ¢
= 3 kg/ m3 (0.1 m) (10 m/ s)
= 3 kg/s
Since the mass flow in is not equal to the mass flow out, the flow is unsteady.
Only selection (b) is valid .
38
Situation:
A piston in a cylinder is moving up and control consists of volume in cylinder.
Find:
Indicate which of the statements are true.
SOLUTION
a) True, there is no flow entering or leaving across the control surface.
b) True, since there is no mass flux across the control surfaces, the mass in the control
volume does not change with time.
c) True, since the mass in the control volume is constant, ρV=constant
cv so ρ increases
as volume decreases.
d) True, assuming the piston is moving rapidly, there is no time for heat transfer so
temperaure must increaese.
e) True, due to piston motion the velocity of the gases in the cylinder will be changing
with time.
39
Situation:
Two flow cases: a closed tank is filled with a fluid and a pipe contracts.
V = 12 ft/ s, A = 1.5 ft2 , ρ = 2 slug/ ft3 ..
V1 = 1 ft/ s, A1 = 2 ft2 , ρ1 = 2 slug/ ft3 .
V2 = 2 ft/ s, A2 = 1 ft2 , ρ2 = 2 slug/ ft3 .
Find:
(a) Value of b.
(b) Value of P
dBsys /dt.
(c) Value of R ·A
bρV
(d) Value of d/dt cv bρdV
SOLUTION
Case (a) Case (b)

1) b = 1 1) B = 1
2) dBsys /dt = 0 2) dBsys /dt = 0
P P P P
3) bρV · A = ρV · A 3) bρV · A = ρV · A
= −2 × 12 × 1.5 =2×1×2−1×2×2
P P
bρV · A = −36 slugs/s bρV · A = 0
R R
4) dtd cv bρdV = +36 slugs/s 4) dtd cv bρdV = 0
40
Situation:
Pipe flows full with water.
Find:
Is it possible for the volume flow rate into the pipe to be different than the flow
rate out of the pipe?
SOLUTION
Application of the continuity equation to a control volume passing through the inlet
section and outlet section shows
Z
d
0= ρdV + ṁout − ṁin
dt cv
Since the density is constant
d
0= (ρVcv ) + ṁout − ṁin
dt
Since the volume of the control volume is constant the unsteady term is zero so
ṁout = ṁin .
41
Situation:
Air flows in a tube.
Find:
Is it possible for the mass flow rate into the tube to be different than the flow rate
out of the tube?
Air is pumped into one end of a tube at a certain mass flow rate. Is it necessary that
the same mass flow rate of air comes out the other end of the tube?
Application of the continuity equation over a control surface that includes the inlet
and outlet shows Z
d
0= ρdV + ṁout − ṁin
dt cv
The density of the air in the control volume can change with time, the unsteady term
may not be zero and ṁout 6= ṁin
42
Situation:
Tire develops a leak.
Find:
How do air and density change with time?
How is air density related to tire pressure?
Assumptions:
Constant temperature.
SOLUTION
If an automobile tire develops a leak, how does the mass of air and density change
inside the tire with time?
Assume the effective volume of the tire is unchanged. The air mass in the tire will
decrease. Also, since the tire volume is constant, the air density will also decrease.
Assuming the temperature remains constant, how is the change in density related to
the tire pressure?
From the ideal gas law, a decrease in density relates directly to a decrease in pressure.
43
Situation:
Two pipes are connected in series.
D1 = 2D2 , V1 = 5 m/ s.
Find:
Velocity in smaller pipe ( m/ s).
SOLUTION
Use continuity equation for discharge. Q = AV which is valid since density is con-
stant.
Alarge Vlarge = Asmall Vsmall

µ ¶
Alarge
Vsmall = Vlarge
Asmall
= 5 m/s × 22
Vsmall = 20 m/ s
44
Situation:
The level in the tank is influenced by the motion of pistons A and B moving left.
VA = 2VB , DA = 3 in, DB = 6 in.
Find:
Determine whether the water level is rising, falling or staying the same.
Sketch:
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Select a control volume as shown above. Assume it
is coincident with and moves with the water surface.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z
d
ṁo − ṁi = − ρdV
dt cv
Z
d
ρ2VB AA − ρVB AB = −ρ dV
dt cv
where AA = (π/4)32 ; AB = (π/4)62 and AA = (1/4)AB . Then
Z
d
2VB (1/4)AB − VB AB = − dV
dt CV
Z
d
VB AB ((1/2) − 1) = − dV
dt CV
Z
d
dV = (1/2)VB AB
dt CV
d
(Ah) = (1/2)VB AB
dt
dh
A = (1/2)VB AB
dt
Because (1/2)VB AB is positive dh/dt is positive; therefore, one concludes that the
water surface is rising.
45
Situation:
Two round plates move together. At the instant shown, the plate spacing is h.
Air flows across section A with a speed V 0 .
Find:
An expression for the radial component of convective acceleration at section A.
Sketch:
Assumptions:
Assume V 0 is constant across section A.
Assume the air has constant density.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation to the control volume defined in the problem sketch.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z
d
dt c.v.
ρV 0 A0 = −(−2ρV A)
2V A = V 0 A0
The control volume has radius r so
2V A 2V πr2 Vr
V0 = 0
= =
A 2πrh h
Convective acceleration
∂
ac = V 0 (V 0 )
µ ∂r ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
Vr ∂ Vr
=
h ∂r h
2
V r
=
h2
V 2D
ac = 2h2
46
Situation:
Pipe flows A and B merge into a single pipe.
QA = 0.02t m3 / s, QB = 0.008t2 m3 / s.
Aexit = 0.01 m2 , t = 1 s.
Find:
Velocity at the exit, Vexit .
Acceleration at the exit, aexit .
Assumptions:
Incompressible flow.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Since the flow is incompressible, the unsteady term is zero. Continuity equation
Qexit = QA + QB
µ ¶
1
Vexit = (QA + QB )
Aexit
µ ¶
1
= (.02t m3 /s + 0.008t2 m3 /s)
0.01 m2
= 2t m/s + 0.8t2 m/s
Then at t = 1 sec,
Vexit = 2.8 m/s
The acceleration along a pathline at the (s → x) exit is
∂V ∂V
aexit = +V
∂t ∂x
Since V varies with time, but not with position, there is no convective acceleration
so
∂V
aexit = = 2 + 1.6t m/s
∂t
Then at t = 1 sec
aexit = 3.6 m/s2
47
Situation:
Air flow downward through a pipe and then outward between to parallel disks.
Q = 0.380 m3 / s, r = 20 cm
D = 0.1 m, h = 0.6 cm.
Find:
(a) Expression for acceleration at point A.
(b) Value of acceleration at point A.
(c) Velocity in the pipe.
PLAN
SOLUTION
a)
Flow rate equation
Q Q
Vr = =
A 2πrh
Evaluate convective acceleration along a radial pathline (s → r)
Vr ∂Vr
ac =
µ ∂r ¶ µ ¶
Q Q
= (−1)
2πrh 2πr2 h
−Q2
ac =
r(2πrh)2
b)
Q
Vpipe =
Apipe
(0.380 m3 / s)
= π
4
(0.1 m)2
Vpipe = 48.4 m/s
c)
(0.38 m3 / s)2
ac = −
(0.2 m)(2π (0.2 m) (0.006 m))2
ac = −12, 700 m/s2
48
Situation:
Air flow downward through a pipe and then outward between to parallel disks.
Q = Q0 (t/t0 ), r = 20 cm.
D = 10 cm, h = 1 cm.
t0 = 1 s, Q0 = 0.1 m3 / s.
Find:
(a) At t = 2 s, acceleration at point A: a2 .
(b) At t = 3 s, acceleration at point A: a3 .
SOLUTION
Local acceleration
µ ¶
∂V ∂ Q
a = =
∂t ∂t 2πrh
∂ Q0 (t/t0 )
a =
∂t 2πrh
Q0 /t0
a =
2πrh
(0.1 m3 / s/1 s)
a ;2,3 = = 7.958 m/s2
2π × 0.20 m × 0.01 m
From solution to Problem 5.47
−Q2
ac =
r(2πrh)2
At t = 2s, Q = 0.2 m3 /s
ac,2s = −5, 066 m/s2

a2s = a + ac = 7.957 − 5, 066
a2s = −5, 060 m/s2
At t = 3s, Q = 0.3 m3 /s
ac,3s = −11, 398 m/s2

a3s = −11, 398 + 7.957
a3s = −11, 400 m/s2
49
Situation:
Water flows into a tank through a pipe on the side and then out a pipe on the
bottom of the tank.
Aout = Ain = 0.0025 m2 , Atank = √
0.1 m2 ,
At h = 1 m, dh/dt = 0.1 m, V = 2gh.
Find:
Velocity in the inlet: Vin .
Assumptions:
Incompressible flow.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Let the control surface surround the liquid in the
tank and let it follow the liquid surface at the top.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z
d
dt
cv
d
−ρVin Ain + ρVout Aout = − (ρAtank h)
dt µ ¶
dh
−Vin Ain + Vout Aout = −Atank
dt
p
−Vin (.0025) + 2g(1)(.0025) = −0.1(0.1) × 10−2
√
19.62(.0025) + 10−4
Vin =
0.0025
Vin = 4.47 m/s
50
Situation:
A bicycle tire is inflated with air.The density of the air in the inflated tire is 0.4
lbm/ft3 .
V = 0.045 ft3 , Qin = 1 ft3 / min.
Find:
Time needed to inflate the tire.
Properties:
ρin = 0.075 lb/ ft3 , ρCV = 0.04 lb/ ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Select a control volume surrounding the air within
tire.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
d
(ρQ)in = Mcv
dt
This equation may be integrated to give
(ρQ)in t = MCV
or
MCV
t =
(ρQ)in
0.045 lb/ ft3 × 0.4
=
0.075 lb/ ft3 × (1/60)
t = 14.4 s
51
Situation:
A cylinder falls in a tube containing a liquid.
VC = 4 ft/ s, Dtube = 8 in, Dcylinder = 6 in.
Find:
Mean velocity of the liquid in between the cylinder and the wall.
Sketch:
PLAN
Apply continuity equation and let the c.s. be fixed except at the bottom of the
cylinder where the c.s. follows the cylinder as it moves down. The top of the control
volume is stationary with resepct to the wall.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z
d
0 = ρdV + ṁo − ṁi
dt
d
0 = (V ) + VT AA
dt ³π ´ £ ¤
0 = VC AC + VT (8 in)2 − (6 in)2
³ π 4´ ³π ´ £ ¤
2
0 = −4 ft/ s × (6 in) + VT (8 in)2 − (6 in)2
4 4
144 ft in2 / s
VT = ¡ ¢
64 in2 − 36 in2
VT = 5.14 ft/s (upward)
52
Situation:
A round tank is being filled with water.
Vp = 10 ft/ s, DT = 4 ft, Dp = 1 ft.
Find:
Rate at which the water surface is rising.
Sketch:
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation and let the c.s. move up with the water surface in the
tank.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z
d
0 = ρdV+ ṁo − ṁi
dt CV
d
0 = (hAT ) − ((10 + VR )Ap )
dt
where AT = tank area, VR =rise velocity and Ap =pipe area.
dh
0 = AT − 10Ap − VR Ap
dt
but dh/dt = VR so
0 = AT VR − 10Ap − VR Ap
10Ap (10 ft/ s) (π/4)(1 ft)2
VR = =£ ¤
AT − Ap (π/4) (4 ft)2 − (π/4) (1 ft)2
VR = (2/3) ft/s
53
Situation:
A sphere is falling in a cylinder filled with water.
D1 = 8 in, D2 = 1 ft, V1 = 4 ft/ s.
Find:
Velocity of water at the midsection of the sphere.
Sketch:
PLAN
SOLUTION
As shown in the above sketch, select a control volume that is attached to the falling
sphere. Relative to the sphere, the velocity entering the control volume is V1 and the
velocity exiting is V2
Continuity equation
Z
d
− ρdV = 0 = ṁi − ṁo
dt CV
A1 V1 = A2 V2
³π ´ £ ¤
2 π (1.0 ft)2 − (0.67 ft)2
(1.0 ft) (4 ft) = V2
4 4
V2 = 7.26 fps
The velocity of the water relative to a stationary observer is
V = V2 − Vsphere
V = 7.26 − 4.0
V = 3.26 ft/ s
54
Situation:
Air flows in a rectangular duct.
Q = 1.44 m3 /s, A1 = 20 cm × 60 cm.
A2 = 10 cm × 40 cm.
Find:
Air speed for initial duct area, V1 .
Air speed for latter duct area, V2 .
Assumptions:
Constant air density.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q
V1 =
A1
(1.44 m3 / s)
=
(0.2 m × 0.6 m)
V1 = 12 m/s
(1.44 m3 / s)
V2 =
(0.1 m × 0.4 m)
V2 = 36 m/s
55
Situation:
A pipe divides into two outlets.
D30cm = 30 cm, D20cm = 20 cm, D15cm = 15 cm.
V20cm = V15cm , Q = 0.3 m3 / s.
Find:
Discharge in each branch.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
(0.3 m)
V = π
¡ 2 2¢
4
(0.2 m) + (0.15 m)
= 6.11 m/s
Q20 cm = V A20
= (6.11 m/ s) (π (0.1 m) (0.1 m))
Q20 cm = 0.192 m3 /s
Q15 cm = V A15
= (6.11 m/ s) (π (0.075 m) (0.075 m))
Q15 cm = 0.108 m3 /s
56
Situation:
D30cm = 30 cm, D20cm = 20 cm, D15cm = 15 cm.
Q20cm = 2Q15cm , Q = 0.3 m3 / s.
Find:
Mean velocity in each outlet branch.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Qtot. = 0.30 m3 /s = Q20 + Q15
Since Q20 = 2Q15
0.30 = 2Q15 + Q15

Q15 = 0.10 m3 /s;
Q20 = 0.20 m3 /s;
Flow rate equation

Q15
V15 =
A15
V15 = 5.66 m/s
Q20
V20 =
A20
V20 = 6.37 m/s
57
Situation:
Water flows through pipe that is in series with a narrower pipe.
D10 = 10 in, D6 = 6 in.
V20cm = V15cm , Q = 898 gal/ min.
Find:
Mean velocity in each pipe.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q = 898 gpm = 2 cfs

Q
V10 =
A10
2 ft3 / s
= ¡ ¢2
π 10
4 12
ft
V10 = 3.67 ft/ s
Q
V6 =
A6
2 ft3 / s
= π
4
(0.5 ft)2
V6 = 10.2 ft/ s
58
Situation:
Water flows through a tee.
DA = DB = 4 m, DC = 2 m.
VA = 6 m/ s, VC = 4 m/ s.
Find:
Mean velocity in outlet B.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
VA AA − Vc Ac
VB =
AB
[(6 m/ s) (π/4) (4 m)2 − (4 m/ s) (π/4) (2 m)2 )]
=
(π/4 (4 m)2 )
VB = 5.00 m/s
59
Situation:
Gas flows in a round conduit that tapers to a smaller diameter.
D1 = 1.2 m, D2 = 0.6 m, V1 = 15 m/ s.
Find:
Mean velocity at section 2.
Properties:
ρ1 = 2.0 kg/ m3 , ρ2 = 1.5 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
ρ1 A1 V1
V2 =
ρ2 A2
ρ1 D12 V1
=
ρ2 D22
(2.0 kg/ m3 ) (1.2 m)2 (15 m)
=
(1.5 kg/ m3 ) (0.6 m)2
V2 = 80.0 m/s
60
Situation:
Pipes A and B are connected to an open tank.
QA = 10 ft3 / min, A = 80 ft2 , dh/dt = 1 in/ min.
Find:
Discharge in pipe B.
If flow in pipe B is entering or leaving the tank.
Sketch:
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Define a control volume as shown in the above sketch.
Let the c.s. move upward with the water surface.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z X
d
0 = ρdV + ρV · A
dt CV
dh
0 = A + QB − QA
dt
dh
QB = QA − A
dt
1
= 10 ft3 / min − (80 ft2 )( ft/ min)
12
QB = +3.33 cfm
Because QB is positive flow is leaving the tank through pipe B.
61
Situation:
A tank has one inflow and two outflows.
D4in = 4 in = 0.333 ft, V4in = 10 ft/ s.
D6in = 6 in = 0.5 ft, V6in = 7 ft/ s.
D3in = 3 in = 0.25 ft, V3in = 4 ft/ s.
Dtank = 3 ft.
Find:
Is the tank filling or emptying.
dh
Rate at which the tank level is changing: dt
SOLUTION
³ π ´ µ 4 ¶2
Inflow = (10 ft/ s) ft = 0.8727 cfs
4 12
³π ´ ³π ´
Outflow = (7 ft/ s) (0.5 ft)2 + (4 ft/ s) (0.25 ft)2 = 1.571 cfs
4 4
Outflow > Inflow, Thus, tank is emptying
dh Q
= −
dt A
(1.571 − 0.8727) ft3 / s
= −
π (3 ft)2
dh
= −0.0247 ft/s
dt
62
Situation:
A tank is filled with water over time.
Di = 12 in = 1 ft, Vi = 1 ft/ s.
Do = 6 in = 0.5 ft, Vo = 2 ft/ s.
h1 = 0 ft, Dtank1 = 1 ft.
Dtank2 = 2 ft, h2 = 10 ft.
Find:
At t = 22 s, if the the water surface will be rising or falling.
Rate at which the tank level is changing: dhdt
Sketch:
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Define a control volume in which the control surface
(c.s.) is coincident with the water surface and moving with it.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z
d
ρdV = ṁi − ṁo
dt cv
d
(ρAh) = (ρAV )in − (ρAV )out
dt
d ³π ´ ³π ´
2 2
(ρAh) = ρ × (1 ft) (1 ft/ s) + ρ × (0.5 ft/ s) (2 ft/ s)
dt 4 4
dh π π
A = −
dt 4 8
dh π
A =
dt 8
Since Adh/dt > 0, the water level must be rising. While the water column occupies
63
the 12 in. section, the rate of rise is
dh π/8
=
dt A
π
=
8 × π/4 × (1)2
= 1/2 ft/s
Determine the time it takes the water surface to reach the 2 ft. section:
µ ¶
dh
10 = t;
dt
10
t = = 20 secs.
1/2
Therefore, at the end of 20 sec. the water surface will be in the 2 ft. section. Then
the rise velocity will be:
dh π
=
dt 8A
π
=
8 × π/4 × (2 ft)2
dh
dt
= 1/8 ft/sec
64
Situation:
A lake is fed by an inlet and has no outlet. cfs. Lake surface area is , where h is
depth in feet.
Qin = 1200 ft3 / s, A(h) = 4.5 + 5.5h mi2 .
QEvap = 13 ft3 / s mi2 .
Find:
Equilibrium depth of lake.
The minimum discharge to prevent the lake from drying up.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
QEvap. = Qin.
¡ 2¢
13 ft /s/mi (4.5 + 5.5h) mi2 = 1200 ft3 /s
3
Solve for depth h :

h = 16.0 ft. at equilibrium
The lake will dry up when h = 0 and QEvap. = Qin. . For h = 0,
13(4.5 + 5.5 × 0) = Qin.
Lake will dry up when Qin. = 58.5 ft3 /s
65
Situation:
A nozzle discharges water onto a plate moving towards the nozzle. Plate speed
equals half the jet speed.
Qin = 5 ft3 / s, Vin = 2Vp .
Find:
Rate at which the plate deflects water.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Select a control volume surrounding the plate and
moving with the plate.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Qin = Qp
Reference velocities to the moving plate. Let Vo be the speed of the water jet relative
to the nozzle. From the moving plate, the water has a speed of Vo + 1/2Vo = 3Vo /2.
Thus
Qp = Qin
= Vin Ao
µ ¶
3Vo 3
= (Ao ) = (Vo Ao )
2 2
3
= Qo
2
Qp = 7.5 cfs
66
Situation:
A tank with a depth h has one inflow ( ft3 /s) and one outflow through a 1 ft
diameter pipe. The outflow
√ velocity is .
3
Q = 20 ft / s, Vout = 2gh, Dout = 1 ft.
Find:
Equilibrium depth of liquid.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation and the flow rate equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Qin. = Qout at equilibrium

Qout = 20 ft3 / s
Flow rate equation
Qout = Vout Aout

p 2
20 = ( 2gh)(π/4 × Dout ) where D = 1 ft.
Solving for h yields

h = 10.1 ft.
67
Situation:
Flows with different specific weights enter a closed tank through ports A and B and
exit the tank through port C. Assume steady flow. Details are provided on figure
with problem statement.
DA = 6 in, QA = 3 ft3 / s.
SA = 0.95, DC = 6 in.
QB = 1 ft3 / s, SB = 0.85, DB = 4 in.
Find:
Mass flow rate at C.
Average velocity at C.
Specific gravity of the mixture.
Assumptions:
Steady state.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation and the flow rate equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
X X
ṁi − ṁo = 0
−ρA VA AA − ρB VB AB + ρC VC AC = 0
ρC VC AC = 0.95 × 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 3 ft3 / s + 0.85 × 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 1 ft3 / s
ṁ = 7.18 slugs/s
Continuity equation, assuming incompressible flow
VC AC = VA AA + VB AB
= 3 + 1 = 4 cfs
Flow rate equation

Q 4 ft3 / s
VC = =
A π
4
(0.5 ft)2
VC = 20.4 ft/ s
7.18
ρC = = 1.795 slugs/ft3
4
1.795
S =
1.94
S = 0.925
68
Situation:
O2 and CH4 are mixed in a mixer before exiting.
VO2 = VCH4 = 5 m/ s.
ACH4 = 1 cm2 , AO2 = 3 cm2 .
Find:
Exit velocity of the gas mixture, Ve .
Properties:
From Table A.2: RO2 = 260 J/ kg K, RCH4 = 518 J/ kg K.
T = 100 ◦ C, ρ = 2.2 kg/ m3 , p = 250 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the ideal gas law to find inlet density. Then apply the continuity equation.
SOLUTION
Ideal gas law
p
ρ02 =
RT
250, 000 Pa
=
(260 J/ kg K) (273 + 100) K
= 2.57 kg/m3
250, 000 Pa
ρCH4 =
(518 J/ kg K) (273 + 100) K
= 1.29 kg/m3
Continuity equation
X X
ṁi = ṁo
ρe Ve Ae = ρO2 VO2 AO2 + ρCH4 VCH4 ACH4
2.57 kg/ m3 × 5 m/ s × 3 cm2 + 1.29 kg/ m3 × 5 m/ s × 1 cm2
Ve =
2.2 kg/ m3 × 3 cm2
Ve = 6.84 m/s
69
Situation:
A pipe with a series of holes is used to distribute air.
¡ ¢1/2
Qhole = 0.67A0 2∆p
r
.
nhole = 50/ m, L = 10 m.
Dpipe = 0.5 m, Dhole = 2.5 cm.
Find:
Velocity of air entering the pipe.
Properties:
From Table A.2: R = 287 J/ kg K.
T = 20 ◦ C, ppipe = 100 Pa gage
PLAN
The total discharge out of the holes is equal to the inlet discharge.
Qin = AVin = NQhole
where N is the number of holes and Qhole is the discharge for each hole.
SOLUTION
The total number of holes
N = 50 × 10 = 500 holes
The density in the pipe is

p 100, 100 Pa
ρ= = = 1.19 kg/m3
RT (287 J/ kg K) (273 + 20) K
The flow rate through the holes is

µ ¶1/2
2∆p
Qhole = 0.67Ao
ρ
³π ´ µ 2 × 100 Pa ¶1/2
2
Qhole = 0.67 (0.025 m) = 0.00426 m3 /s
4 1.19 kg/ m3
The velocity at the pipe entrance is
NQhole 500 × 0.00426 m3 / s

V = =
A π
4
× (0.5 m)2
V = 10.8 m/ s
70
Situation:
Water through a globe valve.
Q = 10 gal/ min, ∆r2 = 0.125 in.
D1 = 1 in, D2 = 0.5 in
Find:
Pressure drop across the valve.
Properties:
T = 60 ◦ F.
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation between the 1 inch upstream pipe and the opening at
the seat of the valve
SOLUTION
The pressure drop across the globe valve is
p1 − p2 V 2 − V12
= 2
γ 2g
assuming negligible change in elevation. The p1 is the pressure in the pipe and p2 at
the valve seat. From continuity V2 A2 = V1 A1 so
"µ ¶ #
2
p1 − p2 V12 A1
= −1
γ 2g A2
The area between the disc and the seat is
A2 = 2πr∆r = 2π × 0.25 in × 0.125 in = 0.196 in2
The upstream pipe area is
A1 = πr2 = π × (0.5 in)2 = 0.785 in2
Thus A1 /A2 = 4.0. The volume flow rate is
0.002228 ft3 /s
Q = 10 gpm = 0.02228 ft3 /s
1 gpm
and the velocity in the pipe is
Q 0.02228 ft3 /s 144 in2
V1 = = = 4.08 ft/s
A1 0.785 in2 1 ft2
Thus
p1 − p2 (4.08 ft/ s)2 £ 2 ¤
= 4 − 1 = 3.88 ft
γ 2 × 32.2 ft/ s2
The specific weight of water at 60o F is 62.37 lbf/ft3 . The pressure drop is
p2 − p1 = 62.37 lbf/ft3 × 3.88 ft = 242psfd
p2 − p1 = 1.68 psid
71
Situation:
Water flow through an orifice in a pipe.
D1 = 2.5 cm, Do = 1.5 cm.
³ ´1/2
0.64Ao = A2 , Q = CAo 2∆pρ
.
∆p = 10 kPa, Q = 1000 kg/ m3 .
Find:
a) Derive equation for discharge.
b) Evaluate discharge across orifice.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation and the Bernoulli equation between pipe and vena
contracta. Neglect elevation change.
SOLUTION
Let point 1) be at the centerline of the upstream pipe and point 2) at the vena
contracta. The Bernoulli equation gives
ρ 2
p1 − p2 = (V − V12 )
2 2
ρ 2 V22
= V ( − 1)
2 1 V12
ρ 2 A21
= V ( − 1)
2 1 A22
µ ¶
ρ 2 1 1
= (V1 A1 ) −
2 A22 A21
µ 2 ¶
ρ 2 A1 − A22
= (V1 A1 )
2 A21 A22
Solving for V1 A1 = Q
s
2(p1 − p2 ) A2
Q = A2 ( 2 1 2 )1/2
ρ A1 − A2
The ratio of the cross-sectional area at the vena contracta to the area of the orifice
is
A2
= 0.64
Ao
and
µ ¶2
A2 0.64Ao Do
= = 0.64
A1 A1 D1
µ ¶2 µ ¶2
A2 Do 1.5 cm
= 0.64 = 0.64 ×
A1 D1 2.5 cm
= 0.2304
72
Substitute into discharge equation
s
2(p1 − p2 ) 1
Q = 0.64Ao ( )1/2
ρ 1 − A22 /A21
s
2(p1 − p2 ) 1
Q = 0.64Ao ( )1/2
ρ 1 − 0.23042
r
2(p1 − p2 )
Q = 0.658Ao
ρ
For a ∆p = 10 kPa the discharge is

s
π 2 × 10000 Pa
Q = 0.658 × ( × 0.0152 m2 )
4 1000 kg/m3
= 0.000520 m3 / s
Q = 5.20 × 10−4 m3 / s
73
Situation:
A tank is filled with air from a compressor.
V = 10 m3 , ṁ = 0.5 ρρ0 kg/ s.
Find:
Time to increase the density of the air in the tank by a factor of 2.
Properties:
ρ0 = 2 kg/ m3
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z
d
dt CV
d
− (ρV) = −ṁi
dt
dρ
V( ) = 0.5ρ0 /ρ
dt
Separating variables and integrating
0.5ρ0 dt
ρdρ =
V
ρ2 f 0.5ρ0 dt
| =
2 0 V
ρ2f − ρ20 0.5ρ0 ∆t
=
2 V∙µ ¶ ¸
ρ2f
∆t = Vρ0 −1
ρ20
¡ ¢
= 10 m3 (2 kg/ m3 )((2)2 − 1)
∆t = 60s
74
Situation:
A tire develops
√ a slow leak.
ṁ = 0.68pA/ RT , V = 0.5 ft3 , t = 3 h.
Find:
Area of the leak.
Properties:
From Table A.2: R = 1716 ft lbf/ slug R.
T = 60 ◦ F, p1 = 30psig, p2 = 25psig.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
d
ṁout = − (ρV)
dt
Ideal gas law
p
ρ=
RT
Combining previous 2 equations
µ ¶
V dp
ṁout =−
RT dt
√
Let ṁout = 0.68A/ RT in the above equation
µ ¶
0.68pA V dp
√ =−
RT RT dt
µ ¶ √
1 dp (0.68A RT )
= −
p dt V
µ ¶ √
p0 (0.68A RT )
n =
p V
Finding area
µ ¶ µ ¶
V p0
A = √ n
0.68t RT p
Ã !
0.5
= p n(44/39)
(0.68) (3 h) (3, 600 s/ h) 1, 716 ft lbf/ slug R × 520 R
A = 8.69 × 10−9 ft2 = 1.25 × 10−6 in2
75
Situation:
An O2 bottle√
leaks oxygen through a small orifice causing the pressure to drop.
ṁ = 0.68pA/ RT , V = 0.1 m3 .
D = 0.12 mm.
Find:
Time required for the specified pressure change.
Properties:
From Table A.2: R = 260 J/ kg K.
T = 18 ◦ C, p0 = 10 MPa.
p = 5 MPa.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation and the ideal gas law.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
d
ṁout = − (ρV)
dt
Ideal gas law
p
ρ=
RT
Combining previous 2 equations
µ ¶
V dp
ṁout =−
RT dt
√
Let ṁout = 0.68A/ RT in the above equation
µ ¶
0.68pA V dp
√ =−
RT RT dt

µ ¶ √
1 dp (0.68A RT )
= −
p dt V
µ ¶ √
p0 (0.68A RT )
n =
p V
76
Finding time
µ ¶ µ ¶
V p0
t = √ n
0.68A RT p
π
A =(0.12 × 10−3 m)2 = 1.131 × 10−8 m2
√ 4
√
RT = 260 × 291 = 275.1 m/s
0.1 m3 × n (10/5)
t = = 3.28 × 104 s
0.68 × 1.131 m2 × 10−8 m2 × 275 m/s
t = 9 h 6 min.
77
Situation:
A tank is draining through an orifice.
h1 = 3 m, h = 0.5 m.
DT = 0.6 m, D2 = 3 cm
Find:
Time required for the water surface to drop the specified distance (3 to 0.5 m).
SOLUTION
From Example 5-6 the time to decrease the elevation from h1 to h is
µ ¶
2AT 1/2
t = √ (h1 − h1/2 )
2gA2
¡ ¢ ¡√ √ ¢
2 × π/4 × (0.6 m)2 3 − 0.5 m1/2
= p
2 × 9.81 m/ s2 × (π/4) × (0.03 m)2
t = 185 s
78
Situation:
A cylindrical drum of water is emptying through a pipe on the bottom.
D =√ 2 ft, R = 1 ft.
V = 2gh, L = 4 ft.
d = 2 ft = 0.167 ft, h0 = 1 ft.
Sketch:
Find:
Time to empty the drum.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Let the control surface surround the water in the
tank. Let the c.s. be coincident with the moving water surface. Thus, the control
volume will decrease in volume as the tank empties. Situate the origin at the center
of the tank.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Z
d
dt cv
Z
d
+ρV A = − ρdV (1)
dt cv
p d
ρ 2ghA = −ρ (V) (2)
p dt
dt 2ghA = −dV (3)
79
Let dV = L(2x)dy. Substituted into Eq. (3) we have
p
dt 2ghA = 2Lxdy (4)
But h can be expressed as a function of y:
h=R+y
or p
dt 2g(R + y)A = 2Lxdy
Also
R2 = x2 + y 2
p p
x = R2 − y 2 = (R − y)(R + y)
p p
dt 2g(R + y)A = −2L (R − y)(R + y)dy
µ ¶
2L p
dt = − √ (R − y)dy (5)
2gA
Integrate Eq. (5)

µ ¶Z R
2L p
t|t0= − √ R − ydy
2gA 0
µ ¶
2L
= √ [(2/3)(R − y)3/2 ]−R
0
2gA
µ ¶
2L £ ¤
t = √ (2/3) (2R)3/2 − R3/2
2gA
For R = 1 µ ¶
2L
t= √ (2/3)(23/2 − 1) (6)
2gA
In Eq. (5) A = (π/4)d2 = 0.0219 ft2 . Therefore
Ã !
4 ft
t = 2× p (2/3)(1.828)
64.4 ft/ s2 × 0.0219 ft2
t = 55.5 s
REVIEW
The above solution assumes that the velocity of water is uniform across the jet just as
it leaves the tank. This is not exactly so, but the solution should yield a reasonable
approximation.
80
Situation:
Waterqdrains from a pressurized tank.
Ve = 2p ρ
+ 2gh, ho = 2 m.
A = 1 m2 , Ae = 10 cm2 .
Find:
Time for the tank to empty with given supply pressure.
Time for the tank to empty if supply pressure is zero.
Properties:
p = 10 kPa.
Water, Table A.5: ρ = 1000 kg/m3 .
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Define a control surface coincident with the tank
walls and the top of the fluid in the tank.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
dV
ρ = −ρAe Ve
dt
Density is constant. The differential volume is Adh so the above equation becomes
Adh
− = −dt
Ae Ve
or
Adh
− q = dt
Ae 2p ρ
+ 2gh
Integrating this equation gives
µ ¶1/2
A 1 2p
− + 2gh |0ho = ∆t
Ae g ρ
or "µ ¶1/2 µ ¶1/2 #
A1 2p 2p
∆t = + 2gho −
Ae g ρ ρ
and for A = 1 m2 , Ae = 10−3 m2 , ho = 2 m, p = 10 kPa and ρ = 1000 kg/m3 results
in
∆t = 329 s or 5.48 min (supply pressure of 10 kPa)
For zero pressure in the tank, the time to empty is
s
A 2ho
∆t = =639 s or
Ae g
∆t = 10.6 min (supply pressure of zero)
81
Situation:
A tapered
√ tank drains through an orifice at bottom of tank.
Ve = 2gh, D = d + C1 h.
h0 = 1 m, h = 20 cm, d = 20 cm.
C1 = 0.3, dj = 5 cm.
Find:
Derive a formula for the time to drain.
Calculate the time to drain.
PLAN
SOLUTION
From continuity equation
µ ¶
dh
Q = −AT
dt
dh
dt = −AT
Q
√ √
where Q = 2ghAj = 2gh(π/4)d2j
π π
AT = (d + C1 h)2 = (d2 + 2dC1 h + C12 h2 )
4 4
−(d2 + 2dC1 h + C1 h2 )dh
dt = √
2gh1/2 d2j
Z h 2
(d + 2dC1 h + C12 h2 )dh
t = − √
h0 2gh1/2 d2j
Z h0
1
t = √ (d2 h−1/2 + 2dC1 h1/2 + C12 h3/2 )dh
d2j 2g h
2 £ 2 1/2 ¤h0
t = 2
√ d h + (2/3)dC1 h3/2 + (1/5)C12 h5/2 h
dj 2g
Evaluating the limits of integration gives
2 h 2 1/2 1/2 2 3/2 3/2 1 2 5/2 5/2

i
t = 2√ (d (h0 − h ) + 3 dC1 (h0 − h ) + 5 C1 (h0 − h )
dj 2g
t = 13.8 s
82
Situation:
Water√drains out of a spherical tank that begins at half full.
Ve = 2gh, R = 0.5 m, de = 1 cm.
Sketch:
Find:
Time required to empty the tank.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation. Select a control volume that is inside of the tank and
level with the top of the liquid surface.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
dV
ρ = −ρAe Ve
dt
Let
dV dh
=A
dt dt
Continuity becomes
dh Ae p
=− 2gh
dt A
The cross-sectional area in terms of R and h is
A = π[R2 − (R − h)2 ] = π(2Rh − h2 )
Substituting into the differential equation gives
π(−2Rh + h2 )
√ dh = dt
Ae 2gh
83
or
π ¡ ¢
√ −2Rh1/2 + h3/2 dh = dt
2gAe
Integrating this equation results in
µ ¶
π 4 3/2 2 5/2 0
√ − Rh + h |R = ∆t
2gAe 3 5
Substituting in the limits yields

π 14 5/2
√ R = ∆t
2gAe 15
For R = 0.5 m and Ae = 7.85 × 10−5 m2 , the time to empty the tank is
∆t = 1491 s or 24.8 min
84
Situation:
A tank containing oil is draining from the bottom.
DT = 2 m, ho = 5 m.
L = 6 m, de = 2 cm.
p = (po + patm ) × (Lp
− ho )/(L − h) − patm .
dh/dt = −Ae /AT × 2gh + 2p/ρ.
Find:
Predict the depth of the oil with time for a one hour period.
Properties:
ρ = 880 kg/ m3 , po = 300 kPa, patm = 100 kPa.
SOLUTION From the continuity equation
dMcv dh
= ρAT = −ṁo
dt dt r
dh ρVe Ao Ao 2p
= − = 2gh +
dt ρAT AT ρ
where µ ¶
L − h0
p = (p0 + patm ) − patm
L−h
A numerical program was developed and the numerical solution provides the following
results:
5
Depth, m
1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time, min
85
Situation:
Propellant fuels an end-burning rocket motor.
Dc = 0.1 m, De = 0.08 m, ṙ = 1 cm/ s.
Find: Gas velocity at nozzle exit plane.
Properties:
ρ = 1750 kg/ m3 , R = 415 J/ kg K.
pe = 10 kPa, T = 2200 ◦ C.
PLAN Apply the continuity equation and the ideal gas law.
SOLUTION Ideal gas law
p
ρe =
RT
10000 Pa
= = 0.00974 kg/m3
415 J/ kg K × 2473 K
The rate of mass decease of the solid propellant is ρp Ac ṙ where ρp is the propellant
density, Ac is the chamber cross-sectional area and ṙ is the regression rate. This is
equal to the mass flow rate supplied to the chamber or across the control surface.
From the continuity equation
ρp Ac ṙ
Ve =
ρe Ae
Ac = π/4 × (0.1 m)2 = 0.00785 m2
Ae = π/4 × (0.08 m)2 = 0.00503 m2
0.01 m/s
= 1750 kg/m3 × 0.00785 m2 × £ ¤
0.00974 kg/m3 × 0.00503 m2
Ve = 2800 m/s
86
Situation:
Propellant fuels a cylindrical-port rocket motor.
D0 = 0.2 m, D = 0.12 m.
De = 0.2 m, Ve = 2000 m/ s.
pe = 10 kPa, ṙ = 1.2 cm/ s.
L = 0.4 m.
Find:
Gas density at the exit.
Properties:
ρg = 2200 kg/ m3 , R = 415 J/ kg K.
SOLUTION Area of the grain surface (internal surface and two ends)
Ag = πDL + 2(π/4)(D02 − D2 )
π
= π × 0.12 m × 0.4 m + ((0.2 m)2 − (0.12 m)2 ) = 0.191 m2
2
Vg ρg Ag
ρe =
Ve Ae
Ae = (π/4) × (0.20 m)2 = 0.03142 m2
¡ ¢
0.012 m/s × 2, 200 kg/m3 × 0.191 m2
ρe =
2, 000 m/s × 0.03142 m2
ρe = 0.0802 kg/m3
87
Situation:
Propellant flows through a nozzle in a rocket chamber.
0.65pc At
ṁ = √ , ṙ = apnc .
RTc
n = 0.3, pc = kPa.
¡ aρp ¢1/(1−n) ³ Ag ´1/(1−n)
pc = 0.65 At
(RTc )1/[2(1−n)] .
Find:
Derive a formula for chamber pressure.
Calculate the increase in chamber pressure if a crack increases burn area by 20%.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation. The mass flux off the propellant surface equals flow rate through
nozzle.
ρp ṙAg = ṁ
0.65pc At
ρp apnc Ag = √
RTc
µ ¶
1−n
aρ p Ag
pc = (RTc )1/2
0.65 At
³ aρ ´1/(1−n) µ A ¶1/(1−n)
p g
pc = (RTc )1/(2(1−n))
0.65 At
∆pc = 3.5 MPa(1 + 0.20)1/(1−0.3)
∆pc = 4.54 MPa
88
Situation:
A piston moves in a cylinder and drives exhaust gas out an exhaust port in a four
cycle engine.
0.65pc Av
ṁ = √ , dbore = 0.1 m.
RTc
L = 0.1 m, Av = 1 cm2 .
V = 30 m/ s.
Find:
Rate at which the gas density is changing in the cylinder.
Assumptions:
The gas in the cylinder is ideal and has a uniform density and pressure.
Properties:
T = 600 ◦ C, R = 350 J/ kg K, p = 300 kPa.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation. Control volume is defined by piston and cylinder.
d 0.65pc Av
(ρV ) + √ = 0
dt RTc
dρ dV 0.65pc Av
V +ρ + √ = 0
dt dt RTc
dρ ³ ρ ´ dV 0.65pc Av
= − − √
dt V dt RTc
V = (π/4)(0.1 m) (0.1 m) = 7.854 × 10−4 m3
2
dV
= −(π/4)(0.1 m)2 (30 m/ s) = −0.2356 m3 /s
dt
p 300, 000 Pa
ρ = =
RT (350 J/ kg K × 873 K)
= 0.982 kg/m3
dρ 0.982 kg/ m3
= − × (−0.2356 m3 / s)
dt 7.854 × 10−4 m3
0.65 × 300, 000 Pa × 1 × 10−4 m2
− p
7.854 × 10−4 m3 × 350 J/ kg/ K × 873 K
dρ
dt
= 250 kg/m3 ·s
89
Situation:
Water flows in a pipe with a contraction.
Q = 70 ft3 / s, d = 2 ft, D = 6 ft.
Find:
Pressure at point B.
Assumptions:
Water temperature is 50 ◦ F.
Properties:
pA = 3500 psf.
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation and the continuity equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Q 70 ft3 / s
VA = = = 2.476 ft/s
AA π/4 × (6 ft)2
Q 70 ft3 / s
VB = = = 22.28 ft/s
AB π/4 × (2 ft)2
The Bernoulli equation
pA VA2 pB VB2
+ + zA = + + zB
γ 2g γ 2g
pB 3500 lbf/ft2 (2.476 ft/s)2 (22.28 ft/s)2
= + − − 4 ft
γ 62.4 lbf/ft3 64.4 ft/s2 64.4 ft/s2
pB = 2775 lbf/ft2
pB = 19.3 lbf/in2
90
Situation:
Water flows through a contraction section of circular pipe.
Vin = (10 m/s) [1 − exp(−t/10)], Di = 2Do .
Find:
Velocity variation at outlet.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Because water is incompressible, there is no unsteady term in continuity equation, so
µ ¶ µ ¶2
Ain 2
Vout = Vin = Vin
Aout 1
£ ¡ ¢¤
Vout =(40 m/s) 1 − exp − 10t
91
Situation:
An annular venturimeter is mounted in a pipe with air flow at standard conditions.
D = 4 in = 0.333 ft, d = 0.8D.
Find:
Find the volume flow rate
Assumptions:
Flow is incompressible, inviscid, steady and velocity is uniformly distributed.
Properties:
∆p = 3 in H2 O, ρ = 0.00237 slug/ ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Take point 1 as upstream in pipe and point 2 in annular section. The flow is incom-
pressible, steady and inviscid so the Bernoulli equation applies
V12 V2
p1 + γz1 + ρ = p2 + γz2 + ρ 2
2 2
Also z1 = z2 . From the continuity equation
A1 V1 = A2 V2
But
π 2
A2 = (D − d2 )
4
so
A2 d2
= 1− 2
A1 D
= 1 − 0.82
= 0.36
Therefore
V1
V2 = = 2.78V1
0.36
Substituting into the Bernoulli equation
ρ 2
p1 − p2 = (V − V12 )
2 2
ρ 2
= V (2.782 − 1)
2 1
= 3.36ρV12
92
The standard density is 0.00237 slug/ft3 and the pressure difference is
µ ¶
3 in ¡ ¢
∆p = 62.4 lbf/ ft3
12 in/ ft
= 15.6 psf
Solving for V1
15.6 lbf/ ft2

V12 = ¡ ¢
3.36 0.00237 slug/ ft3
= 1957 ft2 / s2
V1 = 44.2 ft/s
The discharge is
Q = A1 V1
³π ´
= (44.2 ft/ s) (0.333 ft)2
4
= 3.86 cfs
Q = 231 cfm
93
Situation:
A venturi-type applicator is used to spray liquid fertilizer.
D2 = 1 cm, A2 /A1 = 2,√Q = L/ min.
z3 = −0.1 m, Ql = 0.5 ∆h.
Find:
The flow rate of liquid fertilizer.
The mixture ratio of fertilizer to water at exit.
Properties:
T = 20 ◦ C.
PLAN
Use the continuity and Bernoulli equation to find the pressure at the throat and use
this pressure to find the difference in piezometric head and flow rate.
SOLUTION
The Bernoulli equation is applicable between stations 1 (the throat) and 2 (the exit).
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ z1 + = + z2 +
γ 2g γ 2g
From the continuity equation
A2
V1 = V2
A1
= 2V2
Also z1 = z2 so
p1 p2 V2
− = 2 (1 − 22 )
γ γ 2g
V2
= −3 2
2g
At the exit p2 = 0 (gage)
p1 V22
= −3
γ 2g
The flow rate is 10 lpm or
1 min 10−3 m3
Q = 10 lpm × ×
60 s 1L
−3 3
= 0.166 × 10 m /s
The exit diameter is 1 cm so
π
A2 = (0.01 m)2
4
= 7.85 × 10−5 m2
94
The exit velocity is
Q 0.166 × 10−3 m3 / s
V2 = =
A2 7.85 × 10−5 m2
= 2.115 m/s
Therefore
p1 (2.115 m/ s)2
= −3 ×
γ 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
= −0.684 m
Let point 3 be the entrance to the feed tube. Then
∆h = h3 − h1
p3 p1
= + z3 − ( + z1 )
γ γ
p3 p1
= − + (z3 − z1 )
γ γ
= 0.05 − (−0.687) − 0.1
= 0.634 m
a) The flow rate in the feed tube is

√
Qf = 0.5 0.634
Qf = 0.398 lpm
b) Concentration in the mixture
Ql 0.398 lpm
=
Ql + Qw (10 + 0.398) lpm
Ql
Ql +Qw
= 0.038 (or 3.8%)
95
Situation:
Air flows upward in a vertical venturi.
V1 = 80 ft/ s, A2 /A1 = 0.5.
Find:
Deflection of manometer.
Assumptions:
Uniform air density.
Properties:
ρ = 0.0644 lb/ ft3 , γ = 120 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation from 1 to 2 and then the continuity equation. Let
section 1 be in the large duct where the manometer pipe is connected and section 2
in the smaller duct at the level where the upper manometer pipe is connected.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
V1 A1 = V2 A2
µ ¶
A1
V2 = V1
A2
= (80 ft/ s) (2)
= 160 ft/s
Bernoulli equation
ρV12 ρV 2
pz1 + = pz2 + 2
2 2
pz1 − pz2 = (1/2)ρ(V22 − V12 )
µ ¶
0.0644 lbf/ ft3 £ 2 2¤
pz1 − pz2 = (1/2) (160 ft/ s) − (80 ft/ s)
32.2 ft/ s2
= 19.2 psf
Manometer equation
pz1 − pz2 = ∆h(γ liquid − γ air )

19.2 = ∆h(120 lbf/ ft3 − 0.0644 lbf/ ft3 )
∆h = 0.160 ft.
96
Situation:
An atomizer utilizing a constriction in an air duct.
Find:
Design an operable atomizer.
SOLUTION
Assume the bottom of the tube through which water will be drawn is 5 in. below the
neck of the atomizer. Therefore if the atomizer is to operate at all, the pressure in
the necked down portion must be low enough to draw water 5 in. up the tube. In
other words pneck must be −(5/12)γ water = −26 psfg. Let the outlet diameter of the
atomizer be 0.5 in. and the neck diameter be 0.25 in. Assume that the change in
area from neck to outlet is gradual enough to prevent separation so that the Bernoulli
equation will be valid between these sections. Thus
ρVn2 ρV 2
pn + = p0 + 0
2 2
were n and 0 refer to the neck and outlet sections respectively. But
pn = −26 psfg and p0 = 0

or
ρVn2 ρV 2
−26 + = 0 (1)
2 2
Vn An = V0 A0
V0 A0
Vn = (2)
An
µ ¶2
0.5 in
= V0
0.25 in
Vn = 4V0
Eliminate Vn between Eqs. (1) and (2)
ρ(4V0 )2 ρV02
−26 + =
2 2
16ρV0 2 ρV02
−26 + =
2 2
2
15ρV0
= 26
2
µ ¶1/2
52/15
V0 =
ρ
97
Assume ρ = 0.0024 slugs/ft2
µ ¶1/2
52/15
V0 =
0.0024
= 38 ft/s
0.5 2
Q = V A = (38 ft/ s) (π/4)( ft)
12
= .052 cfs
= 3.11 cfm
One could use a vacuum cleaner (one that you can hook the hose to the discharge
end) to provide the air source for such an atomizer.
98
Situation:
A suction device based on a venturi lifts objects submerged in water.
Ae = 10−3 m2 , At = 0.25Ae , As = 0.1 m2 .
Find:
(a) Velocity of water at exit for maximum lift.
(b) Discharge.
(c) Maximum load supportable by suction cup.
Properties:
Water (15 ◦ C) Table A.5: pv = 1, 700 Pa, ρ = 999 kg/ m3 .
patm = 100 kPa.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Venturi exit area, Ae = 10−3 m2 , Venturi throat area, At = (1/4)Ae , Suction cup
area, As = 0.1 m2
patm = 100 kPa
Twater = 15◦ C
Bernoulli equation for the Venturi from the throat to exit with the pressure at the
throat equal to the vapor pressure of the water. This will establish the maximum
lift condition. Cavitation would prevent any lower pressure from developing at the
throat.
pv Vt2 pe Ve2max
+ + zt = + + ze (1)
γ 2g γ 2g
Continuity equation
Vt At = Ve Ae
Ae
Vt = Ve (2)
At
Vt = 4Ve
Then Eq. (1) can be written as
1, 700 (4Ve max )2 100, 000 Ve2max
+ = +
γ 2g γ 2g
∙µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸1/2
1 2g
Ve max = (98, 300)
15 γ
∙µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸1/2
1 2
= (98, 300)
15 ρ
Ve max = 3.62 m/s
99
Qmax = Ve Ae
= (3.62 m/s)(10−3 m2 )
Qmax = 0.00362 m3 /s
Find pressure in the suction cup at the level of the suction cup.
pt + γ∆h = psuction
psuction = 1, 700 Pa + 9, 800 N/ m3 × 2 m
= 21, 300 Pa
But the pressure in the water surrounding the suction cup will be patm + γ × 1 =
(100 + 9.80) kPa, or
pwater − psuction = (109, 800 − 21, 300) Pa

= 88, 500 Pa
Thus the maximum lift will be:
Liftmax = ∆pAs = (pwater − psuction )As

= (88, 500 N/m2 )(0.1 m2 )
Liftmax = 8, 850 N
100
Situation:
A hovercraft is supported by air pressure.
l = 15 ft, w = 7 ft, W = 2000 lbf,
Find:
Air flow rate necessary to support the hovercraft.
Assumptions:
Air is incompressible.
Steady flow.
Viscous effects are negligible.
Air in the chamber is at stagnation conditions (V = 0, p = uniform)
Just under the skirt p = patm
Properties:
Air (T = 60 ◦ F, p = 1 atm) , ρ = 0.00237 slug/ ft3 , Table A.3.
PLAN
Because flow rate is the goal, apply Q = V A. The steps are:
1. Find the pressure in the chamber by apply force equilibrium in the vertical direc-
tion.
2 Find V by applying the Bernoulli equation from inside the chamber to just under
the skirt.
3. Apply the flow rate equation.
SOLUTION
1. Force equilibrium (vertical direction)
∆pA = W
W 2000 lbf 2
∆p = = 2 = 19.05 lbf/ ft
A (15 × 7) ft
2. Bernoulli equation (elevations terms are neglected; point 1 is in the chamber; point
2 is underneath the skirt)
V12 V22
p1 + ρ = p2 + ρ
2 2
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢V2
19.05 lbf/ ft2 + 0 = 0 + 0.00237 slug/ ft3 2
s ¡ 2
2
¢ µ ¶
2 19.05 lbf/ ft slug · ft
V2 = ¡ ¢ = 127.9 ft/ s
0.00237 slug/ ft3 lbf · s2
Q = V A = (127.9 ft/ s) (3/12 ft) (30 ft + 14 ft) = 1407 ft3 / s
Q = 84, 400 cfm
101
Situation:
Water forced out of a cylinder by a piston.
d = 2 in, D = 4 in, V = 6 ft/ s.
Find:
Efflux velocity and force required to drive piston.
Properties:
T = 60 ◦ F.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
V1 A1 = V2 A2
µ ¶2 µ ¶2
D 4 in
V2 = V1 =6×
d 2 in
V2 = 24 ft/ s
Bernoulli equation
p1 V12 V2
+ = 2
γ 2g 2g
ρ 2
p1 = (V − V12 )
2 2
1.94 slug/ ft3 £ ¤
= (24 ft/ s)2 − (6 ft/ s)2
2
= 518 psf
Then
µ ¶2
4
Fpiston = p1 A1 = 518 × (π/4) × ft
12
F = 45.2 lbf
102
Situation:
Air flows through constant area, heated pipe.
D = 4 in, V = 10 m/ s.
p2 = 80 kPa, p1 = 100 kPa.
Find:
Velocity at exit.
Determine if the Bernoulli equation be used to relate the pressure and velocity
changes.
Properties:
T1 = 20 ◦ C, T2 = 50 ◦ C.
PLAN
SOLUTION
The flow is steady so the continuity equation for constant area pipe yields
ρ1 V1 = ρ2 V2
µ ¶
ρ1
V2 = V1
ρ2
From ideal gas law

ρ1 p1 T2
=
ρ2 p2 T1
so
100 kPa 323 K
V2 = 10 m/s ×
80 kPa 293 K
V2 = 13.8 m/ s
The Bernoulli equation is not applicable because the density is not constant.
103
Situation:
On a hot day a fuel pump can cavitate.
Find:
What is happening to the gasoline?
How does this affect pump operation?
Properties:
p2 = 80 kPa, p1 = 100 kPa.
SOLUTION
Sometimes driving your car on a hot day, you may encounter a problem with the fuel
pump called pump cavitation. What is happening to the gasoline?
The temperature of a hot day causes the vapor pressure to increase. The high fluid
velocities in a pump can cause the pressure to decrease to the point that cavitation
occurs.
How does this affect the operation of the pump?

At this point, the pump designed to pump liquid is no longer effective.
104
Situation:
Cavitation.
Find:
What is cavitation?
Why does tendency for cavitation in a liquid increase with temperature?
SOLUTION
What is cavitation?
Cavitation occurs when the liquid pressure reaches the vapor pressure and local boiling
occurs.
Why does the tendency for cavitation in a liquid increase with increased tempera-
tures?
The tendency of cavitation to increase with temperature is the result of the vapor
pressure increasing with temperature.
105
Situation:
Cavitation in a venturi section.
D = 40 cm, d = 10 cm.
Find:
Discharge for incipient cavitation.
Properties:
pA = 120 kPa, patm = 100 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation and the Bernoulli equation.
SOLUTION
Cavitation will occur when the pressure reaches the vapor pressure of the liquid
(pV = 1, 230 Pa abs).
Bernoulli equation
ρVA2 ρV 2
pA + = pthroat + throat
2 2
where VA = Q/AA = Q/((π/4) × 0.402 )
Continuity equation
Q Q
Vthroat = =
Athroat π/4 × (0.10 m)2
ρ 2
(Vthroat − VA2 ) = pA − pthroat
∙ 2 ¸
ρQ2 1 1
−
2 ((π/4) × (0.10 m)2 )2 ((π/4) × (0.40 m)2 )2
= 220, 000 Pa − 1, 230 Pa
500Q2 (16, 211 − 63) = 218, 770 Pa
Q = 0.165 m3 /s
106
Situation:
A sphere moves below the surface in water.
D = 1 ft, h = 12 ft.
Find:
Speed at which cavitation occurs.
Properties:
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation between the free stream and the maximum width.
SOLUTION
Let po be the pressure on the streamline upstream of the sphere. The minimum
pressure will occur at the maximum width of the sphere where the velocity is 1.5
times the free stream velocity.
Bernoulli equation
1 1
po + ρVo2 + γho = p + ρ(1.5Vo )2 + γ(ho + 0.5)
2 2
Solving for the pressure p gives
p = po − 0.625ρVo2 − 0.5γ
The pressure at a depth of 12 ft is 749 lbf/ft2 . The density of water is 1.94 slugs/ft3
and the specific weight is 62.4 lbf/ft3 . At a temperature of 50o F, the vapor pressure
is 0.178 psia or 25.6 psfa. Substituting into the above equation
25.6 psfa = 749 psfa − (0.625) (1.94) Vo2 − (0.5) (62.4)

692.2 = 1.21Vo2
Solving for Vo gives
Vo = 23.9 ft/s
107
Situation:
A hydrofoil is tested in water.
h = 1.8 m, V = 8 m/ s.
Find:
Speed that cavitation occurs.
Assumptions:
patm = 101 kPa abs; pvapor = 1, 230 Pa abs.
Properties:
T = 10 ◦ C, p0 = 70 kPa.
PLAN
Consider a point ahead of the foil (at same depth as the foil) and the point of minimum
pressure on the foil, and apply the pressure coefficient definition between these two
points.
SOLUTION
(pmin − p0 )
Cp =
ρV02 /2
where
p0 = patm + 1.8γ = 101, 000 kPa + 1.8 m × 9, 810 N/ m3 = 118, 658 Pa abs.
pmin = 70, 000 Pa abs; V0 = 8 m/s
Then
70, 000 Pa − 118, 658 Pa
Cp = = −1.521
500 × (8 m/ s)2
Now use Cp = −1.521 (constant) for evaluating V for cavitation where pmin is now
pvapor :
(1, 230 Pa − 118, 658 Pa)

−1.521 =
(1, 000/2)V02
V0 = 12.4 m/s
108
Situation:
h = 3 m, V = 8 m/ s.
Find:
Speed that cavitation begins.
Properties:
T = 10 ◦ C, p0 = 70 kPa.
PLAN
Same solution procedure applies as in Prob. 5.98.
SOLUTION
From the solution to Prob. 5.98, we have the same Cp , but p0 = 101, 000 + 3γ =
130, 430. Then:
1, 230 Pa − 130, 430 Pa
−1.521 =
(1, 000/2)V02
V0 = 13.0 m/s
109
Situation:
h = 4 ft, V = 25 ft/ s.
Find:
Speed that cavitation begins.
Properties:
p0 = 2.5 psi vacuum.
Water (50 ◦ F) Table A.5, pv = 0.178 psia.
PLAN
Consider a point ahead of the foil (at same depth as the foil) and the point of minimum
pressure on the foil, and apply the pressure coefficient definition between these two
points.
SOLUTION
pmin = −2.5 × 144 = −360 psf gage

p0 = 4γ = 4 × 62.4 = 249.6 psf
Then
(pmin − p0 ) (−360 − 249.6)
Cp = =
2
ρV0 /2 (1.94 slug/ ft3 /2) × (25 ft/ s)2
Cp = −1.005
Now let pmin = pvapor = 0.178 psia = −14.52 psia = −2, 091 psfg
Then
249.6 psf + 2, 091

−1.005 = −
(1.94 slug/ ft3 /2)V02
V0 = 49.0 ft/s
110
Situation:
h = 10 ft, V = 25 ft/ s.
Find:
Speed that cavitation begins when depth is 10 ft.
Properties:
T = 50 ◦ F, p0 = 2.5 psi vacuum.
PLAN Same solution procedure applies as in Prob. 5.100.
SOLUTION From solution of Prob. 5.100 we have C = −1.005 but now p =

p 0
10γ = 624 psf. Then:
624 lbf + 2, 091 lbf

−1.005 = −
(1.94/2)V02
V0 = 52.8 ft/s
111
Situation:
A sphere moving in water.
V = 1.5V0 .
Find: Speed at which cavitation occurs.
Properties:
Water (50 ◦ F) Table A.5: pv = 0.178 psia, γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
p0 = 18 psia.
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation between a point in the free stream to the 90◦ position
where V = 1.5V0 . The free stream velocity is the same as the sphere velocity
(reference velocities to sphere).
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
ρV02 ρ(1.5V0 )2
+ p0 = p +
2 2
where p0 = 18 psia
ρV02 (2.25 − 1)
= (18 psia − 0.178 psia)(144 in2 / ft2 )
2
2(17.8 psia)(144 in2 / ft2 )
V02 =
(1.25)(1.94)) ft2 /s2
V0 = 46.0 ft/sec
112
Situation:
A cylinder is moving in water.
h = 1 m, V0 = 5 m/ s.
Find:
Velocity at which cavitation occurs.
Properties:
Water (10 ◦ C) Table A.5 pv = 1, 230 Pa, ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 .
p0 = 80 kPa, patm = 100 kPa.
PLAN
Apply the definition of pressure coefficient.
SOLUTION
(p − p0 )
Cp =
(ρV02 /2)
p0 = 100, 000 Pa + 1 × 9, 810 Pa = 109, 810 Pa
p = 80, 000 Pa
(80, 000 − 109, 810) Pa
Cp = £ ¤
(1000 kg/ m3 ) (5 m/ s)2 /2
Cp = −2.385
For cavitation to occur p = 1, 230 Pa
−2.385 = (1, 230 − 109, 810)/(1, 000V02 /2)

V0 = 9.54 m/s
113
Situation:
A flow field is defined.
u = V (x3 + xy 2 ), v = V (y 3 + yx2 ), w = 0.
Find:
Is continuity satisfied?
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + = V (3x2 + y 2 ) + V (3y 2 + x2 ) + 0
∂x ∂y ∂z
6= 0 Continuity is not satisfied
114
Situation:
A flow field is defined.
u = y/(x2 + y 2 )3/2 , v = −x/(x2 + y 2 )3/2 , w = 0.
Find:
Check if continuity is satisfied.
Check if flow is rotational or irrotational.
SOLUTION
∂u 3y 2x ∂v 3x 2y
= − =
∂x 2 (x2 + y 2 )5/2 ∂y 2 (x2 + y 2 )5/2
∂u 1 3y 2y
= −
∂y (x2 + y 2 )3/2 2 (x2 + y 2 )5/2
∂v 1 3x 2x
= − 2 2 3/2
+
∂x (x + y ) 2 (x + y 2 )5/2
2
For continuity
∂u ∂v 3xy 3xy
+ = − 2 +
∂x ∂y (x + y 2 )5/2 (x2 + y 2 )5/2
= 0
Continuity is satisfied
For irrotationality
∂v ∂u 1 3x2 1 3y 2
− = − 2 + − +
∂x ∂y (x + y 2 )3/2 (x2 + y 2 )5/2 (x2 + y 2 )3/2 (x2 + y 2 )5/2
2
= 6= 0
(x + y 2 )3/2
2
Rotational flow
115
Situation:
A velocity field is defined.
u = Axy.
Find:
What is a possible y-component?
What must the y-component be if the flow is irrotational?
SOLUTION
u = Axy
∂u ∂v
+ = 0
∂x ∂y
∂v
Ay + = 0
∂y
∂v
= −Ay
∂y
v = (−1/2)Ay 2 + C(x)
for irrotationality
∂u ∂v
− = 0
∂y ∂x
∂v
Ax − = 0
∂x
∂v
= Ax
∂x
v = 1/2Ax2 + C(y)
If we let C(y) = −1/2Ay 2 then the equation will also satisfy continuity.
v = 1/2A(x2 − y 2 )
116
Situation:
Expressing the differential continuity equation in different form.
SOLUTION The continuity equation is
∂ρ
+ ∇ · (ρV) = 0
∂t
Taking derivative by parts
∂ρ
+ + (V · ∇) ρ + ρ (∇ · V) = 0
∂t
Dρ
Dt
+ ρ∇ · V = 0
117
Situation:
Inertial reference frame.
Find:
Definition of inertial reference frame.
SOLUTION
The inertial reference is any frame in which Newton’s first and second laws are valid.
It is any frame which is neither rotating nor accelerating with respect to the sun.
1
Situation:
Centrifugal acceleration on the surface of earth.
t = 24 h, D = 8000 mi.
Find:
Value of centrifugal acceleration on earth’s surface and comparison to acceleration
to gravity.
SOLUTION
The acceleration is
ar = ω 2 r
The angular velocity is
2π rad
ω= = 7.27 × 10−5 rad/s
24 hr × 601 min
hr
× 60 s
1 min
Acceleration
5280 ft
ar = (7.27 × 10−5 rad/s)2 × 4000 mi ×
1 mi
ar = 0.112 ft/ s2
The acceleration due to gravity is 32.2 ft/s2 so

ar 0.112
=
gc 32.2
ar
= 0.0035
gc
or less than 0.5%
2
Situation:
Interpretation of Newton’s second law.
F = d(mv)
dt
, F = m dv
dt
+ v dm
dt
Find:
Relationship between momentum and acceleration.
SOLUTION
Expressing Newton’s second law as
d
F = (mv)
dt
is correct. However, Newton’s second law is valid only for a system of constant mass
so differentiation yields
dv
F =m
dt
In the differentiation by parts, the dm/dt term is zero.
3
Situation:
Examples of jets and how used in practice.
Find:
Give 5 examples of jets and applications.
SOLUTION
1. Water jet from a fire hose - fire suppression
2. Ink jet in a printer - produce ink letters on page
3. High pressure water jet - used from cutting in manufacturing
4. Jet engine nozzle - produce thrust
5. nozzle on lawn sprinkler - used to distribute water for agricultural needs.
4
Situation:
A balloon is held stationary by a force F.
d = 10 mm, v = 40 m/ s.
Find: Force required to hold balloon stationary (N).
Sketch:
Assumptions:
Steady flow, constant density.
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the momentum equation.
SOLUTION
Force and momentum diagrams (x-direction terms)
Momentum equation (x-direction)

X X X
Fx = ṁo vox − ṁi vix
cs cs
F = ṁv
= ρAv 2
µ ¶
π × 0.012
= (1.2) (402 )
4
F = 0.151 N
5
Situation:
A balloon is held stationary by a force.
d = 1 cm, p = 8 in H2 O.
Find:
x-component of force required to hold balloon stationary (N).
Exit velocity (m/s).
Sketch:
Assumptions:
Steady, irrotational, constant density flow.
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
To find the exit velocity, apply the Bernoulli equation. To find the force, apply the
momentum equation.
SOLUTION
Force and momentum diagrams (x-direction terms)
Bernoulli equation applied from inside the balloon to nozzle exit
p = 8 in H2 O = 1990 Pa
p v2
=
ρ 2
r s
2p 2 × 1990 Pa
v = =
ρ 1.2 kg/ m3
v = 57.6 m/ s
6
X X X
cs cs
¡ ¢ ³π ´
F = ṁv = ρAv 2 = 1.2 kg/ m3 × (0.01 m)2 (57.6 m/ s)2
4
F = 0.31 N
7
Situation:
A water jet is filling a tank.
m = 20 kg, V = 20 L.
d = 30 mm, v = 20 m/s.
Find:
Force on the bottom of the tank (N).
Force acting on the stop block (N).
Assumptions:
Steady flow.
Properties:
Water (15 ◦ C), Table A.5: ρ = 999 kg/ m3 , γ = 9800 N/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the momentum equation in the x-direction and in the y-direction.
SOLUTION
Force and momentum diagrams

X X X
cs cs
F = −(−ṁv cos 70o )
= ρAv 2 cos 70o
Calculations
Ã !
¡ ¢ π × (0.03 m)2
ρAv 2 = 999 kg/ m3 (20 m/ s)2
4
= 282.5 N
F = (282.5 N) (cos 70o )

= 96.6 N
8
F = 96.6 N acting to right
y-direction
X X X
Fy = ṁo voy − ṁi viy
cs cs
o
N − W = −(−ṁv sin 70 )
N = W + ρAv 2 sin 70o
Calculations:
W = Wtank + Wwater
¡ ¢
= (20 kg) 9.81 m/ s2 + (0.02 m3 )(9800 N/ m3 )
= 392. 2 N

= (392.2 N) + (282.5 N) sin 70o
N = 658 N acting upward
9
Situation:
Water jet is filling a tank.
m = 25 lbm, V = 5 gal.
d = 2 in., v = 50 ft/s.
Find:
Minimum coefficient of friction so force on stop block is zero.
Assumptions:
Steady flow, constant density, steady and irrotational flow.
Properties:
Water (70 ◦ F), Table A.5: ρ = 1.94 slug/ ft3 , γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the momentum equation in the x- and y-directions.
SOLUTION
Momentum equation (y-direction)

X X X
cs cs
N − W = −(−ṁv sin 70o )
μN = −(−ṁv cos 70o ) = ρAv 2 cos 70o

(ρAv 2 cos 70o )
μ =
N
10
Calculations
Ã µ ¶2 !
¡ ¢ 1
ρAv 2 = 1.94 slug/ ft3 π × ft (50 ft/ s)2
12
= 105.8 lbf
WH20 = γV
(62.37 lbf/ ft3 )(5 gal)
=
7.481 gal/ ft3
= 41.75 lbf
W = (41.75 + 25) lbf
= 66.7 lbf
N = 66.7 lbf + 105.8 lbf × sin 70o =
166.1 lbf
105.8 lbf × cos 70o
μ =
166.1 lbf
μ = 0.218
11
Situation:
A design contest features a submarine powered by a water jet.
Vsub = 1.0 m/ s, D1 = 25
³ mm. ´ Vsub
2
ρVsu
Pump
Vjet
D2 = 5 mm, FD = CD 2
b
Ap
CD = 0.3, Ap = 0.28 m2 .
Find:
Speed of the fluid jet ( m/ s).
Sketch:
Assumptions:
Assume steady flow so that the accumulation of momentum term is zero.
Properties:
PLAN
The speed of the fluid jet can be found from the momentum equation because the
drag force will balance with the net rate of momentum outflow.
SOLUTION
Momentum equation. Select a control volume that surrounds the sub. Select a
reference frame located on the submarine. Let section 1 be the outlet (water jet)
and section 2 be the inlet. The momentum equation is
X X X
F = ṁo vo − ṁi vi
cs cs
FDrag = ṁ2 v2 − ṁ1 v1x
By continuity, ṁ1 = ṁ2 = ρAjet Vjet . The outlet velocity is v2 = Vjet . The x-
component of the inlet velocity is v1x = Vsub . The momentum equation simplifies
to
12
FDrag = ρAjet Vjet (Vjet − Vsub )
The drag force is
µ 2
¶
ρVsub
FDrag = CD Ap
2
Ã !
(999 kg/ m3 ) (1.0 m/ s)2 ¡ ¢
= 0.3 0.28 m2
2
= 42.0 N
The momentum equation becomes
FDrag = ρAjet Vjet [Vjet − Vsub ]

¡ ¢¡ ¢
42.0 N = 999 kg/ m3 1.96 × 10−5 m2 Vjet [Vjet − (1.0 m/ s)]
Solving for the jet speed gives
Vjet = 46.8 m/ s
REVIEW
1. The jet speed (46.6 m/s) is above 100 mph. This present a safety issue. Also,
this would require a pump that can produce a large pressure rise.
2. It is recommended that the design be modified to produce a lower jet velocity.

One way to accomplish this goal is to increase the diameter of the jet.
13
Situation:
Horizontal round jet strikes a plate.
Q = 2 cfs, Fx = 200 lbf.
Find:
Speed of water jet (ft/s).
Sketch:
Properties:
Water (70o F), Table A.5: ρ = 1.94 slug/ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the momentum equation to a control volume surrounding the plate.
SOLUTION

X
Fx = −ṁv1x
Fx = −(−ṁv1 ) = ρQv1
Fx
v1 =
ρQ
200 lbf
=
1.94 slug/ ft3 × 2 ft3 / s
v1 = 51.5 ft/ s
14
Situation:
Horizontal round jet strikes a plate.
Fx = 600 lbf
Find:
Diameter of jet (ft).
Sketch:
Properties:
pA = 25 psig.
Water (70 o F), Table A.5: ρ = 1.94 slug/ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation, then the momentum equation.
SOLUTION
15
Bernoulli equation applied from inside of tank to nozzle exit
pA v2
= 1
ρ 2
r
2pA
v1 =
ρ
s
2 × 25 psig × 144 in2 / ft2
=
1.94 slug/ ft3
= 60.92 ft/s
X
Fx = −ṁv1x
Fx = −(−ṁv1 ) = ρAv12
Fx 600 lbf
A = =
ρv12
1.94 slug/ ft3 × (60.92 ft/ s)2
0.0833 ft2
A = r
4A
d =
s π
4 × 0.0833 ft2
=
π
d = 0.326 ft
16
D d
jet
F1 Vpiston

F2
Situation:
An engineer is designing a toy to create a jet of water.
D = 80 mm, d = 15 mm.
Vpiston = 300 mm/ s.
Find:
Which force (F1 versus F2 ) is larger? Explain your answer using concepts of the
momentum equation.
Calculate F1 .
Calculate F2 .
Sketch:
Assumptions:
Neglect friction between the piston and the wall.
Assume the Bernoulli equation applies (neglect viscous effects; neglect unsteady
flow effects).
Properties:
Table A.5 (water at 20 ◦ C): ρ = 998 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
To find the larger force, recognize that the net force must be in the direction of accel-
eration. To solve the problem, apply the momentum equation, continuity equation,
equilibrium equation, and the Bernoulli equation.
SOLUTION
Finding the larger force (F1 versus F2 ) . Since the fluid is accelerating to the right
the net force must act to the right. Thus, F1 is larger than F2 . This can also be
seen by application of the momentum equation.
Momentum equation (x-direction) applied to a control volume surrounding the toy.
X
Fx = ṁvout
F1 − F2 = ṁvout
µ 2¶
πd 2
F1 − F2 = ρ Vout (1)
4
17
Notice that Eq. (1) shows that F1 > F2 .
Continuity equation applied to a control volume situated inside the toy.
Qin = Qout
µ 2
¶ µ 2¶
πD πd
Vpiston = Vout
4 4
D2
Vout = Vpiston 2
d
µ ¶2
80 mm
= (0.3 m/ s)
15 mm
Vout = 8.533 m/ s
Bernoulli equation applied from inside the toy to the nozzle exit plane.
2 2
ρVpiston ρVout
pinside + =
2 ¡2 2 ¢
2
ρ Vout − Vpiston
pinside =
2 ¡ ¢
(998 kg/ m3 ) (8.533 m/ s)2 − (0.3 m/ s)2
=
2
= 36.29 kPa
Equilibrium applied to the piston (the applied force F1 balances the pressure force).
µ ¶
πD2
F1 = pinside
4
Ã !
π (0.08 m)2
= (36290 Pa)
4
F1 = 182 N
Momentum equation (Eq. 1)

µ 2¶
πd 2
F2 = F1 − ρ Vout
4
Ã !
¡ ¢ π (0.015 m)2
= 182 N − 998 kg/ m3 (8.533 m/ s)2
4
F2 = 169 N
REVIEW
1. The force F1 is only slightly larger than F2 .
18
2. The forces (F1 and F2 ) are each about 40 lbf. This magnitude of force may be
too large for users of a toy. Or, this magnitude of force may lead to material
failure (it breaks!). It is recommended that the specifications for this product
be modified.
19
Situation:
Water jet from a fire hose on a boat.
d = 3 in, V = 70 mph = 102.7 ft/s.
Find:
Tension in cable (lbf).
Sketch:
Properties:
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate
ṁ = ρAV
¡ ¢¡ ¢
= 1.94 slug/ ft3 π × (1.5/12 ft)2 (102.7 ft/ s)
= 9.78 slug/ s
X
F = ṁ (vo )x
T = ṁV cos 60o
T = (9.78 slug/ s)(102.7 ft/ s) cos 60o
= 502. 2 lbf
T = 502 lbf
20
Situation:
Water jet from a fire hose on a boat.
T = 5.0 kN, v = 50 m/s.
Find:
Mass flow rate of jet (kg/s).
Diameter of jet (cm).
Sketch:
Properties:
PLAN
Apply the momentum equation to find the mass flow rate. Then, calculate diameter
using the flow rate equation.
SOLUTION
X
F = ṁ (vo )x
T = ṁv cos 60o
T 5000 N
ṁ = o
=
v cos 60 (50 × cos 60o ) m/ s
ṁ = 200 kg/ s
Flow rate
21
‫‪ρπd2 v‬‬
‫= ‪ṁ = ρAv‬‬
‫‪s‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬
‫̇‪4m‬‬
‫= ‪d‬‬
‫‪ρπv‬‬
‫‪s‬‬
‫‪4 × 200 kg/ s‬‬
‫=‬
‫‪1000 kg/ m3 × π × 50 m/ s‬‬
‫‪= 7. 136 × 10−2 m‬‬
‫‪d = 7.14 cm‬‬
‫‪22‬‬
Vertical Cable
6.15: PROBLEM DEFINITION Pressurized Air
Situation: H Water
Pressurized air drives a water jet out of a tank. The thrust of the water jet reduces
the tension in a supporting cable. Jet--diameter d
W = 200 N, T = 10 N.
d = 12 mm, H = 425 mm.
Find:
The pressure in the air that is situated above the water.
Sketch:
Assumptions:
Assume that the Bernoulli equation can be applied (i.e. assume irrotational and
steady flow).
Properties:
PLAN
Apply the momentum equation to find the exit velocity. Then, apply the Bernoulli
equation to find the pressure in the air.
SOLUTION
Section area of jet
πd2
A2 =
4
π (0.012 m)2
=
4
= 1. 131 × 10−4 m2
23
Momentum equation (cv surrounding the tank; section 2 at the nozzle)
X
F = ṁo vo
−T + W = ṁv2
(−10 + 200) N = ρA2 v22
Solve for exit speed (v2 )

¡ ¢¡ ¢
190 N = 999 kg/ m3 1.131 × 10−4 m2 v22
v2 = 41.01 m/ s
Bernoulli equation (location 1 is on the water surface, location 2 is at the water jet).
ρv12 ρv 2
pair + + ρgz1 = p2 + 2 + ρgz2
2 2
Let v1 ≈ 0, p2 = 0 gage and ∆z = 0.425 m.
ρv22
pair = − ρg∆z
2
(999 kg/ m3 ) (41.01 m/ s)2 ¡ ¢
= − 999 kg/ m3 (9.81 m/ s2 ) (0.425 m)
2µ ¶
1.0 atm
= (835, 900 Pa)
101.3 kPa
pair = 8.25 atm
24
Situation:
Free water jet from upper tank to lower tank, lower tank supported by scales A
and B.
Q = 2 cfs, d1 = 4 in.
h = 1 ft, H = 9 ft
WT = 300 lbf, A2 = 4 ft2 .
Find:
Force on scale A (lbf).
Force on scale B (lbf).
Sketch:
Properties:
Water (60 o F): ρ = 1.94 slug/ft3 , γ = 62.4 lbf/ft3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
25
Flow rate
ṁ = ρQ
= 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 2.0 ft3 / s
= 3.88 slug/s
Q 4Q
v1 = =
A1 πD2
4 × 2.0 ft3 / s
=
π × (4/12)2 ft2
= 22.9 ft/s
Projectile motion equations
v2x = v1 = 22.9 ft/s

p
v2y = 2gH
p
= 2 × 32.2 ft/ s × 9 ft
= 24.1 ft/s
X
Fx = ṁ [(vo )x − (vi )x ]
−FB = −ṁ (v2x )
−FB = −3.88 slug/ s × 22.9 ft/ s
FB = 88.9 lbf
X h i
Fy = ṁ (vo )y − (vi )y
FA − WH2O − WT = −ṁ (v2y )
FA = WH2O + WT − ṁ (v2y )
FA = (62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 4 ft2 × 1 ft) + 300 lbf − (3.88 slug/ s × (−24.1 ft/ s))
FA = 643.0 lbf
26
Situation:
Gravel flows into a barge that is secured with a hawser.
Q = 50 yd3 /min = 22.5 ft3 /s, v = 10 ft/s.
Find:
Tension in hawser: T
Sketch:
Assumptions:
Steady flow.
Properties:
γ = 120 lbf/ft3
PLAN
SOLUTION
X
Fx = ṁ (vo )x − ṁ (vi )x
−T = −ṁ(v cos 20) = −(γ/g)Q(v cos 20)
120 lbf
T = × 22.5 ft3 / s × 10 ft/ s × cos(20) = 788 lbf
32.2 ft/ s2
T = 788 lbf
27
Situation:
A hemispherical nozzle sprays a sheet of liquid through an arc.
Find:
An expression for the force in y-direction to hold the nozzle stationary.
Fy = Fy (ρ, v, r, t).
Sketch:
dθ y
PLAN
SOLUTION
Z
Fy = vy ρV · dA
Zcsπ
= (v sin θ)ρv(trdθ)
0
Z π
2
= ρv tr sin θdθ
0
Fy = 2ρv 2 tr
28
Situation:
The design of a conical rocket nozzle.
Find:
Show that T = ṁVe 1+cos
2
α
.
PLAN
SOLUTION
X Z
F = vρv · dA
Z α
T = ve cos θρve 2πr sin θrdθ
0
Z α
2 2
T = 2πr ρve cos θ sin θdθ
0
= 2πr2 ρve2 sin2 α/2
(1 − cos α)(1 + cos α)
= ρve2 2πr2
2
Exit Area Z α
Ae = 2πr sin θrdθ = 2πr2 (1 − cos α)
0
T = ρve2 Ae (1 + cos α)/2

T = ṁve (1 + cos α)/2
29
Situation:
A fixed vane in the horizontal plane.
v1 = 18 m/s, v2 = 17 m/s.
Q = 0.15 m3 /s, S = 0.9.
Find:
Components of force to hold vane stationary (kN).
Sketch:
PLAN
SOLUTION
Mass flow rate
ṁ = ρQ
= 0.9 × 1000 kg/ m3 × 0.15 m3 / s
= 135 kg/s
X
Fx = ṁ (vo )x − ṁ (vi )x
Fx = ṁ(−v2 cos 30) − ṁv1
Fx = −135 kg/ s(17 m/ s cos 30 + 18 m/ s)
Fx = −4.42 kN (acts to the left)
30
X
Fy = ṁ (vo )y − ṁ (vi )y
Fy = ṁ (−v2 sin 30)
= 135 kg/ s (−17 m/ s sin 30)
= −1.15 kN
Fy = −1.15 kN (acts downward)
31
Situation:
A fixed vane in the horizontal plane.
v1 = 90 ft/s, v2 = 85 ft/s.
Q = 2.0 cfs, S = 0.9.
Find:
Components of force to hold vane stationary (lbf).
Sketch:
PLAN
SOLUTION
Mass flow rate
ṁ = ρQ = 0.9 × 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 2.0 ft3 / s = 3.49 slug/s

X
Fx = ṁ (vo )x − ṁ (vi )x
Fx = ṁ(−v2 cos 30) − ṁv1
Fx = −3.49 slug/ s(85 ft/ s cos 30 + 90 ft/ s)
Fx =-571 lbf (acts to the left)
y-direction
32
X
Fy = ṁ (vo )y − ṁ (vi )y
Fy = ṁ (−v2 sin 30) = 3.49 slug/ s (−85 ft/ s sin 30) = −148 lbf
Fy = −148 lbf (acts downward)
33
Situation:
A horizontal, two-dimensional water jet deflected by a fixed vane.
v1 = 40 ft/s, w2 = 0.2 ft, w3 = 0.1 ft.
Find:
Components of force, per foot of width, to hold the vane stationary (lbf/ft).
Assumptions:
Neglect elevation changes.
Neglect viscous effects.
Properties:
Water, Table A.5: ρ = 1.94 slug/ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation, the continuity equation, and finally the momentum
equation.
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
v1 = v2 = v3 = v = 40 ft/s
Continuity equation
w1 v1 = w2 v2 + w3 v3
w1 = w2 + w3 = (0.2 + 0.1) = 0.3 ft
X X
Fx = ṁo (vo )x − ṁi (vi )x
−Fx = ṁ2 v cos 60 + ṁ3 (−v cos 30) − ṁ1 v
Fx = ρv 2 (−A2 cos 60 + A3 cos 30 + A1 )
Fx = 1.94 slug/ ft3 × (40 ft/ s)2 × (−0.2 ft cos 60 + 0.1 ft cos 30 + 0.3 ft)
Fx = 890 lbf/ft (acts to the left)
34
X X
Fy = ṁo (vo )y
Fy = ṁ2 v sin 60 + ṁ3 (−v sin 30)
= ρv 2 (A2 sin 60 − A3 sin 30)
= 1.94 slug/ ft3 × (40 ft/ s)2 × (0.2 ft sin 60 − 0.1 ft sin 30)
Fy = 382 lbf/ft (acts upward)
35
Situation:
A water jet is deflected by a fixed vane.
v1 = 20 ft/s, ṁ = 25 lbm/s = 0.776 slug/s.
Find:
Force of the water on the vane (lbf).
Sketch:
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation, and then the momentum equation.
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
v1 = v2 = v = 20 ft/s
X
−Fx = ṁv cos 30 − ṁv
Fx = ṁv(1 − cos 30) = 0.776 slug/ s × 20 ft/ s × (1 − cos 30)
Fx = 2.08 lbf to the left
y-direction
X
Fy = ṁo (vo )y
−Fy = ṁ(−v cos 60) = −0.776 slug/ s × 20 ft/ s × sin 30
Fy = 7.76 lbf downward
Since the forces acting on the vane represent a state of equilibrium, the force of water
on the vane is equal in magnitude & opposite in direction.
F = −Fx i−Fy j
= (2.08 lbf) i + (7.76 lbf) j
36
Situation:
A water jet strikes a block and the block is held in place by friction.
v1 = 10 m/s, ṁ = 1.5 kg/s.
μ = 0.1, m = 1 kg.
Find:
Will the block slip?
Force of the water jet on the block (N).
Sketch:
Assumptions:
Neglect weight of water.
Neglect elevation changes.
Neglect viscous forces.
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
v1 = v2 = v = 10 m/s
X
−Ff = ṁv cos 30 − ṁv
Ff = ṁv(1 − cos 30)
= 1.5 kg/ s × 10 m/ s × (1 − cos 30)
Ff = 2.01 N
37
y-direction
X
Fy = ṁo (vo )y
N − W = ṁ(v sin 30)
N = mg + ṁ(v sin 30)
= 1.0 kg × 9.81 m/ s2 + 1.5 kg/ s × 10 m/ s × sin 30
N = 17.3 N
Analyze friction:
• Ff (required to prevent block from slipping) = 2.01 N
• Ff (maximum possible value) = μN = 0.1 × 17.3 = 1.73 N
block will move
38
Situation:
A water jet strikes a block and the block is held in place by friction.
ṁ = 1 kg/s, m = 1 kg.
μ = 0.1, θ = 30 ◦ .
Find:
Maximum velocity such that the block will not slip.
Sketch:
Assumptions:
Neglect weight of water.
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
v1 = v2 = v
X X X
cs cs
−μN = ṁv cos 30 − ṁv
N = ṁv (1 − cos 30) /μ
y-direction
X X X
cs cs
N − W = ṁ(v sin 30)
N = mg + ṁ(v sin 30)
39
Combine previous two equations
ṁv (1 − cos 30)

= mg + ṁ(v sin 30)
μ
mg
v =
[ṁ (1/μ − cos 30/μ − sin 30)]
1 kg × 9.81 m/ s2
v =
[1.5 kg/ s × (1/0.1 − cos 30/0.1 − sin 30)]
v = 7.79 m/ s
40
Situation:
A water jet strikes a plate with a sharp edged orifice at its center.
v = 30 m/s, D = 5 cm, d = 2 cm
Find:
Force required to hold plate stationary (N).
Assumptions:
Neglect gravity.
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/m3
PLAN
SOLUTION
Force and momentum diagrams (only x-direction vectors shown)
X X X
F = ṁo vo − ṁi vi
cs cs
−F = ṁ2 v − ṁ1 v
F = ρA1 v2 − ρA2 v 2
³π ´
= ρv 2 (D2 − d2 )
4
π
= 1000 kg/ m3 × (30 m/ s)2 × × ((0.05 m)2 − (0.02 m)2 )
4
F = 1.48 kN (to the left)
41
Situation:
A 2D liquid jet impinges on a vertical wall.
v1 = v2 = v, θ = 45 ◦ .
Find:
Calculate the force acting on the wall.
Sketch and explain the shape of the liquid surface.
Assumptions:
Steady flow.
Force associated with shear stress is negligible.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Let w = the width of the jet in the z-direction. Force and momentum diagrams

X X X
cs cs
−F = −ṁv1 sin 45o
F = ρwtv 2 sin 45o
The force on that acts on the wall is in the opposite direction to force pictured on
the force diagram, thus
42
F/w = ρtv 2 sin 45o (acting to the right)
y-direction
X X X
cs cs
−W = ṁ (−v) − ṁ (−v) cos 45o
W = ṁv(1 − cos 45o )
REVIEW
Thus, weight provides the force needed to increase y-momentum flow. This weight
is produced by the fluid swirling up to form the shape show in the above sketches.
43
Situation:
A cone is supported by a vertical jet of water.
W = 30 N, V1 = 15 m/ s.
d1 = 2 cm, θ = 60 ◦ .
Find:
Height to which cone will rise (m).
Assumptions:
Speed of the fluid as it passes by the cone is constant (V2 = V3 ) .
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation and the momentum equation.
SOLUTION
o
60
3
c.s.
V1 1
Bernoulli equation
V12 V2
+0 = 2 +h
2g 2g
V2 = (V1 )2 − 2gh
2
V22 = 225 − 19.62h
Momentum equation (y-direction). Select a control volume surrounding the cone.
X
−W = ṁ(v3y − v2 )
−30 N = 1000 kg/ m3 × 15 m/ s × π × (0.01 m)2 (V2 sin 30◦ − V2 )
Solve for the V2

V2 = 12.73 m/s
44
Complete the Bernoulli equation calculation
V22 = 225 − 19.62h

(12.73 m/ s)2 = 225 − 19.62h
h = 3.21 m
45
Situation:
A fluid jet strikes a vane that is moving at a speed.
v1 = 20 m/ s, vv = 7 m/s.
D1 = 6 cm.
Find:
Force of the water on the vane.
Sketch:
v2 y
o
45
x
vv
v1
SOLUTION
Select a control volume surrounding and moving with the vane. Select a reference
frame attached to the moving vane.
v2
vv = 7 m/s
v1 = 20 m/s

X
Fx = ṁv2x − ṁv1x
−Fx = −ṁv2 cos 45◦ − ṁv1

X
Fy = ṁv2y − ṁv1y
Fy = ṁv2 sin 45◦
Velocity analysis
• v1 is relative to the reference frame = (20 − 7) = 13 m/ s.
46
• in the term ṁ = ρAv use v which is relative to the control surface. In this case
v = (20 − 7) = 13 m/s
• v2 is relative to the reference frame v2 = v1 = 13 m/s
Mass flow rate
ṁ = ρAv
¡ ¢2
= (1, 000 kg)(π/4 × 0.06 m2 )(13 m/ s)
= 36.76 kg/s
Evaluate forces
Fx = ṁv1 (1 + cos 45)

= 36.76 kg/ s × 13 m/ s(1 + cos 45) = 816 N
which is in the negative x−direction.
Fy = ṁv2 sin 45
= 36.76 kg/ s × 13 m/ s sin 45 = 338 N
The force of the water on the vane is the negative of the force of the vane on the
water. Thus the force of the water on the vane is
F = (816i−338j) N
47
Situation:
A cart is moving with steady speed.
2
17 m/s
o y
45
x
17 m/s
17 m/s
3
Find:
Force exerted by the vane on the jet: F
PLAN
SOLUTION Make the flow steady by referencing all velocities to the moving vane
and let the c.v. move with the vane as shown.
Fx = ṁ2 v2x − ṁ1 v1

ṁ = ρAV = 1000 kg/ m3 × (π/4) × (0.1 m)2 × 17 m/ s = 133.5 kg/s
ṁ cos 45o
Fx = ( v cos 45o − ṁv) = ṁv( − 1)
2 2
= 133.5 kg/s × 17 m/s × (0.3535 − 1)
= −1470 N
Fy = ṁ2 v2y − ṁv3y

ṁ ṁ ṁ
= v sin 45o − v = v(sin 45o − 1)
2 2 2
133.5 kg/s
= × 17 m/s × (0.707 − 1)
2
= −332 N
F(water on vane) = (1470i + 332j) N
48
Situation:
A cart is moving with steady speed–additional details are provided in the problem
statement.
Find:
Rolling resistance of the cart: Frolling
SOLUTION Let the control surface surround the cart and let it move with the cart
at 5 ft/s. Then we have a steady flow situation and the relative jet velocities are
shown below.
2 55 ft/s
o y
45
x
55 ft/s
3 55 ft/s

X
Fx = ṁ2 v2x − ṁ1 v1
Calculations (All calculations need o be fixed)
ṁ1 = ρA1 V1
= (1.94 slug/ft3 )(π/4 × (0.152 ft2 ) × 55 ft/s
= 1.886 slug/s
ṁ2 = ṁ3 = (1.886 slug/s)/2
= 0.943 slug/s
Frolling = ṁ1 v1 − ṁ2 v2 cos 45◦
= 1.886 slug/ s × 55 ft/ s − 0.943 slug/ s × 55 ft/ s cos 45◦
Frolling = 67.1 lbf (acting to the left)
49
Situation:
A water is deflected by a moving cone.
Speed of the water jet is 25 m/ s (to the right). Speed of the cone is 13 m/ s (to
the left). Diameter of the jet is D = 10 cm.
Angle of the cone is θ = 50o .
Find:
Calculate the external horizontal force needed to move the cone: Fx
Assumptions:
As the jet passes over the cone (a) assume the Bernoulli equation applies, and (b)
neglect changes in elevation.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Select a control volume surrounding the moving cone. Select a reference frame fixed
to the cone. Section 1 is the inlet. Section 2 is the outlet.
Inlet velocity (relative to the reference frame and surface of the control volume).
v1 = V1 = (25 + 13) m/ s
38 m/ s
Bernoulli equation. Pressure and elevation terms are zero, so
V1 = V2 = v2 = 38 m/ s
Fx = ṁ(v2x − v1 )
= ρA1 V1 (v2 cos θ − v1 )
= ρA1 V12 (cos θ − 1)
µ ¶ µ ¶
kg π × (0.1 m)2
= 1000 3 × × (38 m/ s)2 (cos 50o − 1)
m 4
= −4.05 kN
Fx = 4.05 kN (acting to the left)
50
Situation:
A jet of water is deflected by a moving vane–additional details are provided in the
problem statement.
Find:
Power (per foot of width of the jet) transmitted to the vane: P
PLAN
SOLUTION
Select a control volume surrounding the moving cone. Select a reference frame fixed
to the cone.
Density
62.4 lbf/ ft3
ρ= 2
= 1.94 slug/ft3
32.2 ft/ s
Velocity analysis
v1 = V1 = 40 ft/s
v2 = 40 ft/s

X
Fx = ṁ(v2x − v1 )
Fx = 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 40 ft/ s × 0.3 ft2 × (40 ft/ s cos 50 − 40 ft/ s)
= −332.6 lbf/ ft
Calculate power
P = Fv
= 332.6 lbf/ ft × 60 ft/ s
= P = 19, 956 ft-lbf/s/ft= 36.3 hp/ft
51
Situation:
A sled of mass ms = 1000 kg is decelerated by placing a scoop of width w = 20 cm
into water at a depth d = 8 cm.
Find:
Deceleration of the sled: as
SOLUTION
Select a moving control volume surrounding the scoop and sled. Select a stationary
reference frame.
d
0= (ms vs ) + ṁv2x − ṁv1x
dt
Velocity analysis
v1x = 0
V1 = 100 m/s
V2 = 100 m/s
v2 = 100 m/s[− cos 60i + sin 60j] + 100i m/s
v2x = 50 m/s
The momentum equation equation simplifies to
0 = ms as + ṁv2x (1)
Flow rate
ṁ = ρA1 V1
= 1000 kg/ m3 × 0.2 m × 0.08 m × 100 m/ s
= 1600 kg/s
From Eq. (1).

ṁv2x
as = −
ms
(−1600 kg/ s)(50 m/ s)
=
1000 kg
= as = −80 m/s2
52
Situation:
A snowplow is described in the problem statement.
Find:
Power required for snow removal: P
PLAN
SOLUTION
Select a control volume surrounding the snow-plow blade. Attach a reference frame
to the moving blade.(Snow is 4 in deep)
X
Fx = ρQ(v2x − v1 )
Velocity analysis
V1 = v1 = 40 ft/s
v2x = −40 ft/ s cos 60◦ cos 30◦
= −17.32 ft/s
Calculations
X
Fx = ρV dW S(v2x − v1 )
1
= 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 0.2 × 40 ft/ s × 2 ft × ft(−17.32 ft/ s − 40 ft/ s)
3
= −593.1 lbf
Power
P = FV
= 593.1 lbf × 40 ft/ s
= 23, 723 ft-lbf/s
P = 43.1 hp
53
Situation:
The flow over an airfoil is modeled as the flow in a circular stream tube which has
a diameter equal to the wing span and is deflected by an angle of 2o .New
Find:
The lift and the drag forces.
Assumptions:
Assume the pressure is constant far from the airfoil.
PLAN
Apply the component form of the momentum equation.
SOLUTION
Draw an outer volume that encloses the airfoil far from the airfoil and one around the
airfoil as shown in the diagram. The space between the two volumes is the control
volume
The force diagram shows a lift force and drag force produced by the airfoil and act
on the control surface. There is no net pressure force on the outer surface since
the pressure is constant. The momentum diagram shows an inflow and outflow of
momentum. From continuity, the mass flow rate in is equal to the mass flow rate out.
The sum of the forces in the x-direction is
X
Fx = D
and in the y-direction X

Fy = L
The component momentum equation in the x-direction for steady flow is
X
Fx = ṁ (U cos θ − U )
The component momentum equation in the y-direction is

X
Fy = ṁ(−U sin θ − 0)
54
The mass flow rate is µ ¶
πb2
ṁ = ρUA = ρU
4
The density is obtained from the ideal gas law
p 14.7 psi × 144 in2 /ft2

ρ= = = 0.00237 slug/ft3
RT 1716 ft-lbf/slug-R × (460 + 60) R
The mass flow rate is

π × 302 ft2
ṁ = 0.00237 slug/ft3 × 300 ft/s × = 502.6 slug/s
4
Solving for the drag force
D = ṁU(cos θ − 1)
= 502.6 slug/s × 300 ft/s × (cos 2o − 1)
= −91.8 lbf
Solving for lift force
L = −ṁU sin θ
= −502.6 × 300 × sin 2o
= −5260 lbf
The values calculated are the force of the airfoil in the fluid. The force of the fluid on
the airfoil which are the actual definitions of lift and drag would have the opposite
sign so
D = 91.8 lbf
L = 5260 lbf
55
Situation:
A clam shell thrust reverser is deployed on an aircraft engine.
Find:
(a) The thrust under normal operation.
(b) the reverse thrust.
Assumptions:
Engine is stationary.
Exit gas velocity unchanged at deployment.
Pressure is atmospheric at exhaust plane.
PLAN
Apply the component momentum equation.
SOLUTION
The control volumes for both cases are shown in the diagram. For case (a) the sum
of the forces in the x-direction is
X
Fx = −T
and for case (b) X

Fx = TR
From the momentum diagrams for case (a) there is an influx and outflow of momentum
in the same direction. For case (b), the outlet direction of the momentum is altered
by the vane of the thrust reverser.
The component momentum equation in the x-direction is
X Z X X
d
Fx = ρvdV + ṁo vxo − ṁi vxi
dt cv
56
The motor is stationary so there is no unsteady term. Also the mass flow rate in is
equal to the mass flow rate out, ṁi = ṁo = ṁ. For case (a)
−T = ṁ[−Uo − (−Ui )]
T = ṁ(Uo − Ui )
The mass flow rate is

1 slug
ṁ = 150 lbm/s = 4.658 slug/s
32.2 lbm
The thrust for case (a) is
µ ¶
slug ft ft
T = 4.658 1400 − 300
s s s
= T = 5120 lbf
For case (b)
TR = ṁ[Uo sin 20o − (−Ui )]

= ṁ(Uo sin 20o + Ui )
The reverse thrust is

slug ft ft
TR = 4.658 (1400 × sin 20o + 300 )
s s s
= T = 3630 lbf
57
Situation:
Hot gas flows through a return bend–additional details are provided in the problem
statement.
Find:
Force required to hold the bend in place: Fx
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation, then the momentum equation.
SOLUTION
100 ft/s
ṁ = 1 lbm/s = 0.0311 slugs/s

At section (1):
v1 = 100 ft/s
ρ1 = 0.02 lbm/ft3 = 0.000621 slugs/ft3
At section (2):
ρ2 = 0.06 lbm/ft3 = 0.00186 slugs/ft3
Continuity equation
ρ1 v1 A1 = ρ2 v2 A2
µ ¶
ρ1 A1
v2 = v1
ρ2 A2
µ ¶µ ¶
0.02 lbm/ ft3 1
v2 = 3 v1
0.06 lbm/ ft 1
= 33.33 ft/s
X X X
⊂s cs
= ṁ(v2 − v1 )
Fx = 0.0311 slug/ s(−33.33 ft/ s − 100 ft/ s)
Fx = −4.15 lbf
58
59
Situation:
Fluid (density ρ, discharge Q, and velocity V ) flows through a 180o pipe bend–
additional details are provided in the problem statement.. Cross sectional area of
pipe is A.
Find:
Magnitude of force required at flanges to hold the bend in place.
Assumptions:
Gage pressure is same at sections 1 and 2. Neglect gravity.
PLAN
SOLUTION
X X X
cs cs
p1 A1 + p2 A2 + Fx = ṁ(v2 − v1 )
thus
Fx = −2pA − 2ṁV
Fx = −2pA − 2ρQV
Correct choice is (d)
60
Situation:
Water flows through a 180o pipe bend–additional details are provided in the
problem statement.
Find:
External force required to hold bend in place.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q 20 ft3 / s
v= = = 25.5 fps
A π × 0.5 ft × 0.5 ft
X X X
cs cs
p1 A1 + p2 A2 + Fx = ṁ(v2 − v1 )
thus
Fx = −2pA − 2ṁv
π
= −2(15psi × 144 in2 / ft2 × × (1 ft)2 ) + 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 20 ft3 / s × 25.5 ft/ s)
4
= −5, 370 lbf

X
Fy = 0
−Wbend − WH2 0 + Fy = 0
Fy = 200 lbf + 3 ft3 × 62.4 lbf/ ft3 = 387.2 lbf
Force required
F = (−5370i + 387j) lbf
61
Situation:
Water flows through a 180◦ pipe bend–additional details are provided in the
problem statement.
Find:
Force that acts on the flanges to hold the bend in place.
PLAN
Apply the continuity and momentum equations.
SOLUTION
Flow rate
Q
v1 =
A
4 × 0.3 m3 / s
=
π × (0.2 m)2
= 9.55 m/s
Continuity. Place a control volume around the pipe bend. Let section 2 be the exit
and section 1 be the inlet
Q = A1 v1 = A2 v2
thus v1 = v2
Momentum equation (x-direction). Place a control volume around the pipe bend.
Let section 2 be the exit and section 1 be the inlet.
X X X
cs cs
2pA + Fx = ρQ (−v2 ) − pQv1
Fx = −2pA − 2ρQv
Calculations
π
2pA = (2)(100, 000 Pa)( )(0.2 m)2
4
= 6283 N
2ρQV = (2)(1000 kg/ m3 )(0.3 m3 / s)(9.55 m/ s)
= 5730 N
Fx = − (2pA + 2ρQv)
= − (6283 N + 5730 N)
= −12.0 kN
62
Momentum equation (z-direction). There are no momentum flow terms so the mo-
mentum equation simplifies to
Fz = Wbend + Wwater
= 500 N + (0.1 m3 )(9810 N/ m3 )
= 1.481 kN
The force that acts on the flanges is
F = (−12.0i + 0j+1.48k) kN
63
Situation:
A 90◦ pipe bend is described in the problem statement.
Find:
Force on the upstream flange to hold the bend in place.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Velocity calculation
Q 12 ft3 / s
v= = = 15.28 ft/s
A π/4 × (1.0 ft)2

X X X
cs cs
pA + Fx = ρQ(0 − v)
π
Fx = 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 12 ft3 / s(0 − 15.28 ft/ s) − 4 psi × 144 in2 / ft2 × × (1 ft)2 = −808 lbf
4
y-direction
Fy = ρQ(−v − 0)
Fy = −1.94 slug/ ft3 × 12 ft3 / s × 15.28 ft/ s = −356 lbf
z-direction
X
Fz = 0
−100 lbf − 4 ft3 × 62.4 lbf/ ft3 + Fz = 0
Fz = +350 lbf
The force is
F = (−808i − 356j + 350k) lbf
64
Situation:
A 900 pipe bend is described in the problem statement.
Find:
x−component of force applied to bend to hold it in place: Fx
PLAN
SOLUTION
Q 10 m3 / s
v= = = 12.73 m/s
A π/4 × (1 m)2
X X X
Fx = ṁvox − ṁvix
cs cs
pA + Fx = ρQ(0 − v)
300, 000 Pa × π × (0.5 m)2 + Fx = 1000 kg/ m3 × 10 m3 / s × (0 − 12.73 m/ s)

Fx = −362, 919 N
Fx = −363 kN
65
Situation:
Water flows through a 30o pipe bend–additional details are provided in the problem
statement.
Find:
Vertical component of force exerted by the anchor on the bend: Fa
PLAN
SOLUTION
Q
v =
A
31.4 ft3 / s
=
π × 1 ft × 1 ft
= 9.995 ft/sec

X
Fy = ρQ(v2y − v1y )
Fa − Wwater − Wbend − p2 A2 sin 30◦ = ρQ(v sin 30◦ − v sin 0◦ )
Fa = π × 1 ft × 1 ft × 4 ft × 62.4 lbf/ ft3 + 300 lbf
+8.5 × 144 in2 / ft2 × π × 1 ft × 1 ft × 0.5
+1.94 slug/ ft3 × 31.4 ft3 / s × (9.995 ft/ s × 0.5 − 0)
Fa = 3310 lbf
66
Situation:
Water flows through a 60o pipe bend and jets out to atmosphere–additional details
are provided in the problem statement.
Find:
Magnitude and direction of external force components to hold bend in place.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
µ ¶2 µ ¶2
D2 30 cm
v2 = 10 m/ s = 2.5 m/ s
D1 60 cm
Q = A1 v1 = π × 0.3 m × 0.3 m × 2.5 m/ s = 0.707 m3 /s
Bernoulli equation
ρ
p1 = p2 + (v22 − v12 )
2
1000 kg/ m3
= 0+ (10 m × 10 m − 2.5 m × 2.5 m)
2
= 46, 875 Pa gage
Fx + p1 A1 = ρQ(−v2 cos 60◦ − v1 )
Fx = −46, 875 Pa × π × 0.3 m × 0.3 m
+1000 kg/ m3 × 0.707 m3 / s × (−10 m/ s cos 60◦ − 2.5 m/ s)
= −18, 560 N
y-direction
Fy = ρQ(−v2 sin 60◦ − v1 )
Fy = 1000 kg/ m3 × 0.707 × (−10 m/ s sin 60◦ − 0)
= −6120 N
z-direction
Fz − WH2 0 − Wbend = 0
Fz = (0.25 m3 × 9, 810 N/ m3 ) + (250 kg × 9.81 m/ s2 ) = 4, 905 N
Net force
F = (−18.6i − 6.12j + 4.91k) kN
67
Situation:
Water flows through a nozzle–additional details are provided in the problem state-
ment.
Find:
Vertical force applied to the nozzle at the flange: Fy
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation, then the Bernoulli equation, and then the momentum
equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
v1 A1 = v2 A2
A2
v1 = v2 = 65 ft/s
A1
Q = v2 A2 = (130 ft/s)(0.5 ft2 )
= 65 cfs
Bernoulli equation
p1 v12 p2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
p1 (130 ft/ s)2 (65 ft/ s)2
= 0+ +2−
γ 2g 2g
3
p1 = 62.4 lbf/ ft (262.4 + 2 − 65.6) ft
p1 = 12, 400 lbf/ft2
p1 A1 − WH2 0 − Wnozzle + Fy = ρQ(v2 sin 30◦ − v1 ) (1)
Momentum flow terms
ρQ(v2 sin 30◦ − v1 ) = (1.94 slug/ ft3 )(65 ft3 / s) [(130 ft/ s sin 30◦ ) − 65 ft/ s]
= 0 lbf
Thus, Eq. (1) becomes
Fy = WH2 0 + Wnozzle − p1 A1
= (1.8 ft3 × 62.4 lbf/ ft3 ) + (100 lbf) − (12400psf × 1 ft2 )
= −12, 190 lbf
Fy = 12, 200 lbf (acting downward)
68
Situation:
Gasoline flows through a 135o pipe bend–additional details are provided in the
problem statement.
Find:
External force required to hold the bend: F
PLAN
SOLUTION
o
45
Flow rate
Q = vA = 20 ft/ s × π/4 × (1 ft)2

= 15.71 cfs

X
Fx = ρQ(v2x − v1x )
p1 A1 + p2 A2 cos 45◦ + Fx = ρQ(−v2 cos 45◦ − v1 )
Fx = −pA(1 + cos 45◦ ) − ρQv(1 + cos 45◦ )

= −(1440 psf) × (π/4 × 12 )(1 + cos 45◦ )
−(0.8 × 1.94 slug/ ft3 )(15.71 ft3 / s)(20 ft/ s)(1 + cos 45◦ )
= −2760 lbf

X
p2 A2 sin 45◦ + Fy = ρQ(−v2 sin 45◦ − 0)
69
Fy = −pA sin 45◦ − ρQv2 sin 45◦
Fy = −(1440 psf)(π/4 × (1 ft)2 ) sin 45◦ − (0.8 × 1.94 slug/ ft3 )(11.78 ft3 / s)(15 ft/ s) sin 45◦
Fy = −994 lbf
Net force
F = (−2760i − 994j) lbf
70
Situation:
A 180o pipe bend (6 in. diameter) carries water.
Q = 6 cfs, p = 20 psi gage
Find:
Force needed to hold the bend in place: Fx (the component of force in the direction
parallel to the inlet flow)
Assumptions:
The weight acts perpendicular to the flow direction; the pressure is constant
throughout the bend.
PLAN
SOLUTION Momentum equation (x-direction)
X X X
cs cs
2pA − Fx = −2ṁv
Calculations
¡ ¢
pA = (20 psig × 144 in2 / ft2 ) π/4 × 0.52 = 565.5 lbf
¡ ¢2
ρQ2 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 6 ft3 / s
ṁv = = = 355.7 lbf
A π/4 × (0.5 ft)2
Fx = 2(pA + ṁv) = 2 × (565.5 + 355.7) lbf
Fx =1840 lbf (acting to the left, opposite of inlet flow)
71
Situation:
Gasoline flows through a 135o pipe bend–additional details are provided in the
problem statement.
Find:
External force required to hold the bend in place: F
PLAN
SOLUTION
Discharge
Q = 8 × π/4 × 0.15 m × 0.15 m

= 0.141 m3 /s

X
Fx = ṁ(v2x − v1x )
p1 A1 + p2 A2 cos 45◦ + Fx = ρQ(−v2 cos 45◦ − v1 )
Fx = −pA(1 + cos 450 ) − ρQv(1 + cos 45◦ )
= −(100, 000 Pa)(π/4 × (0.15 m)2 )(1 + cos 45◦ )
−(1000 kg/ m3 × 0.8)(0.141 m3 / s)(8 m/ s)(1 + cos 45◦ )
= −4557 N
Momentum equation y-direction

X
p2 A2 sin 45◦ + Fy = −ρQv2 sin 45◦
= −(100, 000 Pa)(π/4 × (0.15 m)2 ) sin 45◦
−(1, 000 kg/ m3 × 0.8)(0.141 m3 / s)(8 m/ s) sin 45◦
= −1, 888 N
Net force
F = (−4.56i − 1.89j) kN
72
Situation:
Water flows through a 60o reducing bend–additional details are provided in the
problem statement.
Find:
Horizontal force required to hold bend in place: Fx
PLAN
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
A2
v1 = v2
A1
1
= 50 m/ s
10
= 5 m/s
ρv12 ρv 2
p1 + = p2 + 2
2 2
Let p2 = 0, then
µ ¶ µ ¶
1, 000 kg/ m3 2 1, 000 kg/ m3
p1 = − (5 m/ s) + (50 m/ s)2
2 2
p1 = 1237 kPa

X
Fx = ṁ(v2x − v1x )
p1 A1 + Fx = ρA2 v2 (v2 cos 60◦ − v1 )
Fx = −1, 237, 000 Pa/ m2 × 0.001 m2
+1, 000 kg/ m3 × 0.0001 m2 × 50 m/ s(50 m/ s cos 60◦ − 5 m/ s)
Fx = 1140 N
73
Situation:
Water flows through a tee–—additional details are provided in the problem state-
ment.
Find:
Pressure difference between sections 1 and 2.
PLAN
1 2
3 500 kg/s
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
ṁ1 + 500 kg/s = ṁ2

ṁ1 = (10 m/s)(0.10 m2 )(1000 kg/m3 ) = 1000 kg/s
ṁ2 = 1000 kg/ s + 500 kg/ s = 1500 kg/s
ṁ2 1500 kg/ s
v2 = = = 15 m/s
ρA2 1000 kg/ m3 × 0.1 m2

X
Fx = ṁ2 v2x − ṁ1 v1x − ṁ3 v3x
p1 A1 + p2 A2 = ṁ2 v2 − ṁ1 v1 − 0
A(p1 − p2 ) = (1500 kg/s)(15 m/ s) − (1000 kg/ s)(10 m/ s)
(22, 500 − 10, 000) Pa
p1 − p2 =
0.10 m2
= 125, 000 Pa
p1 − p2 = 125 kPa
74
Situation:
Water flows through a wye–additional details are provided in the problem state-
ment.
Find:
x−component of force to hold wye in place.
PLAN
1 2
x
o
30
3
Flow rate
Q1
v1 = = 20 ft/s
A1
Q2
v2 = = 12 ft/s
A2
Q3 = 20 − 12 = 8 ft3 /s
Q3
v3 = = 32 ft/s
A3
X
Fx = ṁ2 v2 + ṁ3 v3 cos 30◦ − ṁ1 v1
Fx + p1 A1 − p2 A2 = (20ρ)(−20) + (12ρ)(+12) + (32 cos 30◦ )(ρ)(8)
Fx + (1000 psfg)(1 ft2 ) − (900 psfg)(1 ft2 ) = −400ρ + 144ρ + ρ(8 ft3 / s)(32 ft/ s)(0.866)
Fx = −100 lbf + 1.94 slug/ ft3 (−34.3 ft4 / s)
Fx = −167 lbf (acting to the left)
75
Situation:
Water flow through a horizontal bend and T section–additional details are pro-
vided in the problem statement.
1 y
x
ṁ1 = 12 lbm/s
ṁ2 = ṁ3 = 6 lbm/s
A1 = A2 = A3 = 5 in2
p1 = 5 psig
p2 = p3 = 0
Find:
Horizontal component of force to hold fitting stationary: Fx
PLAN
SOLUTION
Velocity calculations
ṁ1
v1 =
ρA1
(12 lbm/32.2 lbm/ slug)
= £ ¤
(1.94 slug/ ft3 )(5 in2 /144 in2 / ft2 )
= 5.531 ft/s
ṁ2
v2 =
ρA2
(6 lbm/32.2 lbm/ slug)
= £ ¤.
(1.94 slug/ ft3 )(5 in2 /144 in2 / ft2 )
= 2.766 ft/s
76
X
Fx = −ṁ2 v2 − ṁ1 v1
p1 A1 + Fx = −ṁ2 v2 − ṁ1 v1
Fx = −p1 A1 − ṁ2 v2 − ṁ1 v1
= −(5 psig × 5 in2 ) − (6 lbm/32.2 lbm/ slug)(2.766 ft/ s)
−(12 lbm/32.2 lbm/ slug)(5.531 ft/ s)
Fx = −27.6 lbf
77
Situation:
Water flows through a horizontal bend and T section–additional details are pro-
1 y
x
v1 = 6 m/s p1 = 4.8 kPa

v2 = v3 = 3 m/s p2 = p3 = 0
A1 = A2 = A3 = 0.20 m2
Find:
Components of force (Fx , Fy ) needed to hold bend stationary.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Discharge
Q1 = A1 v1 = 0.2 × 6 = 1.2 m3 /s
Q2 = Q3 = A2 v2 = 0.2 × 3 = 0.6 m3 /s
X
Fx = −ṁ2 v2 − ṁ1 v1
p1 A1 + Fx = −ρ(Q2 v2 + Q1 v1 )
Fx = −p1 A1 − ρ(Q2 v2 + Q1 v1 )
= −4800 × 0.2 − 1000(0.6 × 3 + 1.2 × 6)
y-direction
X
Fy = ṁ3 (−v3 )
Fy = −ρQ3 v3 = −1000 × 0.6 × 3
Fy =-1.8 kN (acts downward)
78
Situation:
Water flows through a horizontal tee–additional details are provided in the problem
statement.
Find:
Components of force (Fx , Fy ) needed to hold the tee in place.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Velocity calculations
0.25 m3 / s
V1 =
(π × 0.075 m × 0.075 m)
= 14.15 m/s
0.10 m3 / s
V2 =
(π × 0.035 m × 0.035 m)
= 25.98 m/s
(0.25 − 0.10) m3 / s
V3 =
(π × 0.075 m × 0.075 m)
= 8.49 m/s
Fx + p1 A1 − p3 A3 = ṁ3 V3 − ṁ1 V1
Fx = −p1 A1 + p3 A3 + ρV3 Q − ρV1 Q
Fx = − (100, 000 Pa × π × 0.075 m × 0.075 m) + (80, 000 Pa × π × 0.075 m × 0.075 m)
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
+ 1000 kg/ m3 × 8.49 m/ s × 0.15 m3 / s − 1000 kg/ m3 × 14.15 m/ s × 0.25 m3 / s
Fx = −2617 N
Momentum equation y-direction
Fy + p3 A3 = −ρV3 Q
Fy = −ρV3 Q − p3 A3
Fy = −1000 kg/ m3 × 25.98 m/ s × 0.10 m3 / s − 70, 000 Pa × π × 0.035 m × 0.035 m
= −2867 N
Net force
F = (−2.62i − 2.87j) kN
79
Situation:
Information of fire hoses and nozzles
Find:
Information of operational conditions and typical hose sizes and nozzles.
SOLUTION
Information depends on source.
80
Situation:
High speed water jets.
Find:
Estimate water speed for 60,000 psig pressure
Assumptions:
Inlet velocity is negligible and viscous effects are not important. Assume the exit
pressure is atmospheric
PLAN
SOLUTION
The Bernoulli equation between the chamber and nozzle exit
Vo2 Ve2
po + γzo + ρ = pe + γze + ρ
2 2
The pressure difference is much larger than the pressure due to elevation change so
2pc
Ve2 =
ρ
s
2 × 60, 000 psi × 144 in2 /ft2
Ve =
1.94 slug/ft3
= 2980 ft/s
This velocity is less than the speed of sound in water (∼ 5000 ft/s) so the exit velocity
is subsonic and the exit pressure will equal the atmospheric pressure.
81
Situation:
Water (60 o F) flows through a nozzle.
d1 = 3 in, d2 = 1 in..
p1 = 2500 psfg, p2 = 0 psfg
Find:
(a) Speed at nozzle exit: v2
(b) Force to hold nozzle stationary: F
Assumptions:
Neglect weight, steady flow.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation, then the Bernoulli equation, and finally the momen-
tum equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
A1 v1 = A2 v2
µ ¶2
d2
v1 = v2 (1)
d1
Bernoulli equation applied from 1 to 2
p1 v12 v2
+ = 2 (2)
ρ 2 2
Combining Eqs. (1) and (2)
µ¶Ã µ ¶4 !
v2 d2
p1 = ρ 2 1−
2 d1
µ 2¶ Ã µ ¶4 !
v 1
2500 psfg = 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 2
× 1−
2 3
v2 = ve = 51.1 ft/s
82
From Eq. (1)
µ ¶2
d2
v1 = v2
d1
µ ¶2
1
= 51.1 ft/ s ×
3
= 5.675 ft/s
Flow rate
ṁ1 = ṁ2 = ṁ
= (ρAv)2
Ã µ ¶2 !
π 1.0
= 1.94 slug/ ft3 × × ft × 51.08 ft/ s
4 12
= 0.5405 slug/s
X
Fx = ṁ [(vo )x − (vi )x ]
F + p1 A1 = ṁ (v2 − v1 )
F = −p1 A1 + ṁ (v2 − v1 )
Ã µ ¶2 !
π 3
F = −(2500 lbf/ ft2 ) × × ft2
4 12
+ (0.5405 slug/ s) × (51.08 − 5.675) ft/ s
= −98.26 lbf
Force on nozzle = 98.3 lbf to the left
83
Situation:
Water (15 o C) flows through a nozzle.
d1 = 10 cm., d2 = 2 cm., v2 = 25 m/s, ρ = 999 kg/m3
Find:
(a)Pressure at inlet: p1
(b)Force to hold nozzle stationary: F
Assumptions:
Neglect weight, steady flow, p2 = 0 kPa-gage.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation, then the Bernoulli equation, and finally the momen-
tum equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
A1 v1 = A2 v2
µ ¶2
d2
v1 = v2
d1
µ ¶2
2
= 25 ×
10
= 1.0 m/s
ṁ1 = ṁ2
= (ρAv)2
Ã !
3 π × (0.02 m)2
= 999 kg/ m × × 25 m/ s
4
= 7.85 kg/s
Bernoulli equation applied from 1 to 2
84
p1 v12 v2
+ = 2
ρ 2 2
ρ¡ 2 ¢
p1 = v2 − v12
2
999 kg/ m3
= ((25 m/ s)2 − (1 m/ s)2 )
2
= 3. 117 × 105 Pa
p1 = 312 kPa
X
Fx = ṁ [(vo )x − (vi )x ]
F + p1 A1 = ṁ (v2 − v1 )
F = −p1 A1 + ṁ (v2 − v1 )
Ã !
2
π × (0.1 m)
F = −(311.7 × 103 Pa) + (7.85 kg/ s) (25 − 1) m/ s
4
= −2259. 7 N
Force on nozzle = 2.26 kN to the left
85
The problem involves writing a program for the flow in a nozzle and applying it to
problems 6.59 and 6.15. No solution is provided.
86
Situation:
Water flows through a converging nozzle–additional details are provided in the
problem statement.
v2
v1
x
1 2
Find:
Force at the flange to hold the nozzle in place: F
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation to establish the pressure at section 1, and then apply
the momentum equation to find the force at the flange.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation (select a control volume that surrounds the nozzle).
Q1 = Q2 = Q = 15 ft3 / s
Flow rate equations
¡ ¢
Q 4 × Q 4 × 15 ft3 / s
v1 = = =
A1 πD12 π (1 ft)2
= 19.099 ft/ s
¡ ¢
Q 4 × Q 4 × 15 ft3 / s
v2 = = =
A2 πD22 π (9/12 ft)2
= 33. 953 ft/ s
Bernoulli equation
ρv12 ρv 2
p1 + = p2 + 2
2 2
ρ(v22 − v12 )
p1 = 0 +
2
1.94 slug/ ft3 ((33. 953 ft/ s)2 − (19.099 ft/ s)2 )
=
2
2
= 764.4 lbf/ ft
p1 A1 + F = ṁv2 − ṁv1
87
Calculations
p1 A1 = (764.4 lbf/ ft2 )(π/4)(1 ft)2

= 600.4 lbf
ṁv2 − ṁv1 = ρQ (v2 − v1 )
= (1.94 slug/ ft3 )(15 ft3 / s) (33. 953 − 19.098) ft/ s
= 432. 3 lbf
Substituting numerical values into the momentum equation
F = −p1 A1 + (ṁv2 − ṁv1 )

= −600.4 lbf + 432. 3 lbf
= −168. 1 lbf
F = −168 lbf (acts to left)
88
Situation:
Water flows through a converging nozzle–additional details are provided in the
problem statement.
Find:
Force at the flange to hold the nozzle in place: Fx
PLAN
SOLUTION
0.3 m3
v1 = = 4.244 m/s
π × 0.15 m × 0.15 m
v2 = 4.244 m/ s × 9 = 38.196 m/s
Bernoulli equation
1000 kg/ m3
p1 = 0 + (38.1962 − 4.2442 ) m2 / s2 = 720 kPa
2
Fx = −720, 000 Pa × π × (0.15 m)2 + 1, 000 kg/ m3 × 0.3 m3 / s × (38.196 − 4.244) m/ s

89
Situation:
Water flows through a nozzle with two openings–additional details are provided
in the problem statement
Find:
x-component of force through flange bolts to hold nozzle in place.
PLAN
SOLUTION
16 ft3 / s × 144 in2 / ft2

vA = vB =
[(π/4)(4 in × 4 in + 4.5 in × 4.5 in)]
= 80.93 fps
16 ft3 / s
v1 =
π × 0.5 ft × 0.5 ft
= 20.37 fps
Bernoulli equation
1.94 slug/ ft3

p1 = 0 + (80.93 ft/ s × 80.93 ft/ s − 20.37 ft/ s × 20.37 ft/ s) = 5951 psf
2
Fx + ρ1 A1 sin 30 ◦ = −ṁA vA − ṁB vB sin 30 ◦

Fx = −5, 951 psf × π × 0.5 ft × 0.5 ft × sin 30◦ − 80.93 ft/ s × 1.94 slug/ ft × 80.93 ft/ s × π
2 in × 2 in
× − 20.37 ft/ s × 1.94 slug/ ft × 16.0 ft3 / s sin 30◦
144 ft2
Fx = −3762 lbf
90
Situation:
Water flows through a nozzle with two openings–additional details are provided
in the problem statement.
Find:
x-component of force through flange bolts to hold nozzle in place: Fx
PLAN
SOLUTION
0.5 m3 / s
vA = vB = = 26.1 m/s
π × 0.05 m × 0.05 m + π × 0.06 m × 0.06 m
0.5 m3 / s
v1 = = 7.07 m/s
π × 0.15 m × 0.15 m
Bernoulli equation
1000 slug/ ft3

p1 = ((26.1 m/ s)2 − (7.07 m/ s)2 ) = 315, 612 Pa
2
X
Fx = ṁo vox − mi vix
Fx + p1 A1 sin 30 = −ṁvA − ṁvi sin 30
Fx = −315, 612 Pa × π × (0.15 m)2 × sin 30◦ − 26.1 m/ s × 1, 000 kg/ m3 × 26.1 m/ s
×π × (0.05 m)2 − 7.07 m/ s × 1000 kg/ m3 × 0.5 m3 / s × sin 30◦ = −18, 270 N
Fx = −18.3 kN
91
Situation:
A rocket nozzle is connected to a combustion chamber.
Mass flow: ṁ = 220 kg/ s. Ambient pressure: po = 100 kPa.
Nozzle inlet conditions: A1 = 1 m2 , u1 = 100 m/ s, p1 = 1.5 MPa-abs.
Nozzle exit condition? A2 = 2 m2 , u2 = 2000 m/ s, p2 = 80 kPa-abs.

Assumptions:
The rocket is moving at a steady speed.
Find:
Force on the connection between the nozzle and the chamber.
PLAN
Apply the momentum equation to a control volume situated around the nozzle.
SOLUTION
X
F + p1 A1 − p2 A2 = ṁ(v2 − v1)
where F is the force carried by the material that connects the rocket nozzle to the
rocket chamber.
Calculations (note the use of gage pressures).
F = ṁ(v2 − v1) + p2 A2 − p1 A1
¡ ¢¡ ¢
= (220 kg/ s) (2000 − 100) m/ s + −20, 000 N/ m2 2 m2
¡ ¢¡ ¢
− 1, 400, 000 N/ m2 1 m2
= −1.022 × 106 N
= −1.022 MN
The force on the connection will be
F = 1.02 MN
The material in the connection is in tension.
92
Water flows through a nozzle.
The nozzle is bolted to a pipe flange with 6 bolts.
D1 = 0.30 m, D2 = 0.15 m, p1 = 200 kPa gage.
Sketch:
1 2
Find:
Tension in each bolt (in Newtons)
PLAN Since force is the goal, start with the momentum equation. Then, apply
continuity and the Bernoulli equations to find terms needed to calculate force. The
steps are.
1. Apply the momentum equation to relate force to properties at 1 and 2.
2. Relate v2 and v1 using continuity.
3. Solve for v2 , v1 , and Q using the Bernoulli equation and the flow rate equation.
4. Calculate force.
SOLUTION
1. Momentum equation (x-direction)
X
Fbolts + p1 A1 = ρQ(v2 − v1 )
2. Continuity equation (apply to cv shown above; accumulation is zero).

µ ¶2
A1 0.30 m
v2 = v1 = v1 = 4v1
A2 0.15 m
93
3. Bernoulli equation
p1 v12 p2 v22
+ + z1 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
p1 v12 16v12
+ +0 = 0+ +0
γ 2g 2g
200000 Pa 15v12
=
9810 N/ m3 2g
v1 = 5.16 m/s
v2 = 4v1 = 20.66 m/s

Flow rate equation.
π (0.3 m)2
Q = A1 v1 = (5.16 m/ s) = 0.365 m3 / s
4
4. Calculate force
Fbolts = −p1 A1 + ρQ(v2 − v1 )

¡ ¢¡ ¢
Fbolts = − (200, 000 Pa) π (0.15 m)2 + 1000 kg/ m3 0.365 m3 / s (20.66 m/ s − 5.16 m/ s)
= −8480 N
Force per bolt = 1410 N
94
Situation:
Water jets out of a two dimensional slot.
Flow rate is Q = 8 cfs per ft of slot width. Slot spacing is H = 8 in. Jet height is
b = 4 in.
Find:
(a)Pressure at the gage.
(b)Force (per foot of length of slot) of the water acting on the end plates of the
slot.
PLAN
To find pressure at the centerline of the flow, apply the Bernoulli equation. To find
the pressure at the gage (higher elevation), apply the hydrostatic equation. To find
the force required to hold the slot stationary, apply the momentum equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity. Select a control volume surrounding the nozzle. Locate section 1 across
the slot. Locate section 2 across the water jet.
8 ft3 / s
Q1 = Q2 = Q =
ft
Flow rate equations
Q 8 ft2 / s
V1 = =
A1 (8/12) ft
= 12 ft/ s
Q 8 ft2 / s
V2 = =
A2 (4/12) ft
= 24 ft/ s
Bernoulli equation
ρ 2
p1 = (V2 − V12 )
2
1.94 slug/ ft3 2 ft2
= (24 − 122 ) 2
2 s
2
p1 = 419.0 lbf/ ft
Hydrostatic equation. Location position 1 at the centerline of the slot. Locate
position 3 at the gage.
p1 p3
+ z1 = + z3
γ γ
419.0 lbf/ ft2 p3 (8/12) ft
3 +0 = 3 +
62.4 lbf/ ft 62.4 lbf/ ft 2
p3 = 398.2 psf
95
p3 = 398.2 lbf/ ft2 = 2.77 lbf/ in2
X
Fx = ṁV2 − ṁV1
Fx + p1 A1 = ρQ(V2 − V1 )
Fx = −p1 A1 + ρQ(V2 − V1 ) (1)
Calculations
¡ ¢
p1 A1 = 419 lbf/ ft2 (8/12 ft)
= 279.3 lbf/ ft (a)
¡ ¢¡ ¢
ρQ(V2 − V1 ) = 1.94 slug/ ft3 8 ft2 / s (24. ft/ s − 12. ft/ s)
= 186.2 lbf/ ft (b)
Fx = − (279.3 lbf/ ft) + 186.2 lbf/ ft

lbf
= −93.1
ft
The force acting on the end plates is equal in magnitude and opposite in direction
(Newton’s third law).
Fwater on the end plates = 93.1 lbf

ft
acting to the right
96
Situation:
Water is discharged from a two-dimensional slot–additional details are provided
in the problem statement
Find:
(a)Pressure at the gage.
(b)Force (per foot of length of slot) on the end plates of the slot.
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation, then the hydrostatic equation, and finally the momen-
tum equation.
SOLUTION
0.4 m3 / s
vb = = 5.71 m/s
0.07 m2
0.4 m3 / s
vB = = 2.00 m/s
0.2 m2
Bernoulli equation
1000 kg/ m3
pB = ((5.71 m/ s)2 − (2.00 m/ s)2 ) = 14.302 kPa
2
pgage = 14, 302 kPa − 9810 N/ m3 × 0.1 m2

pgage = 13.3 kPa

X
Fx + pB AB = ρQ(vb − vB )
thus
Fx = −14, 302 kPa × 0.2 m2 + 1000 kg/ m3 × 0.4 m3 / s × (5.71 − 2.00) m/ s

= −1, 376 N
Fx = −1.38 kN/m
97
Situation:
Water flows through a spray head–additional details are provided in the problem
statement.
o
30
v2
v1
Find:
Force acting through the bolts needed to hold the spray head on: Fy
PLAN
SOLUTION
Q 4 ft3 / s
v1 = = = 20.37 ft/s
A1 π/4 × (0.5 ft)2
Bernoulli equation
ρ¡ 2 ¢
p1 = v2 − v12
2
1.94 slug/ ft3 ¡ ¢
= (65 ft/ s)2 − (20.37 ft/ s)2
2
= 3696 psf

X
Fy + p1 A1 = ρQ(−v2 sin 30◦ − v1 )
Fy = (−3696 psf)(π/4 × (0.5 ft)2 ) + 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 4 ft3 / s × (−65 ft/ s sin 30◦ − 20.37 ft/ s)
Fy = −1140 lbf
98
Situation:
An unusual nozzle creates two jets of water.
d = 1 in, v2 = v3 = 80.2 ft/ s.
D = 4 in.p = 43 psig.
Find:
Force required at the flange to hold the nozzle in place: F
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
Q
v1 =
A
2 × 80.2 ft/ s × π/4 × (1 ft)2
=
π/4 × (4 ft)2
= 10.025 fps

P P
Fx = ṁox − ṁi vix
p1 A1 + Fx = ṁ2 v2x + ṁ3 v3x − ṁ1 v1x
(0.5 ft)2
Fx = −43 psig × π × (2 in)2 + 1.94 slug/ ft3 × (80.2 ft/ s)2 × π ×
144 in2 / ft2
3 (0.5 ft)2
−(1.94 slug/ ft × 80.2 ft/ s × π × × 80.2 ft/ s × sin 30
144 in2 / ft2
−(1.94 slug/ ft3 × 10.025 ft/ s × π × (0.1667 ft)2 ) × 10.025 ft/ s
= −524.1 lbf

X
Fy = ṁoy − ṁi viy
Fy = ṁ3 v3y = ρAv3 (−v3 cos 30◦ )
= −1.94 slug/ ft3 (π/4 × (1/12)2 ft2 ) (80.2 ft/ s)2 cos 30◦
= −58.94 lbf
Net force
F = (−524i − 58.9j) lbf
99
Situation:
Liquid flows through a ”black sphere”–additional details are provided in the prob-
lem statement.
v2
30o
v3
v1
Find:
Force in the inlet pipe wall required to hold sphere stationary: F
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
A1 v1 = A2 v2 + A3 v3
A1 A2
v3 = v1 − v2
A3 A
µ 2 ¶3 µ 2¶
2 1
= 50 ft/ s 2 − 100 ft/ s 2
1 1
= 100 ft/ s
Fx = ṁ3 v3x
= −ρA3 v32 sin 30◦
Ã !
π (1/12)2 ft2
= −(1.94 slug/ ft3 × 1.2) (100 ft/ s)2 sin 30◦
4
= −63.49 lbf
y-direction
Fy − W + p1 A1 = ṁ2 v2y + ṁ3 v3y − ṁ1 v1y
thus
Fy = W − p1 A1 + ṁ2 v2 − m3 v3 cos 30◦ − ṁ1 v1
100
Calculations
W − p1 A1 = 200 − 60 × π × 12
= 11.50 lbf
ṁ2 v2 = ρA2 v22
Ã !
π (1/12)2 ft2
= (1.2 × 1.94 slug/ ft3 ) (100 ft/ s)2
4
= 126.97 lbf
◦
ṁ3 v3 cos 30 = ρA3 v32 cos 30◦
Ã !
π (1/12)2 ft2
= (1.2 × 1.94 slug/ ft3 ) (100 ft/ s)2 cos 30◦
4
= 109.96 lbf
ṁ1 v1 = ρA1 v12
Ã !
π (2/12)2 ft2
= (1.2 × 1.94 slug/ ft3 ) (50 ft/ s)2
4
= 126. 97 lbf
thus,
Fy = (W − p1 A1 ) + ṁ2 v2 − (m3 v3 cos 30◦ ) − ṁ1 v1

= (11.50) lbf + 126.97 lbf − (109.96) lbf − 126. 97 lbf
= −98. 46 lbf
Net Force
F = (−63.5i − 98.5j) lbf
101
Situation:
Liquid flows through a ”black sphere”–additional details are provided in the prob-
lem statement.
Find:
Force required in the pipe wall to hold the sphere in place: F
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
10 × 52 − 30 × 2.52
v3 =
(2.5u)2
= 10 m/s
ρ = Sρw = 1.5 × 1000 kg/ m3 = 1500 kg/ m3
Fx = −ṁj vj sin 30◦ = −ρj Aj vj2 sin 30◦

= −10 sin 30◦ × 1500 kg/ m3 × 10 m/ s × π × (0.0125 m)2
= −36.8 N
Fy = −Pi Ai + Wt − ṁi vi + ṁo vo − ṁj vj cos 30◦

π
= −400, 000 Pa × × (0.025 m)2 + 600 N + (1500π)
4
×(− (10 m/ s) × (0.025 m)2 + (30 m/ s)2 × (0.0125 m)2
2
− (10 m/ s)2 × (0.0125 m)2 cos 30◦ )

= 119 N
Net Force
F = (−36.8i + 119j) N
102
To verify the analysis the quantities Q, v1 , v2, b, y1 , y2 and FG will have to be mea-
sured. Since a laboratory is available for your experiment it is assumed that the
laboratory has equipment to obtain Q. The width b can be measured by a suitable
scale. The depths y1 and y2 can be measured by means of piezometer tubes attached
to openings in the bottom of the channel or by means of point gages by which the
actual level of the surface of the water can be determined. Then v1 and v2 can be
calculated from v = Q/A = Q/(by).
The force on the gate can be indirectly evaluated by measuring the pressure distribu-
tion on the face of the gate. This pressure may be sensed by piezometers or pressure
transducer attached to small openings (holes) in the gate. The pressure taps on the
face of the gate could all be connected to a manifold, and by appropriate valving
the pressure at any particular tap could be sensed by a piezometer or pressure trans-
ducer. The pressures at all the taps should be measured for a given run. Then by
integrating the pressure distribution over the surface of the gate one can obtain FG .
Then compare the measured FG with the value obtained from the right hand side of
Eq. (6.11). The design should be such that air bubbles can be purged from tubes
leading to piezometer or transducer so that valid pressure readings are obtained.
103
Situation:
Water flows through a sluice gate––additional details are provided in the problem
statement.
Find:
Force of water (per unit width) acting on the sluice gate.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
v12 v22
+ z1 = + z2
2g 2g
µ ¶2 2
0.6 v2 v22
+5 = + 0.6
5 2g 2g
v2 = 16.96 fps
v1 = 2.03
Q = 10.176 cfs/ft
X
Fx = ρQ(v2x − v1x )
Fx + p1 A1 − p2 A2 = ρQ(v2 − v1 )
5.0 ft × 5.0 ft 0.6 ft × 0.6 ft
Fx = −62.4 lbf × + 62.4 lbf × + 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 10.176 cfs/ft
2 2
×(16.96 − 2.03) ft/ s
Fx = −474 lbf/ft
104
Situation:
A flow in a pipe is laminar and fully developed–additional details are provided in
the problem statement.
Find:
Derive a formula for the resisting shear force (Fτ ) as a function of the parameters
D, p1 , p2 , ρ, and U.
PLAN
Apply the momentum equation, then the continuity equation.
SOLUTION
X Z
Fx = ρv(v · dA)
cs
Z
p1 A1 − p2 A2 − Fτ = ρu22 dA − (ρAu1 )u1
A2
Z
p1 A − p2 A − Fτ = −ρu21 A + ρu22 dA (1)
A2
Integration of momentum outflow term
u2 = umax (1 − (r/r0 )2 )2
u22 = u2max (1 − (r/r0 )2 )2
Z Zr0
ρu22 dA = ρu2max (1 − (r/r0 )2 )2 2πrdr
A2 0
Zr0
= −ρu2max πr02 (1 − (r/r0 )2 )2 (−2r/r02 )dr
0
To solve the integral, let µ ¶2

r
u=1−
ro
Thus µ ¶
2r
du = − 2 dr
ro
105
The integral becomes
Z Z0
ρu22 dA = −ρu2max πr02 u2 du
A2 1
µ ¶
u3 0
= −ρu2max πr02 |
3 1
µ ¶
1
= −ρu2max πr02 0−
3
+ρu2max πr02
= (2)
3
Continuity equation
Z
UA = udA
Zr0
= umax (1 − (r/r0 )2 )2π rdr
0
Zr0
= −umax πr02 (1 − (r/r0 )2 )(−2r/r02 ) dr
0
= 2
−umax πr0 (1 − (r/r0 )2 )2 /2|r00
= umax πr02 /2
Therefore
umax = 2U
Substituting back into Eq. 2 gives
Z
ρu22 dA = 4ρU 2 πr02 /3
A2
Finally substituting back into Eq. 1, and letting u1 = U, the shearing force is given
by
πD2
Fτ = 4
[p1 − p2 − (1/3)ρU 2 ]
106
Situation:
A swamp boat is powered by a propeller–additional details are provided in the
problem statement.
Find:
(a) Propulsive force when the boat is not moving.
(b) Propulsive force when the boat is moving at 30 ft/s.
Assumptions:
When the boat is stationary, neglect the inlet flow of momentum—that is, assume
v1 ≈ 0.
PLAN
SOLUTION
From Table A.3, ρ = 0.00228 slug/ft3
a.) Boat is stationary
Momentum equation (x-direction) Select a control volume that surrounds the boat.
X
Fx = ṁv2 − ṁv1
Fstop ≈ ṁv2
Mass flow rate
ṁ = ρA2 v2
Ã !
2
¡ ¢ π (3 ft)
= 0.00228 slug/ ft3 (100 ft/ s)
4
= 1.612 slug/ s
Thus
Fstop = ṁv2
= (1.612 slug/ s) (100 ft/ s)
= 161 lbf
107
Force (stationary boat) = 161 lbf
b.) Boat is moving
Momentum equation (x-direction). Select a control volume that surrounds the boat
and moves with the speed of the boat. The inlet velocity is v1 = 30 ft/s
X
Fx = ṁ (v2 − v1 )
= (1.612 slug/ s) (100 − 30) ft/ s
= 113 lbf
Force (moving boat) = 113 lbf
108
Situation:
Air flows through a windmill–additional details are provided in the problem state-
ment.
Find:
Thrust on windmill.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
µ ¶2
3m
v2 = 10 m/ s × = 4.44 m/s
4.5 m

X
Fx = ṁ(v2 − v1 )
Fx = ṁ(v2 − v1 )
= (1.2 kg/ s)(π/4 × (3 m)3 )(10 m/ s)(4.44 − 10) m/ s
Fx = −1415.0 N (acting to the left)
T = 1415 N (acting to the right)
109
Situation:
A jet pump is described in the problem statement.
Find:
(a) Derive a formula for pressure increase across a jet pump.
(b) Evaluate the pressure change for water if Aj /Ao = 1/3, vj = 15 m/s and vo = 2
m/s.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
v0 D02
v1 = (1)
D02 − Dj2
v0 D02 + vj Dj2
v2 = (2)
D02

X
Fx = ṁ(v2 − v1 )
πD02 ρv12 π(D02 − Dj2 ) ρvj2 πDj2 ρv22 πD02
(p1 − p2 ) =− − +
4 4 4 4
thus,
ρv12 (D02 − Dj2 ) 2

Dj2
(p2 − p1 ) = + ρv j × − ρv22 (3)
D02 D02
Calculations
v0
v1 =
1 − (Dj /D0 )2
2
=
1 − (1/3)
= 3 m/s
Dj2
v2 = v0 + vj 2
D
µ 0¶
1
= 2 + 15
3
= 7 m/s
110
from Eq. (3)
∙ µ ¶ ¸
2
Dj2 D2
2 j 2
p2 − p1 = ρ v1 1 − 2 + vj 2 − v2
D0 D0
∙ µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
3 2 1 2 1 2
= 1000 kg/ m (3 m/ s) 1 − + (15 m/ s) − (7 m/ s)
3 3
p2 − p1 = 32 kPa
111
Situation:
The problem statement describes a jet pump.
2
1 2 6v /2g
v= 1 ft/s vj
4ft Δy x
Find:
Develop a preliminary design by calculating basic dimensions for a jet pump.
PLAN
Apply the momentum equation, then the continuity equation.
SOLUTION
Carry out the analysis for a section 1 ft wide (unit width) and neglect bottom friction.
X
Fx = ṁ2 v2 − ṁ1 v1 − ṁj vj
γy12 /2 − γy22 /2 = −1ρ(1 × (4 − ∆y)) − vj ρ(vj ∆y) + v2 ρ(v2 y2 ) (1)
but y2 = 4 ft + 6 v 2 /2g
= 4 + 6/2g = 4.0932 ft
Continuity equation
v2 y2 = v1 (4 − ∆y) + vj ∆y
(4 − ∆y) vj ∆y
v2 = v1 +
y2 y2
Assume
∆y = 0.10 ft
Then
v2 = 1(3.9)/(4.093) + vj × 0.1/4.0392 = 0.9528 + 0.02476vj (2)
vj2 − (0.9528 + 0.02476vj2 × 40.932 = 5g(y22 − y12 ) − 39.0

= 82.44 ft2 /s2
Solving:
vj = 12.1 ft/s Aj = 0.10 ft2
112
If circular nozzles were used, then Aj = (π/4)d2j ; dj = 4.28 in. Therefore, one could
use 8 nozzles of about 4.3 in. in diameter discharging water at 12.1 ft/s
REVIEW
Like most design problems, this problem has more than one solution. That is, other
combinations of dj , vj and the number of jets are possible to achieve the desired
result.
113
Situation:
Lift and drag forces are being measured on an airfoil that is situated in a wind
tunnel–additional details are provided in the problem statement.
y pu
0.25 m
8 m/s
L
10 m/s 0.5 m
2
1 D
0.25 m 12 m/s
x pl c.v. c.s.
1m
Find:
(a) Lift force: L
(b) Drag force: D
PLAN
SOLUTION
X X
Fx = ṁv0 − ṁ1 v1
cs
ρva A ρvb A
−D + p1 A1 − p2 A2 = v1 (−ρv1 A) + va + vb
2 2
2 2
D ρv ρv
− = p2 − p1 − ρv12 + a + b
A 2 2
where
p1 = pu (x = 0) = p (x = 0) = 100 Pa, gage

p2 = pu (x = 1) = p (x = 1) = 90 Pa, gage
then
D
− = 90 Pa − 100 Pa + 1.2 kg/ m3 × (−100 + 32 + 72) m2 / s2
A
D
− = −5.2
A
D = 5.2 Pa × (0.5 m)2
D = 1.3 N
114
X
Fy = 0
Z 2 Z 1
−L + p Bdx −
pu Bdx = 0 where B is depth of tunnel
1 0
Z 1 Z 1
−L + (100 − 10x + 20x(1 − x))0.5dx − (100 − 10x − 20x(1 − x))0.5dx = 0
0 0
2 2 3
−L + 0.5(100x − 5x + 10x − (20/3)x )|10 − 0.5(100x − 5x2 − 10x2 + (20/3)x3 |10 = 0
thus,
40
−L + 0.5 × (20 − ) = 0
3
L = 3.33 N
115
Situation:
A torpedo-like device is being tested in a wind tunnel–additional details are pro-
c.s.
Drag
Forc e of devic e on air= -Drag
Find:
(a) Mass rate of flow.
(b)Maximum velocity at the outlet section.
(c)Drag on the device and support vanes.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Mass flow rate
ṁ = ρvA
µ ¶
¡ 3
¢ π(3.0 ft)2
= 0.0026 slug/ ft × (120 ft/ s) ×
4
= 2.205 slug/ s
ṁ = 2.205 slug/ s
At the outlet section Z 0
vdA = Q
0
But v is linearly distributed, so v = vmax (r/r0 ). Thus
Z r0 µ ¶
r
vmax 2πrdr = vA
0 ro
2vmax r02
= vr02
3
3v
vmax =
2
3 (120 ft/ s)
=
2
vmax = 180 ft/ s
116
vmax = 180 ft/ s
X Z r0
Fx = ρv22 dA − ṁv1 (1)
0
a.) Forces analysis X

Fx = p1 A1 − p2 A2 − D (a)
b.) Outlet velocity profile
r
v2 = vmax
r
µ ¶o µ ¶
3v r
= (b)
2 ro
c.) Outlet momentum flow

Z r0 Z r0 ¶ µ ¶¸2
∙µ
3v r
ρv22 dA = ρ 2πrdr
0 0 2 ro
µ ¶2 Z r0 µ ¶2
3v r
= 2πρ rdr
2 0 ro
µ ¶2 µ 2 ¶
3v ro
= 2πρ (c)
2 4
Substituting Eqns. (a) and (c) into the momentum equation (1) gives
X Z r0
Fx = ρv22 dA − ṁv1
0
µ ¶2 µ 2 ¶
3v ro
p1 A1 − p2 A2 − D = 2πρ − ṁv1
2 4
µ ¶2 µ 2 ¶
3v ro
D = p1 A1 − p2 A2 − 2πρ + ṁv1 (2)
2 4
Calculations (term by term)
117
µ ¶
π × 32
p1 A1 = (144 × 0.24) ×
4
= 244.3 lbf µ ¶
π × 32
p2 A2 = (144 × 0.1) ×
4
= 101. 9 lbf
Z r0 µ ¶2 µ 2 ¶
2 3v ro
ρv2 dA = 2πρ
0 2 4
µ ¶2 µ 2 ¶
3 (120) 1.5
= 2π (0.0026)
2 4
= 297. 7 lbf
ṁv1 = (2.205) (120)
= 264. 6 lbf
Substituting numerical values into Eq. (2)

¶2 µ 2 ¶
µ
3v ro
D = p1 A1 − p2 A2 − 2πρ + ṁv1
2 4
= 244.3 lbf − 101. 9 lbf − 297. 7 lbf + 264. 6 lbf
= 109.3 lbf
D = 109 lbf
118
Situation:
A jet engine (ramjet) takes in air, adds fuel, and then exhausts the hot gases
produced by combustion.
v1 = 225 m/s
ρ2 = 0.25 kg/m3 , A2 = 0.5 m2
Find:
Thrust force produced by the ramjet: T
Assumptions:
Neglect the mass addition due to the fuel (that is, ṁin = ṁout = ṁ = 60 kg/s).
2.) Assume steady flow.
PLAN
SOLUTION
where F is the force required to hold the ramjet stationary.
Calculate exit velocity
ṁ2 = ρ2 A2 v2
ṁ2 60 kg/ s
v2 = = = 480 m/s
ρ2 A2 0.25 kg/ m3 × 0.5 m2
X X X
cs cs
F = ṁ(v2 − v1 ) = 60 kg/ s(480 m/ s − 225 m/ s)
T = 15.3 kN (to the left)
119
Situation:
Air flows through a turbofan engine. Inlet mass flow is 300 kg/ s.
Bypass ratio is 2.5. Speed of bypass air is 600 m/ s.
Speed of air that passes through the combustor is 1000 m/ s.
A B
600 m/s
.
300 m/s m1 1,000 m/s
.
m2
c.s.
Additional details are given in the problem statement.

Find:
Thrust (T ) of the turbofan engine.
Assumptions:
Neglect the mass flow rate of the incoming fuel.
PLAN
Apply the continuity and momentum equations.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation
ṁA = ṁB = 300 kg/ s
also
ṁB = ṁcombustor + ṁbypass

= ṁcombustor + 2.5ṁcombustor
ṁB = 3.5ṁcombustor
Thus
ṁB 300 kg/ s
ṁcombustor = =
3.5 3.5
= 85. 71 kg/ s
ṁbypass = ṁB − ṁcombustor
= 300 kg/ s − 85. 71 kg/ s
= 214.3 kg/ s
120
X X
Fx = ṁvout − ṁvin
Fx = [ṁbypass Vbypass + ṁcombustor Vcombustor ] − ṁA VA
= [(214.3 kg/ s) (600 m/ s) + (85. 71 kg/ s) (1000 m/ s)] − (300 kg/ s) (300 m/ s)
= 124, 290 N
T = 124 k N
121
Maximum force occurs at the beginning; hence, the tank will accelerate immediately
after opening the cap. However, as water leaves the tank the force will decrease,
but acceleration may decrease or increase because mass will also be decreasing. In
any event, the tank will go faster and faster until the last drop leaves, assuming no
aerodynamic drag.
122
Situation:
A tank of water rests on a sled–additional details are provided in the problem
statement.
Find:
Acceleration of sled at time t
PLAN
SOLUTION
This type of problem is directly analogous to the rocket problem except that the
weight does not directly enter as a force term and pe = patm . Therefore, the appro-
priate equation is
M dvs /dt = ρve2 Ae − Ff

a = (1/M)(ρve2 (π/4)d2e − μW )
where μ =coefficient of sliding friction and W is the weight
W = 350 + 0.1 × 1000 × 9.81 = 1331 N

a = (g/W )(1, 000 × 252 (π/4) × 0.0152 − (1331 × 0.05))
= (9.81/1, 331)(43.90) m/s2
= W = 0.324 m/s2
123
Situation:
A cart is moving with a steady speed along a track.
Speed of cart is 5 m/ s (to the right). Speed of water jet is 10 m/ s.
Nozzle area is A = 0.0012 m2 .
Find:
Resistive force on cart: Fr
PLAN
SOLUTION
Assume the resistive force (Fr ) is caused primarily by rolling resistance (bearing
friction, etc.); therefore, the resistive force will act on the wheels at the ground
surface. Select a reference frame fixed to the moving cart. The velocities and
resistive force are shown below.
c.s.
5 m/s
2 x
1
5 m/s
Fr
Velocity analysis
V1 = v1 = v2 = 5 m/s
ṁ = ρA1 V1
= (1000 kg/ m3 )(0.0012 m2 )(5 m/ s)
= 6 kg/s
X
Fx = ṁ(v2 − v1 )
−Fr = 6 kg/ s(−5 m/ s − 5 m/ s) = −60 N
Fr = 60 N (acting to the left)
124
Situation:
A jet with speed vj strikes a cart (M = 10 kg), causing the cart to accelerate.
The deflection of the jet is normal to the cart [when cart is not moving].
Jet speed is vj = 10 m/s. Jet discharge is Q = 0.1 m3 /s.
Find:
(a)Develop an expression for the acceleration of the cart.
(b)Calculate the acceleration when vc = 5 m/s.
Assumptions:
Neglect rolling resistance.
Neglect mass of water within the cart.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Select a control surface surrounding the moving cart. Select a reference frame fixed
to the nozzle. Note that a reference frame fixed to the cart would be non-inertial.
.
W m2v2
x d
dt (Mvc)=Mac
.
m1v1

X d
Fx = (mvc ) + ṁ2 v2x = −ṁ1 v1
dt
Momentum accumulation
125
Note that the cart is accelerating. Thus,
Z Z
d d d
vx ρdV = vc ρdV = (Mvc )
dt cv dt cv dt
= mac
Velocity analysis
V1 = vj − vc [relative to control surface]

v1 = vj [relative to reference frame (nozzle)]
from conservation of mass
v2y = (vj − vc )
v2x = vc
ṁ2 = ṁ1
Combining terms
X d
Fx = (Mvc ) + ṁ(v2x − v1 )
dt
0 = Mac + ρA1 (vj − vc )(vc − vj )
(ρQ/vj )(vj − vc )2
ac =
M
Calculations
1, 000 × 0.1/10(10 − 5)2
ac =
10
ac = 25 m/ s2 (when vc = 5 m/ s)
126
Situation:
A jet strikes a cart and accelerates the cart from zero to one-half the jet velocity.
Find:
Time (s) to accelerate to one-half jet velocity.
Assumptions:
No resistance to cart motion and mass of water jet moving with cart is negligible.
PLAN
Apply the momentum equation to obtain equation of motion for cart and integrate
to obtain time.
SOLUTION
Select a control surface surrounding the moving cart. Select a reference frame fixed
to the nozzle. Note that a reference frame fixed to the cart would be non-inertial.
.
W m2v2
x d
dt (Mvc)=Mac
.
m1v1

X d
Fx = (mvc ) + ṁ2 v2x = −ṁ1 v1
dt
Momentum accumulation
Note that the cart is accelerating. Thus,
Z Z
d d d
vx ρdV = vc ρdV = (Mvc )
dt cv dt cv dt
dvc
= M
dt
127
where M is the mass of the cart (mass of water moving with cart is negligible)
From conservation of mass
v2y = (vj − vc )
v2x = vc
ṁ2 = ṁ1
Combining terms
X d
Fx = (Mvc ) + ṁ(v2x − v1 )
dt
dvc
0 = M + ρA1 (vj − vc )(vc − vj )
dt
dvc vc
M = ρA1 vj2 (1 − )2
dt vj
vc 2
= ṁvj (1 − )
vj
Since the jet velocity is constant

µ ¶
d vc ṁ vc
= (1 − )2
dt vj M vj
³ ´
d vvvj ṁ
vc 2 = dt
(1 − vj ) M
Integrating and substituting in the limits, vc /vj = 0 at t = 0 and vc /vj = 0.5 at

t = ∆t gives
M
∆t =
ṁ
100 kg
=
10 kg/s
∆t = 10 s
128
Situation:
A problem in rocket-trajectory analysis is described in the problem statement.
Find:
Initial mass of a rocket needed to place the rocket in orbit.
SOLUTION
µ ¶
Vb0 λ
M0 = Mf exp
T
µ ¶
7200 m/ s
= 50 kg exp
3000 m/ s
M0 = 551 kg
129
Situation:
A toy rocket is powered by a jet of water–additional details are provided in the
problem statement.
Find:
Maximum velocity of the rocket.
Assumptions:
Neglect hydrostatic pressure; Inlet kinetic pressure is negligible.
SOLUTION
Newtons 2nd law.
X
F = ma
T − W = ma
where T =thrust and W =weight
T = ṁve
ṁve − mg = mdvR /dt
dvR /dt = (T /m) − g
= (T /(mi − ṁt)) − g
dvR = ((T dt)/(mi − ṁt)) − gdt
vR = (−T /ṁ) n(mi − ṁt) − gt + const.
where vR = 0 when t = 0. Then
const. = (T /ṁ) ln(mi )
vR = (T /ṁ) ln((mi )/(mi − ṁt)) − gt
vR max = (T /ṁ) ln(mi /mf ) − gtf
T /ṁ = ṁve /ṁ = ve
Bernoulli equation
(neglecting hydrostatic pressure)
pi + ρf vi2 /2 = pe + ρf ve2 /2
The exit pressure is zero (gage) and the inlet kinetic pressure is negligible. So
ve2 = 2pi /ρf
= 2 × 100 × 103 /1000
= 200 m2 /s2
ve = 14.14 m/s
ṁ = ρe ve Ae
= 1000 × 14.14 × 0.1 × 0.052 × π/4
= 2.77 kg/s
130
Time for the water to exhaust:
t = mw /ṁ
= 0.10/2.77
= 0.036s
Thus
vmax = 14.14 ln((100 + 50)/50) − (9.81)(0.036)

vmax = 15.2 m/s
131
Situation:
A valve at the end of a gasoline pipeline is rapidly closed–additional details are
provided in the problem statement.
Find:
Water hammer pressure rise: ∆p
SOLUTION
Speed of sound
p
c = Ev /ρ
= ((715)(106 )/(680))0.5
= 1025 m/s
Pressure rise
∆p = ρvc
= (680)(12)(1025)
∆p = 8.36 MPa
132
Situation:
A valve at the end of a long water pipeline is rapidly closed–additional details are
provided in the problem statement.
Find:
Water hammer pressure rise: ∆p
SOLUTION
s
Ev
c =
ρ
s
2.2 × 109 Pa
=
1000 kg/ m3
= 1483 m/s
2L
tcrit =
c
= 2 × 10, 000 m/1483 m/ s
= 13.5 s > 10 s
Then
∆p = ρvc
= 1000 kg/ m3 × 4 m/ s × 1483 m/ s
= 5, 932, 000 Pa
= ∆p = 5.93 MPa
133
Situation:
A valve at the end of a water pipeline is instantaneously closed–additional details
are provided in the problem statement.
Find:
Pipe length: L
SOLUTION
Determine the speed of sound in water
s
Ev
c =
ρ
r
2.2 × 109
=
1000
= 1483 m/s
Calculate the pipe length
t = 4L/c
3 = 4L/1483
L = 1112 m
134
Situation:
A valve at the end of a water pipeline is closed during a time period of 10 seconds.
Additional details are provided in the problem statement.
Find:
Maximum water hammer pressure: ∆pmax
SOLUTION
Determine the speed of sound in water
s
Ev
c =
ρ
s
320, 000 lbf/ in2 × 144 in2 / ft2
c =
1.94 slug/ ft3
= 4874 ft/s
Determine the critical time of closure
tcrit = 2L/c
= 2 × 5 × 5280/4874
= 10.83 s > 10 s
Pressure rise
∆pmax = ρvc
= 1.94 × 8 × 4874
= ∆pmax = 75, 644 psf= 525 psi
135
Situation:
A valve at the end of a long water pipe is shut in 3 seconds–additional details are
provided in the problem statement
Find:
Maximum force exerted on valve due to the water hammer pressure rise: Fvalve
SOLUTION
2L
tcrit =
c
2 × 4000
=
1485.4
= 5.385 s > 3 s
Fvalve = A∆p
= Aρ(Q/A)c
= ρQc
= 998 × 0.03 × 1483
Fvalve = 44.4 kN
136
Situation:
The easy way to derive the equation for water hammer pressure rise is to use a
moving control volume.
Find:
Derive the equation for water hammer pressure rise (Eq. 6.12).
SOLUTION
V+c P p+Δρ
c
v=c
ρ
ρ=ρ+Δρ
Continuity equation
(v + c)ρ = c(ρ + ∆ρ)

∴ ∆ρ = vρ/c

X X
Fx = vx ρv · A
pA − (p + ∆p)A = −(V + c)ρ(V + c)A + c2 (ρ + ∆ρ)A
∆p = 2ρvc − c2 ∆ρ + v2 ρ
= 2ρvc − c2 vρ/c + v 2 ρ
= ρvc + ρv 2
Here ρv 2 is very small compared to ρvc
∴ ∆p = ρvc
137
Situation:
The problem statement describes a water hammer phenomena in a pipe.
Find:
Plot a pressure versus time trace at point B for a time period of 5 seconds.
Plot a pressure versus distance trace at t = 1.5 s.
SOLUTION
v = 0.1 m/ s
c = 1483 m/ s
2
ppipe = 10γ − ρvpipe /2
≈ 98, 000 Pa
∆p = ρvc
= 1000 × 0.10 × 1483
∆p = 148, 000 Pa
Thus
pmax = p + ∆p
= 98, 000 + 148, 000
= 246 k Pa- gage
pmin = p − ∆p = −50 kPa gage
The sequence of events are as follows:
∆t Σ∆t
Pressure wave reaches pt B. 1000/1483 = 0.674 s 0.67 s
Time period of high pressure at B 600/1483 = 0.405 s 1.08 s
Time period of static pressure at B 2000/1483 = 1.349 s 2.43 s
Time period of negative pressure at B 600/1483 = 0.405 s 2.83 s
Time period of static pressure at B 2000/1483 = 1.349 s 4.18 s
Time period of high pressure at B 600/1, 483 = 0.405 s 4.59 s
Time period of static pressure atB 2000/1483 = 1.349 s 5.94 s
Results are plotted below:
200 kPa
100 kPa
0 1 2 3 4 5
138
At t = 1.5 s high pressure wave will have travelled to reservoir and static wave will
be travelling toward valve.
Time period for wave to reach reservoir = 1300/1483 = 0.877 s. Then static wave
will have travelled for 1.5 − 0.877 s = 0.623 s. Distance static wave has travelled
= 0.623 s ×1, 483 m/s = 924 m. The pressure vs. position plot is shown below:
200 kPa
100 kPa
0
500 m 1,000 m
139
Situation:
A water hammer phenomenon occurs in a steel pipe–additional details are provided
in the problem statement.
Find:
(a) The initial discharge.
(b) Length from A to B.
SOLUTION
c 1483 m/s
=
∆p =
ρ∆vc
t =
L/c
L tc = 1.46 s × 1, 483
=
L = 2160 m
∆v = ∆p/ρc
= (2.5 − 0.2) × 106 Pa/1.483 × 106 kg/m2 s = 1.551 m/s
Q = vA = 1.551 × π/4
Q = 1.22 m3 /s
140
Situation:
Water is discharged from a slot in a pipe–additional details are provided in the
problem statement.
Find:
Reaction (Force and Moment) at station A − A
PLAN
Apply the momentum equation and the moment of momentum equation.
SOLUTION
y
Plan View
vy = −(3.1 + 3x) m/s

X Z
Fy = vy ρv · dA
Z 1.3
Fy = − (3.1 + 3x) × 1, 000 × (3.1 + 3x) × 0.015dx = −465 N
0.3
Ry = 465 N
Flow rate
Z Z 1.3
Q = vdA = 0.015 (3.1 + 3x)dx = 0.0825 m3 /s
0.3
v1 = Q/A = 0.0825/(π × 0.042 ) = 16.4 m/s
Momentum equation (z-direction)
X
Fz = −ṁ1 v1
Fz − pA AA − Wf = −ṁv1
Fz = 30, 000 × π × 0.042 + 0.08 × π × 0.042 × 9, 810
+1.3 × π × 0.0252 × 9, 810 + 1000 × 0.0825 × 16.4
= 1530 N
Rz = −1530 N
141
Moment-of-momentum (z−direction)
Z
Tz = rvρv · dA
cs
Z 1.3
= 15 (3.1 + 3r)2 rdr = 413.2 N · m
0.3
Moment-of-momentum (y-direction)
Ty + W rcm = 0
where W =weight, rcm =distance to center of mass
Ty = −1.3π × 0.0252 × 9810 × 0.65 = −16.28 N · m
Net reaction at A-A
F = (465j − 1530k) N
T = (16.3j − 413k) N · m
142
Situation:
A helicopter rotor uses two small rockets motors–details are provided in the prob-
lem statement.
Find:
Power provided by rocket motors.
PLAN
Apply the momentum equation. Select a control volume that encloses one motor,
and select a stationary reference frame.
SOLUTION
Velocity analysis
vi = 0
Vi = rw
= 3.5 × 2π
= 21.991 m/ s
V0 = 500 m/ s
v0 = (500 − 21.99) m/ s
= 478.01 m/ s
Flow rate
ṁ = ρAi Vi
= 1.2 × .002 × 21.991
= 0.05278 kg/s
Fx = ṁv0 − ṁvi
= ṁv0
= 0.05278 × 478
= 25.23 N
Power
P = 2F rw
= 2 × 25.23 × 3.5 × 2π
= 1110 W
P = 1.11 kW
143
Situation:
A rotating lawn sprinkler is to be designed.
The design target is 0.25 in. of water per hour over a circle of 50-ft radius.
Find:
Determine the basic dimensions of the lawn sprinkler.
Assumptions:
The Bernoulli equation applies.
Assume mechanical friction is present.
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate. To supply water to a circle 50 ft. in diameter at a 1/4 inch per hour
requires a discharge of
Q = ḣA
= (1/48)π(502 /4)/3600
= 0.011 cfs
Bernoulli equation. Assuming no losses between the supply pressure and the sprinkler
head would give and exit velocity at the head of
r
2p
V =
ρ
r
2 × 50 × 144
=
1.94
= 86 ft/s
If the water were to exit the sprinkler head at the angle for the optimum trajectory
(45o ), the distance traveled by the water would be
Ve2
s=
2g
The velocity necessary for a 25 ft distance (radius of the spray circle) would be
Ve2 = 2gs = 2 × 32.2 × 25 = 1610

Ve = 40 ft/s
This means that there is ample pressure available to do the design. There will be
losses which will affect the design. As the water spray emerges from the spray head,
144
atomization will occur which produces droplets. These droplets will experience aero-
dynamic drag which will reduce the distance of the trajectory. The size distribution
of droplets will lead to small droplets moving shorted distances and larger droplets
farther which will contribute to a uniform spray pattern.
The sprinkler head can be set in motion by having the water exit at an angle with
respect to the radius. For example if the arm of the sprinkler is 4 inches and the
angle of deflection at the end of the arm is 10 degrees, the torque produced is
M = ρQrVe sin θ
= 1.94 × 0.011 × 40 × sin 10
= 0.148 ft-lbf
The downward load on the head due to the discharge of the water is
Fy = ρQVe sin 45
= 1.94 × 0.011 × 40 × sin 45
= 0.6 lbf
The moment necessary to overcome friction on a flat plate rotating on another flat
plate is
M = (2/3)μFn ro
where μ is the coefficient of friction and ro is the radius of the plate. Assuming a 1/2
inch radius, the limiting coefficient of friction would be
3 M
μ =
2 Fn ro
3 0.148
=
2 0.6 × (1/24)
= 8.9
This is very high, which means there is adequate torque to overcome friction.
These are initial calculations showing the feasibility of the design. A more detailed
design would now follow.
145
Situation:
Water flows out a pipe with two exit nozzles–additional details are provided in
2
o
30
3
1
Find:
Reaction (Force and Moment) at section 1.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation, then the momentum equation and the moment of
momentum equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation equation
v1 = (0.1 × 50 + 0.2 × 50)/0.6 = 25 ft/s
X
Fx = ṁ3 v3x + ṁ2 v2x
Fx + p1 A1 = −ρv12 A1 + ρv32 A3 + ρv22 A2 cos 60◦
Fx = −20 × 144 × 0.6 − 1.94 × 252 × 0.6 + 1.94 × 502 × 0.2
+1.94 × 502 × 0.1 × cos 60◦ = −1,243 lbf
X
Fy = ṁ2 v2y
Fy = 1.94 × 50 × 50 × 0.1 × cos 30◦ = 420 lbf
r2 ṁ2 v2y = (36/12)(1.94 × 0.1 × 50)50 sin 60◦ = 1260 ft-lbf
Reaction at section 1
F = (1240i − 420j)lbf
M = (−1260k) ft-lbf
146
Situation:
Water flows out a pipe with two exit nozzles–additional details are provided in
y
2
o
30
x
3
Find:
Reaction (Force and Moment) at section 1.
PLAN
Apply the continuity equation, then the momentum equation and the moment of
momentum equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity equation equation
V1 = (0.01 × 20 + 0.02 × 20)/0.1 = 6 m/s

X X X
Fx + p1 A1 = ṁ3 v3 + ṁ2 v2 cos 30 − ṁ1 v1
Fx = −200, 000 × 0.1 − 1000 × 62
×0.1 + 1000 × 202 × 0.02
+1000 × 202 × 0.01 × cos 30◦
= Fx =-12, 100 N
Fy − W = ṁ2 v2 sin 30◦
Weight
W = WH2 O + Wpipe
= (0.1)(1)(9810) + 90
= 1071 N
147
thus
Fy = 1000 × 202 × 0.01 × sin 30◦ + 1, 071

= Fy = 3070 N
Mz − W rcm = r2 ṁ2 v2y

Mz = (1071 × 0.5) + (1.0)(1000 × 0.01 × 20)(20 sin 30◦ )
= 2535 N · m
Reaction at section 1
F = (12.1i − 3.1j) kN
M = (−2.54k) kN · m
148
Situation:
A reducing pipe bend held in place by a pedestal. Water flow. No force trans-
mission through the pipe at sections 1 and 2.
Assume irrotational flow. Neglect weight
Find:
(a) Force needed to hold bend stationary: F
(b) Moment needed to hold bend stationary: M
PLAN
Apply the Bernoulli equation, then the momentum equation, and then the moment
of momentum equation.
SOLUTION
Bernoulli equation
p1 v12 p2 v22
+ = +
γ 2g γ 2g
v1 = Q/A1 = 2/(π/4 × 0.52 ) = 10.19 ft/s
v2 = Q/A1 = 2/(π/4 × (4/12)2 ) = 22.92 ft/s
p1 = 20 × 144 = 2, 880 psf
p2 = p1 + ρ(v12 − v22 )/2
= 2, 880 + 1.94(10.192 − 22.922 )/2
= 2, 471 psf
Fx + p1 A1 + p2 A2 = ṁv2x − ṁv1x
Fx = −p1 A1 − p2 A2 − ṁ(v2 + v1 )
149
where
A1 = π/4 × 0.52 = 0.196 ft2

A2 = π/4 × 0.3332 = 0.0873 ft2
ṁ = ρA1 v1 = 1.94 × 0.196 × 10.19 = 3.875 slug/s
thus
Fx = −2, 880 × 0.196 − 2, 471 × 0.0873 − 3.875(10.19 + 22.92) = −908 lbf
mz − rp1 A1 + rp2 A2 = −rṁv2 + rṁv1

mz = r(p1 A1 − p2 A2 ) − rṁ(v2 − v1 )
where r = 1.0 ft.
Mz = 1.0(2, 880 × 0.196 − 2, 471 × 0.08753) − 1.0 × 3.875(22.92 − 10.19)

= 299 ft-lbf
Moment-of-momentum (y-direction)
My + p1 A1 r3 + p2 A2 r3 = −r3 ṁv2 − r3 ṁ1 v1
where r3 = 2.0 ft.
My = −r3 [p1 A1 + p2 A2 + ṁ(v1 + v2 )]

= −2.0 × 908
My = −1816 ft-lbf
Net force and moment at 3
F = −908i lbf
M = (−1820j + 299k) ft-lbf
150
Situation:
Centrifugal fan is used to pump air
Find:
Power (hp) required to operate fan
Assumptions:
Neglect the compressibility of air.
PLAN
Apply the moment of momentum equation between inlet and outlet.
SOLUTION
The control volume enclosed the rotor but does not rotate. The flow is steady within
the control volume. Assume positive direction comes out of the page, the ez direction.
The moment diagram shows one moment (torque)

X
M = T ez
There is no moment of momentum inflow because the inlet velocity is radial (or the
fluid enters with zero radius). There is a moment of momentum outflow.
The moment of momentum equation is
X Z X X
d
M= ρ(r × v)dV + ṁo (r × v)o − ṁi (r × v)i
dt cv
Since the flow is steady and there is not inflow of moment of moment, the equation
reduces to
T ez =ṁo (r × v)o
151
The exit radial velocity is
1 min
Q 1500 cfm × 60 sec
vr = = = 47.75 ft/s
πD π × 1 ft × (2/12 ft)
The density of the air is
p 14.7 psia × 144 in2 /ft2

ρ= = = 0.00237 slug/ft3
RT 1716 ft-lbf/slug-R × 520 R
At the outlet
D D
(r × v)o = ω ez
2 2
The torque is
D2 slug ft3 1 min 3600 × 2π rad/min 12 ft2

T = ρQω = 0.00237 3 × 1500 × × ×
4 ft min 60 s 60 s/min 4
= 5.584 ft-lbf
The power is
3600 × 2π rad/min
P = T ω = 5.584 ft-lbf × = 2105 ft-lbf/s
60 s/min
ft-lbf 1 hp
= 2105 ×
s 550 ft-lbf/s
P = 3.83 hp
152
Situation:
Arbitrary control volume with length ∆s.
Find:
Derive Euler’s equation using the momentum equation.
SOLUTION
2
(p 1+ p 2)/2
1
v W= NA' s
p Δs
A
Continuity equation Z
d
ρdV + ṁo − ṁi = 0
dt
For a control volume that is fixed in space
Z
∂ρ
dV + ṁo − ṁi = 0
∂t
For the control volume shown above the continuity equation is expressed as
∂ρ
Ā∆s + (ρvA)2 − (ρvA)1 = 0
∂t
where Ā is the average cross-sectional area between 1 and 2 and the volume of the
control volume is Ā∆s. Dividing by ∆s and taking the limit as ∆s → 0 we have
∂ρ ∂
A + (ρvA) = 0
∂t ∂s
In the limit the average area becomes the local area of the stream tube.
The momentum equation for the control volume is

X Z
d
Fs = ρvdV + ṁo vo − ṁi vi
dt
153
For a control volume fixed in space, the accumulation term can be written as
Z Z
d ∂
ρvdV = (ρv)dV
dt ∂t
The forces are due to pressure and weight
X p1 + p2
Fs = p1 A1 − p2 A2 + ( )(A2 − A1 ) − γ Ā∆s sin θ
2
where the third term on the right is the pressure force on the sloping surface and θ is
the orientation of control volume from the horizontal. The momentum equation for
the control volume around the stream tube becomes
∂
(ρv)Ā∆s + ρAv2 v2 − ρAv1 v1 = (p1 − p2 )Ā − γ Ā∆s sin θ
∂t
Dividing by ∆s and taking limit as ∆s → 0, we have
∂ ∂ ∂p
A (ρv) + (ρAv 2 ) = − A − γA sin θ
∂t ∂s ∂s
By differentiating product terms the left side can be written as
∂ ∂ ∂ρ ∂ ∂v ∂v
A (ρv) + (ρAv 2 ) = v[A + (ρvA)] + Aρ + Aρv
∂t ∂s ∂t ∂s ∂t ∂s
The first term on the right is zero because of the continuity equation. Thus the
momentum equation becomes
∂v ∂v ∂p
ρ + ρv = − − γ sin θ
∂t ∂s ∂s
But sin θ = ∂z/∂s and ∂v/∂t + v∂v/∂s = as , the acceleration along the path line.
Thus the equation becomes
∂
ρas = − (p + γz)
∂s
which is Euler’s equation.
154
Following the same development in the text done for the planar case, there will be
another term added for the two additional faces in the z-direction. The rate of change
of momentum in the control volume plus the net efflux through the surfaces becomes
Z
1 ∂ ρ uu x+∆x/2 − ρ uu x−∆x/2
(ρu)dV +
∆x∆y∆z cv ∂t ∆x
ρuvy+∆y/2 − ρuvy−∆y/2 ρuwz+∆z/2 − ρuwz−∆z/2
+ +
∆y ∆z
where w is the velocity in the z−direction and ∆z is the size of the control volume
in the z−direction. Taking the limit as ∆x, ∆y, and ∆z → 0 results in
∂ ∂ ∂ ∂
(ρu) + (ρ uu) + (ρuv) + (ρuw)
∂t ∂x ∂y ∂z
In the same way, accounting for the pressure and shear stress forces on the three-
dimensional control volume leads to an additional shear stress term on the z-face.
There is no additional pressure force because there can only be a force due to pressure
on the faces normal to the x-direction. The force terms on the control volume become
px−∆x/2 − px+∆x/2 τ xx |x+∆x/2 −τ xx |x−∆x/2
+
∆x ∆x
τ yx |y+∆y/2 −τ yx |y−∆y/2 τ zx |z+∆z/2 −τ zx |z−∆z/2
+ +
∆y ∆z
Taking the limit as ∆x, ∆y, and ∆z → 0 results in
∂p ∂τ xx ∂τ yx ∂τ zx
− + + +
∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
The body force in the x-direction is
ρgx ∆V
= ρgx
∆x∆y∆z
155
Substituting in the constitutive relations gives
∂τ xx ∂τ yx ∂τ zx ∂2u ∂ ∂u ∂v ∂ ∂u ∂w
+ + = 2μ 2 + μ ( + )+μ ( + )
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x ∂z ∂z ∂x
This can be written as
∂τ xx ∂τ yx ∂τ zx ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ ∂u ∂v ∂w
+ + = μ( 2 + 2 + 2 ) + μ ( + + )
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂x ∂y ∂z
The last term is equal to zero from the Continuity equation equation for an incom-
pressible flow, so
∂τ xx ∂τ yx ∂τ zx ∂ 2u ∂ 2u ∂ 2u
+ + = μ( 2 + 2 + 2 )
∂x ∂y ∂z ∂x ∂y ∂z
156
Situation:
Apply the Navier-Stokes equation to direction normal to a rectilinear flow
Find:
Pressure variation in direction normal to flow
PLAN
Write the Navier-Stokes equation in direction normal to flow and reduce for rectilinear
flow
SOLUTION
The Navier-Stokes equation in the y-direction is
Dv ∂p ∂ 2v ∂2v
ρ = − + μ( 2 + 2 ) + ρgy
Dt ∂y ∂x ∂y
For a rectilinear flow as shown, v = 0, so the equation reduces to
∂p
− + ρgy = 0
∂y
The component of the gravitational force in the y-direction is
∆z ∂z
gy = −g = −g
∆y ∂y
so
∂
(p + ρz) = 0
∂y
and
p + γz = const
157
‫‪Problem 7.1‬‬
‫‪No solution provided‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
Problem 7.2
No solution provided
2
Problem 7.3
Answer the questions below.
a. What are common forms of energy? Which of these are relevant to fluid mechanics?
• Mechanical Energy = Energy that matter has because of its motion (i.e. kinetic
energy) or its position.(potential energy associated with a spring; gravitational
potential energy). Highly relevant to fluid mechanics. Examples of KE include.
— KE in a river that is flowing. KE in air that is being used to drive a wind

turbine. KE in the moving air in the throat of a venturi.
— Elastic potential energy associated with compression of a gas. Elastic po-
tential energy associated with compression of water during water hammer.
— Gravitational potential energy associated with water stored behind a dam.
Gravitational potential energy associated with water in a stand pipe. Grav-
itational potential energy associated with water stored in a water tower for
a municipal water supply.
• Other forms of energy include electrical energy, nuclear energy, thermal energy,
and chemical energy. Each of these forms of energy can be related to fluid
mechanics.
b. What is work? Give three examples that are relevant to fluid mechanics.
• In mechanics, work is done when a force acts on a body as the body moves
through a distance. Often, the magnitude of work is force multiplied by the
distance moved (W = F d).
— When water in a river tumbles a rock, the water is exerting a force on the
rock because the rock is moving through a distance.
— When the heart contracts, the walls of the heart exert a force on the blood
within the chambers of the heart, thereby doing work (force of wall x
displacement of wall).
— When water flows through a turbine in a dam, the water exerts a force on
the turbine blade and the turbine blade rotates in response to this force.
c. Common units of power: horsepower and watts.
d. Differences between power and energy
• power is a rate (amount per time) whereas energy in an amount.
3
• different primary dimensions: power (ML2 /T 3 ) and Energy (ML2 /T 2 ).
• different units: power has units of horsepower, watts, etc.; energy has units of
Joules, ft-lbf, Btu, cal, etc.
4
Problem 7.4
Apply the grid method to each situation described below. Note: Unit cancellations
are not shown in this solution.
a)
Situation:
A pump operates for 6 hours.
Cost = C = $0.15/ kW · h.
P = 1 hp, t = 6 h.
Find:
Amount of energy used (joules).
Cost of this energy ($’s).
Solution:
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
1 hp 6h 745.7 W J 3600 s
∆E = P ∆t =
1.0 1.0 1.0 hp W· s h
∆E = 1. 61 × 107 J
µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
0.15 1. 611 × 107 J kW · h
Cost = C∆E =
kW · h 1.0 3.6 × 106 J
Cost = $0.67
b)
Situation:
A motor is turning the shaft of a centrifugal pump.
T = 100 lbf · in, ω = 850 rpm.
P = T ω.
Find:
Power in watts.
P = T
µω ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
100 lbf · in 850 rev 2π rad 1.0 min 1.0 m 4.448 N W· s
=
1.0 min 1.0 rev 60 s 39.37 in lbf J
P = 1010 W
c)
Situation:
A turbine produces power.
P = 7500 ft lbf/ s.
Find:
Covert the power to watts and hp.
5
Solution:
µ ¶µ ¶
7500 ft · lbf s· W
P =
s 0.7376 ft · lbf
P = 10.2 kW
µ ¶µ ¶
7500 ft · lbf s · hp
P =
s 550 ft · lbf
P = 13.6 hp
6
Situation:
Water is being sprayed out a spray bottle.
Find:
Estimate the power (watts) required.
PLAN
1. Acquire data from a spray bottle.
2. Find power using P = ∆W/∆t, where ∆W is the amount of work in the time
interval ∆t.
SOLUTION
1. Data:
• Ten sprays took approximately 15 seconds.
• Deflecting the trigger involves a motion of ∆x = 1.0 in = 0.0254 m.
• The force to deflect the trigger was about F = 3 lb which is about 15 N.
2. Power:
µ ¶µ ¶
∆W F (N∆x) (15 N) (10 sprays) (0.0254 m/spray) W· s
P = = =
∆t ∆t 15 s N· m
= 0.25 W (estimate)
7
Situation:
A water pik is producing a high-speed jet.
d = 3 mm, V2 = 25 m/ s.
Find:
Minimum electrical power (watts).
Assumptions:
Neglect energy losses in the mechanical system—e.g. motor, gears, and pump.
Neglect all energy losses associated with viscosity.
Neglect potential energy changes because these are very small.
Properties:
Water (10 ◦ C) , Table A.5: ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Balance electrical power with the rate at which water carries kinetic energy out of
the nozzle.
SOLUTION
Amount of kinetic energy that leaves the nozzle

Power =
Each interval of time
V22
∆m 2
=
∆t
where ∆m is the mass that has flowed out of the nozzle for each interval of time (∆t) .
Since the mass per time is mass flow rate: (∆m/∆t = ṁ = ρA2 V2 )
ṁV22
Power =
2
ρA2 V23
=
2
8
Exit area
π ¡ ¢2
A2 = × 3.0 × 10−3 m
4
= 7.07 × 10−6 m2
Thus:
(1000 kg/ m3 ) (7.07 × 10−6 m2 ) (25 m/ s)3
Power = = 55.2 W
2
P = 55.2 W
REVIEW
Based on Ohm’s law, the current on a U.S. household circuit is about: I = P/V =
55.2 W/115 V = 0.48 A.
9
Situation:
A small wind turbine is being developed.
D = 1.25 m, V = 15 mph = 6.71 m/ s.
Turbine efficiency: η=20%.
Find:
Power (watts) produced by the turbine.
Properties:
Air (10 ◦ C, 0.9 bar = 90 kPa), R = 287 J/ kg · K.
PLAN
Find the density of air using the idea gas law. Then, find the kinetic energy of the
wind and use 20% of this value to find the power that is produced.
SOLUTION
Ideal gas law
p
ρ =
RT
90, 000 Pa
=
(287 J/ kg · K) (10 + 273) K
= 1.108 kg/ m3
Kinetic energy of the wind

Amount of kinetic energy
Rate of KE =
Interval of time
∆mV 2 /2
=
∆t
where ∆m is the mass of air that flows through a section of area A = πD2 /4 for
each unit of time (∆t) . Since the mass for each interval of time is mass flow rate:
10
(∆m/∆t = ṁ = ρAV )
ṁV 2
Rate of KE =
2
ρAV 3
=
2
The area is
¡ ¢
(1.108 kg/ m3 ) π (1.25 m)2 /4 (6.71 m/ s)3
Rate of KE =
2
Rate of KE = 205 W
Since the output power is 20% of the input kinetic energy:
P = (0.2) (205 W)
P = 41.0 W
REVIEW
The amount of energy in the wind is diffuse (i.e. spread out). For this situation, the
wind turbine provides enough power for approximately one 40 watt light bulb.
11
Problem 7.8
No solution provided.
12
Situation:
There is a linear velocity distribution in a rectangular channel.
Find:
Kinetic energy correction factor: α
PLAN
1. Use the definition of α (Eq. 7.21 in EFM9e), and then do a term-by-term analysis.
2. Combine terms.
SOLUTION
1. Definition of α Z µ ¶3
1 V (y)
α= dA (1)
A A V̄
• A = dw where d is the depth of the channel and w is the width.
• To find V (y), use the equation of a straight line where y is distance from the
channel floor.
y
V (y) = Vmax
d
• Since the velocity profile is linear, the mean velocity is 1/2 of the maximum
velocity
V̄ = Vmax /2
• dA = wdy
2. Substitute terms into Eq. (1)
Zy=dµ³ µ ¶¶3
1 y´ 2
α = Vmax wdy
wd d Vmax
y=0
Zy=dµ ¶3 µ ¶µ ¶µ 4¶
1 2y 1 8 d
= dy = 3
=2
d d d d 4
y=0
α=2
13
Situation:
Velocity distributions (a) through (d) are shown in the sketch.
Find:
Indicate whether α is less than, equal to, or less than unity.
SOLUTION
a) α = 1.0
b) α > 1.0
c) α > 1.0
d) α > 1.0
14
Situation:
There is a linear velocity distribution in a round pipe.
Find:
SOLUTION
Kinetic energy correction factor
Z µ ¶3
1 V
α= dA
A A V̄
Flow rate equation
r
V = Vm − ( )Vm
r0
r
V = Vm (1 − ( ))
Z r0
Q = V dA
Z r0
= V (2πrdr)
0
Z r0
r
= Vm (1 − )2πrdr
0 r0
Z r0
r2
= 2πVm [r − ( )]dr
0 r0
Integrating yields
Q = 2πVm [(r2 /2) − (r3 /(3r0 ))]r00
Q = 2πVm [(1/6)r02 ]
Q = (1/3)Vm A
Thus
Q Vm
V = =
A 3
Z ∙ r ¸3
1 r0 Vm (1 − r0 )
α = 2πrdr
A 0 ( 13 Vm )
Z
54π r0 r
= 2
(1 − ( ))3 rdr
πr0 0 r0
α = 2.7
15
Situation:
There is a linear velocity distribution in a round pipe.
Find:
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
V = kr
Z r0
Q = V (2πrdr)
0
Z r0
= 2πkr2 dr
0
2πkr03
=
3
Q
V̄ =
A
2
3
kπr03
=
πr02
2
= kr0
3

Z µ ¶3
1 V
α = dA
A A V̄
Z µ ¶3
1 r0 kr
α = 2 2πrdr
A 0 3
kr 0
Z µ ¶3
(3/2)3 2π r0 r
α = rdr
(πr02 ) 0 r0
µ ¶
27/4 r05
α =
r02 5r03
27
α= 20
16
Situation:
The velocity distribution in a pipe with turbulent flow is given by
µ ¶n
V y
=
Vmax r0
Find:
Derive a formula for α as a function of n.
Find α for n = 1/7.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
µ ¶n µ ¶n µ ¶n
V y r0 − r r
= = = 1−
Vmax r0 r0 r0
Z
Q = V dA
ZAr0 µ ¶n
r
= Vmax 1 − 2πrdr
0 r0
Z r0 µ ¶n
r
= 2πVmax 1− rdr
0 r0
Upon integration ∙µ ¶ µ ¶¸
1 1
Q= 2πVmax r02 −
n+1 n+2
Then
∙µ ¶ µ ¶¸
1 1
V̄ = Q/A = 2Vmax −
n+1 n+2
2Vmax
=
(n + 1)(n + 2)

⎡ ³ ń ⎤3
Z r0 Vmax 1 − r
1 ⎣ r0
⎦ 2πrdr
α= 2Vmax
A 0 (n+1)(n+2)
Upon integration one gets

h i
1 [(n+2)(n+1)]3
a= 4 (3n+2)(3n+1)
17
If n = 1/7, then
" £ ¤3 #
1 ( 17 + 2)( 17 + 1)
α = ¡ ¡ ¢ ¢¡ ¡ ¢ ¢
4 3 17 + 2 3 17 + 1
α = 1.06
18
Situation:
The velocity distribution in a rectangular channel with turbulent flow is given by
V /Vmax = (y/d)n
Find:
Derive a formula for the kinetic energy correction factor.
Find α for n = 1/7.
SOLUTION
Solve for q first in terms of umax and d
Z d Z d ³ y ń Z
Vmax d n
q= V dy = Vmax dy = n y dy
0 0 d d 0
Integrating:
µ ¶ ∙ n+1 ¸d
Vmax y
q = n
d n+1 0
µ n+1 −n
¶
Vmax d d
=
n+1
Vmax d
=
n+1
Then
q Vmax
V̄ = =
d n+1
Z µ ¶3
1 V
α = dA
A A V̄
Z " ¡ ¢n #3
1 d Vmax yd
= dy
d 0 Vmax /(n + 1)
Z
(n + 1)3 d 3n
= y dy
d3n+1 0
Integrating
∙ ¸
(n + 1)3 d3n+1
α =
d3n+1 3n + 1
(n+1)3
a= 3n+1
19
When n = 1/7
(1 + 1/7)3
α =
1 + 3/7
α = 1.05
20
Situation:
Turbulent flow in a circular pipe.
r = 3.5 cm.
Find:
Kinetic energy correction factor: α.
SOLUTION
Z µ ¶3
1 V
α= dA
A A V̄
The integral is evaluated using
Z µ ¶3 µ ¶3
V 1 X 2 2 vi + vi−1
dA ' 3 π(ri − ri−1 )
A V̄ V̄ i 2
Results. The mean velocity is 24.32 m/s and the kinetic energy correction factor is
1.19.
21
Problem 7.16
a. What is the conceptual meaning of the first law of thermodynamics for a system?
• The law can be written for
— energy (amount) with units such as joule, cal, or BTU.

— rate of energy (amount/time) with units such as watts, J/s, or BTU/s.
• Meaning (rate form):
dE
Q̇ − Ẇ =
⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫ dt
⎧ ⎫
⎨ net rate of energy ⎬ ⎨ net rate of work ⎬ ⎨ net rate of change in energy ⎬
entering system − done by system = of matter in system
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
at time t at time t during time t
• Meaning (amount form):
Q − W = ∆E
⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫ ⎧ ⎫
⎨ net amount of energy ⎬ ⎨ net amount of work ⎬ ⎨ net change in energy ⎬
entering system − done by system = of matter in system
⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭ ⎩ ⎭
during time ∆t during time ∆t during time ∆t
b. What is flow work? How is the equation for flow work derived?
• Flow work is work done by forces associated with pressure.
• Eq. for flow work is derived by using the definition of work: W = F · d.
c. What is shaft work? How is shaft work different than flow work?
• Shaft work is any work that is not flow work.
• Shaft work differs from flow work by the physical origin of the work:
— flow work is done by a force associated with pressure.

— shaft work is done by any other force.
22
Problem 7.17
a. What is head? How is head related to energy? To power?
• Head is a way of characterizing energy or power or work.
• Head is the ratio of (energy of a fluid particle)/(weight of a fluid particle) at a

point in a fluid flow.
— example: KE of a fluid particle divided by its weight gives "velocity head":

velocity head = (mV 2 /2) / (mg) = V 2 /(2g)
• Head is related to power by

P = ṁgh
b. What is head of a turbine?
• Head of a turbine is a way of describing the work (or power) that is done on
the turbine blades by a flowing fluid:
∆Wturbine
Pturbine = = ṁght
∆t
c. How is head of a pump related to power? To energy?

∆Wpump
Ppump = = ṁghp
∆t
d. What is head loss?
• Conversion of mechanical energy in a flowing fluid to thermal energy via the

action of viscous stresses.
• Mechanical energy is generally useful. The thermal energy that is generated is

generally not useful because it cannot be recovered and used productively.
• The thermal energy usually heats the fluid. This is analogous to frictional
heating.
23
Problem 7.18
a. What are the five main terms in the energy equation (7.29)? What does each term
mean?
See the text and figure that follow Eq. (7.29).
b. How are terms in the energy equation related to energy? To power?
• Each term in the energy equation is a "head term" with units of length. To
relate head, power, energy, and work use:
∆W ∆E
P = = = ṁgh
∆t ∆t
c. What assumptions are required to use Eq. (7.29)?
• The flow is steady.

• The control volume has one inlet port and one exit port.
• The fluid density is the same at all spatial locations.
How is the energy equation similar to the Bernoulli equation? List three similarities.
How is the energy equation different from the Bernoulli equation? List three differ-
ences.
Similarities:
• Both equations involve head terms.

• Both equations are applied from a "location 1" to a "location 2."
• There are some similar terms (all terms in the Bernoulli equation appear in the
energy equation).
Differences:
• The energy equation applies to viscous or inviscid flow whereas the Bernoulli
equation applies only to inviscid flow.
• The energy equation includes terms for work of a pump and turbine; these terms
do not appear in the Bernoulli equation.
• The energy equation includes head loss, whereas the Bernoulli equation lacks
any term to account for energy loss.
24
Problem 7.19
Situation:
Flow in a pipe.
Find:
Prove that fluid in a constant diameter pipe will flow from a location with high
piezometric head to a location with low piezometric head.
Assumptions:
No pumps or turbines in the pipeline.
Steady flow.
SOLUTION
The energy equation (7.29).
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
Term-by-term analysis:
• In a constant diameter pipe, KE terms cancel out.
• No machines means that hp = ht = 0.
Energy equation (simplified form):

µ ¶ µ ¶
p1 p2
+ z1 = + z2 + hL
γ γ
h1 = h2 + hL
Since section 1 is upstream of section 2, and head loss is always positive, we conclude
that h1 > h2 . This means that fluid flows from high to low piezometric head.
25
Situation:
Water flows in a vertical pipe.
L = 10 m, pA = 10 kPa.
pB = 98.1 kPa.
Find: Direction of flow in a pipe:

(a) Upward.
(b) Downward.
(c) No flow.
PLAN
1. Calculate the piezometric head h at A and B.,
2. To determine flow direction, compare the piezometric head values.
Whichever location has the larger value of h is upstream.
If the h values are the same, there is no flow.
SOLUTION
1. Piezometric head:
µ ¶
pA 10000 Pa
hA = + zA = + 10 m = 11.02 m
γ 9810 N/ m3
µ ¶
pB 98100 Pa
hB = + zB = + 0 = 10 m
γ 9810 N/ m3
2. Since hA > hB , the correct selection is (b) .
26
Situation:
Water flowing from a tank into a pipe connected to a nozzle.
α = 1.0, DB = 40 cm.
D0 = 20 cm, z0 = 0 m.
zB = 3.5 m, zr = 5 m.
Find:
(a) Discharge in pipe (m3 /s).
(b) Pressure at point B (kPa).
Assumptions:
γ = 9810 N/ m3 .
PLAN
1. Find velocity at nozzle by applying the energy equation.
2. Find discharge by applying Q = Ao Vo
3. Find the pressure by applying the energy equation.
SOLUTION
1. Energy equation (point 1 on reservoir surface, point 2 at outlet)
preser. Vr2 poutlet V02

+ + zr = + + z0
γ 2g γ 2g
V2
0+0+5 = 0+ 0
2g
V0 = 9.90 m/s
Q = V0 A0
π
= 9.90 m/ s × ( ) × (0.20 m)2
4
Q = 0.311 m3 /s
27
3. Energy equation (point 1 on reservoir surface, point 2 at B)
pB VB2
0+0+5= + + 3.5
γ 2g
where
Q 0.311 m3 / s
VB = = = 2.48 m/s
VB (π/4) × (0.4 m)2
VB2
= 0.312 m
2g
pB
− 5 − 3.5 = 0.312
γ
pB = 86.4 kPa
28
Situation:
Water drains from a tank into a pipe.
x = 10 ft, y = 4 ft.
Find:
Pressure at point A (psf).
Velocity at exit (ft/s).
Assumptions:
α2 = 1
PLAN
To find pressure at point A, apply the energy equation between point A and the pipe
exit. Then, then apply energy equation between top of tank and the exit.
SOLUTION
Energy equation (point A to pipe exit).
pA V2 p2 V2
+ zA + αA A + hp = + z2 + α2 2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
Term by term analysis: VA = V2 (continuity); p2 = 0-gage; (zA − zB ) = y; hp = 0,
ht = 0, hL = 0. Thus
pA = −γy
= −62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 4 ft
pA = −250 psf
Energy equation (1= top of tank; 2 = pipe exit)
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ z1 + α1 1 + hp = + z2 + α2 2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V22
z1 = + z2
2g
29
Solve for velocity at exit
p
V2 = 2g(z1 − z2 )
p
= 2 × 32.2 ft/ s2 × 14 ft
V2 = 30.0 ft/ s
30
Situation:
Water drains from a tank into a pipe.
x = 10 m, y = 4 m.
Find:
Pressure at point A (kPa).
Velocity at exit (m/s).
Assumptions:
α1 = 1.
PLAN
1. Find pressure at point A by applying the energy equation between point A and
the pipe exit.
2. Find velocity at the exit by applying the energy equation between top of tank and
the exit.
SOLUTION
1. Energy equation (section A to exit plane):
pA V2 p2 V2
+ zA + αA A + hp = + z2 + α2 2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
Term by term analysis: VA = V2 (continuity); p2 = 0-gage; (zA − zB ) = y; hp = 0,

ht = 0, ḣL = 0. Thus
pA = −γy
¡ ¢
pA = − 9810 N/ m3 (1.5 m)
pA = −14.7 kPa
31
2. Energy equation (top of tank to exit plane):
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
2
V
z1 = 2 + z2
2g
p
V2 = 2g(z1 − z2 )
p
= 2 × 9.81 m/ s2 × 11.5 m
V2 = 15.0 m/ s
32
Situation:
Water is pushed out a nozzle by a pump.
Q = 0.1 m3 / s, D2 = 30 cm.
Dn = 10 cm, zn = 7 m.
z1 = 1 m, z2 = 2 m.
Find:
Pressure head at point 2.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation to find Vn (velocity at nozzle)
Q 0.10 m3 / s
Vn = = = 12.73 m/s
An (π/4) × (0.10 m)2
Vn2
= 8.26 m
2g
Flow rate equation to find V2
Q 0.10 m3 / s
V2 = = = 1.41 m/s
A2 (π/4) × (0.3 m)2
V22
= 0.102 m
2g
Energy equation
p2
+ 0.102 + 2 = 0 + 8.26 + 7
γ
p2
γ
= 13.2 m
33
Situation:
Oil moves through a narrowing section of pipe.
DA = 20 cm, DB = 12 cm.
L = 1 m, Q = 0.06 m3 / s.
Find:
Pressure difference between A and B.
Properties:
S = 0.90.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q
VA =
A1
= 1.910m/s
µ ¶2
20
VB = × VA
12
= 5.31 m/s
Energy equation
pA − pB = 1γ + (ρ/2)(VB2 − VA2 )
µ ¶
¡ ¢ 900 kg/ m3
3
pA − pB = (1) 9810 N/ m (0.9) + ((5.31 m/ s)2 − (1.91 m/ s)2 )
2
pA − pB = 19.9 kPa
34
Situation:
Gasoline flows in a pipe that narrows into a smaller pipe.
Q = 5 ft3 / s, p1 = 18 psig.
hL = 6 ft, ∆z = 12 ft.
A1 = 0.8 ft2 , A2 = 0.2 ft2 .
Find:
Pressure at section 2 (psig).
Properties:
Gasoline, S = 0.8.
PLAN
Apply flow rate equation and then the energy equation.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation:
Q 5
V1 = = = 6.25 ft/ s
A1 0.8
V12 (6.25 ft/ s)2
= = 0.6066 ft
2g 2(32.2 ft/ s2 )
Q 5
V2 = = = 25 ft/ s
A2 0.2
V22 (25 ft/ s)2
= = 9.705 ft
2g 2(32.2 ft/ s2 )
Energy equation:
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + 6
γ 2g γ 2g
18 lbf/ in2 × 144 in2 / ft2 p2
3 + 0.6066 ft + 12 ft = + 9.705 ft + 0 ft + 6 ft
0.8 × 62.4 lbf/ ft 0.8 × 62.4 lbf/ ft3
p2 = 2437 psfg
35
p2 = 16.9 psig
36
Situation:
Water flows from a pressurized tank, through a valve and out a pipe.
p1 = 100 kPa, z1 = 8 m.
p2 = 0 kPa, z2 = 0 m.
2
hL = KL V2g , V2 = 10 m/ s.
Find:
The minor loss coefficient (KL ) .
Assumptions:
Steady flow.
Outlet flow is turbulent so that α2 = 1.0.
V1 ≈ 0.
Properties:
PLAN
Apply the energy equation and then solve the resulting equation to find the minor
loss coefficient.
SOLUTION
Energy equation (section 1 on water surface in tank; section 2 at pipe outlet)
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL (1)
γ 2g γ 2g
Term by term analysis:
• At the inlet. p1 = 100 kPa, V1 ≈ 0, z1 = 8 m
• At the exit , p2 = 0 kPa, V2 = 10 m/ s, α2 = 1.0.
• Pumps and turbines. hp = ht = 0

2
• Head loss. hL = KL V2g
37
Eq. (1) simplifies to
p1 V2 V2
+ z1 = α2 2 + KL 2
γ 2g 2g
2
(100, 000 Pa) (10 m/ s) (10 m/ s)2
+ 8 m = + KL
(9800 N/ m3 ) 2 (9.81 m/ s2 ) 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
18.2 m = (5.097 m) + KL (5.097 m)
Thus
KL = 2.57
REVIEW
1. The minor loss coefficient (KL = 2.57) is typical of a valve (this information is
presented in Chapter 10).
³ ´
p1
2. The head at the inlet γ + z1 = 22.2 m represents available energy. Most of
³ ´
V2
this energy goes to head loss KL 2g2 = 17.1 m . The remainder is carried as
³ ´
V2
kinetic energy out of the pipe α2 2g2 = 5.1 m .
38
Situation:
Water flows from a pressurized tank, through a valve and out a pipe.
Q = 0.1 ft3 / s, ∆z = 10 ft.
p2 = 0 psig, D = 1 in.
2
hL = KL V2g .
Find:
Pressure in tank (psig).
PLAN
Apply the energy equation and then solve the resulting equation to give pressure in
the tank.
SOLUTION
Energy equation (from the water surface in the tank to the outlet)
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p1 V22 6V22
= + hL − z1 = − 10
γ 2g 2g
Q 0.1 ft3 / s
V2 = = ¡ ¢2 = 18.33 ft/s
A2 (π/4) 1 ft 12
p1 6 (18.33 ft/ s)2
= − 10 ft = 21.3 ft
γ 64.4 ft2 / s2
p1 = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 21.3 ft = 1329 psfg
p1 = 9.23 psig
39
Situation:
Water flows from an open tank, through a valve and out a pipe.
A = 9 cm2 , ∆z = 11 m.
p1 = p2 = 0 kPa.
2
hL = 5 V2g .
Find:
Discharge in pipe.
Assumptions:
α = 1.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the water surface in the reservoir (pt. 1) to the outlet
end of the pipe (pt. 2).
SOLUTION
Energy equation:
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
Term by term analysis:
p1 = 0; p2 = 0
z2 = 0; V1 ' 0
The energy equation becomes.
V22
z1 = + hL
2g
V2 V2 V2
11 m = 2 + 5 2 = 6 2
2g 2g 2g
µ ¶
2g
V22 = (11)
6
sµ ¶
2 × 9.81 m/ s2
V2 = (11 m)
6
V2 = 5.998 m/s
Flow rate equation
Q = V2 A2
µ ¶
¡ 2
¢ 10−4 m2
= (5.998 m/ s) 9 cm
cm2
m3
= 5. 398 2 × 10−3
s
Q = 5.40 × 10−3 m3 / s
40
Situation:
A microchannel is designed to transfer fluid in a MEMS application.
D = 200 μm, L = 5 cm.
Q = 0.1 μL/ s.
hL = 32μLV
γD2
.
Find:
Pressure in syringe pump (Pa).
Assumptions:
α = 2.
Properties:
Table A.4: ρ = 799 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the energy equation and the flow rate equation.
SOLUTION
Energy equation (locate section 1 inside the pumping chamber; section 2 at the outlet
of the channel)
p1 V2
= hL + α2
γ 2g
32μLV V2
= + 2 (1)
γD2 2g
Flow rate
The cross-sectional area of the channel is 3.14×10−8 m2 . A flow rate of 0.1 μl/s is
10−7 l/s or 10−10 m3 /s. The flow velocity is
Q
V =
A
10−10 m3 / s
=
3.14 × 10−8 m2
= 0.318 × 10−2 m/s
= 3.18 mm/s
41
Substituting the velocity and other parameters in Eq. (1) gives
2
p1 32 × 1.2 × 10−3 × 0.05 × 0.318 × 10−2 (0.318 × 10−2 )
= + 2 ×
γ 7, 850 × 4 × (10−4 )2 2 × 9.81
= 0.0194 m
The pressure is
p1 = 799 kg/m3 × 9.81 m/s2 × 0.0194 m

p1 = 152 Pa
42
Situation:
Water flows out of a fire nozzle.
V = 40 m/ s, ∆z = 50 m.
Ae /Ahose = 1/4.
2
hL = 10 V2g .
Find:
Pressure at hydrant.
Assumptions:
Hydrant supply pipe is much larger than the firehose.
Properties:
Water, Table A.5, γ = 9810 N/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the energy equation.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V2
+ z1 = 2 + z2 + hL
γ 2g
where the kinetic energy of the fluid feeding the hydrant is neglected. Because of the
contraction at the exit, the outlet velocity is 4 times the velocity in the pipe, so the
energy equation becomes
p1 V2 V2
= 2 + z2 − z1 + 10
γ 2g 16 × 2g
µ ¶
1.625 2
p1 = V + 50 γ
2g
µ ¶
1.625 2
= × (40 m/ s) + 50 m 9810 N/ m3
2 × 9.81 m/ s2
= 1. 791 × 106 Pa
p1 = 1790 kPa
43
Situation:
Water flows out of a syphon.
L1 = L2 = 3 ft.
Q = 2.8 ft3 / s, D = 8 in.
Find:
Head loss between reservoir surface and point C.
Properties:
Water (60 ◦ F), Table A.5, γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
Assumptions:
α = 1.
Three quarters of head loss is between reservoir surface and point B.
PLAN
To find head loss between reservoir surface and point C
1. Develop an equation for head loss by applying the energy equation from the
reservoir surface to section C.
2. Find V using the flow rate equation.
3. Combine results of steps 1 and 2 and solve for the head loss.
To find the prssure at B.

4. Develop an equation for the pressure at B by applying the energy equation from
the reservoir surface to section B
SOLUTION
1. Energy equation (from reservoir surface to section C)
44
p1 V12 pc Vc2
+ + z1 + hp = + + zc + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V2
0 + 0 + 3 ft + 0 = 0 + c + 0 + 0 + hL
2g
2
V
3 ft = c + hL
2g
Q
Vc =
A2
2.8 ft3 / s
Vc = ¡ 8 ¢2 = 8.02 ft/s
(π/4) × 12 ft
3. Combine results of step 1 and 2.
Vc2
3 ft = + hL
2g
(8.02 ft/ s)2
3 ft = + hL
2 (32.2 ft/ s2 )
hL = 2.00 ft
4. Energy equation (from reservoir surface to section B).
p1 V12 pB VB2
+ + z1 + hp = + + zB + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
pB VB2
0 + 0 + 3 ft + 0 = + + 6 ft + 0 + (3/4) × 2 ft
γ 2g
pB (8.02 ft/ s)2
3 ft = + + 6 ft + (3/4) × 2 ft
62.4 lbf/ ft3 2 (32.2 ft/ s2 )
pB
= 3 ft − 1 ft − 6 ft − 1.5 ft = −5.5 ft
γ
pB = −5.5 ft × 62.4 lbf/ ft3
= −343 psfg
pB = −2.38 psig
45
Situation:
A siphon transports water from one reservoir to another.
zA = 30 m, zB = 32 m.
zC = 27 m, zD = 26 m.
D = 25 cm.
V2
h p ip e = 2gp .
Find:
Discharge.
Assumptions:
α = 1.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from A to C, then from A to B.
SOLUTION
Head loss
Vp2
h p ip e =
2g
Vp2
htotal = h p ip e + h o u tle t = 2
2g
Energy equation (from A to C)
Vp2
0 + 0 + 30 m = 0 + 0 + 27 m + 2
2g
Vp = 5.42 m/s
46
Flow rate equation
Q = Vp Ap
= 5.42 m/ s × (π/4) × (0.25 m)2
Q = 0.266 m3 /s
Energy equation (from A to B)
pB Vp2 Vp2
30 m = + + 32 m + 0.75
γ 2g 2g
pB
= −2 − 1.75 × 1.497 m
γ
pB = −45.3 kPa, gage
47
Situation:
A siphon transports water from one reservoir to another.
pv = 1.23 kPa, patm = 100 kPa.
Q = 8 × 10−4 m3 / s, A = 10−4 m2 .
hL,A→B = 1.8V 2 /2g.
Find:
Depth of water in upper reservoir for incipient cavitation.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from point A to point B.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
8 × 10−4 m3 /s
=
1 × 10−4 m2
= 8 m/ s
Calculations
V2 (8 m/ s)2
= = 3.262 m
2g 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
V2
hL,A→B = 1.8 = 5.872 m
2g
Energy equation (from A to B; let z = 0 at bottom of reservoir)
48
pA VA2 pB VB2
+ + zA = + + zB + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
100000 Pa 1230 Pa
3
+ 0 + zA = + 3.262 m + 10 m + 5.872 m
9810 N/ m 9810 N/ m3
zA = depth = 9.07 m
49
Situation:
A reservoir discharges water into a pipe with a machine.
d = 6 in, D = 12 in.
∆z1 = 6 ft, ∆z2 = 12 ft.
Q = 10 ft3 / s.
Find:
Is the machine a pump or a turbine?
Pressures at points A and B (psig).
Assumptions:
Machine is a pump.
α = 1.0.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation between the top of the tank and the exit, then between
point B and the exit, finally between point A and the exit.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
V22
z1 + hp = + z2
2g
Assuming the machine is a pump. If the machine is a turbine, then hp will be negative.
The velocity at the exit is
Q 10 ft3 / s
V2 = = π = 50.93 ft/s
A2 4
(0.5 ft)2
Solving for hp and taking the pipe exit as zero elevation we have
(50.93 ft/ s)2

hp = − (6 + 12) ft = 22.3 ft
2 × 32.2 ft/ s2
50
Therefore the machine is a pump.
Applying the energy equation between point B and the exit gives
pB
+ zB = z2
γ
Solving for pB we have
pB = γ(z2 − zB )
pB = −6 ft × 62.4 lbf/ ft3 = −374 psfg
pB = −2.6 psig
Velocity at A
µ ¶2
6
VA = × 50.93 ft/ s = 12.73 ft/s
12
Applying the energy equation between point A and the exit gives
pA V2 V2
+ zA + A = 2
γ 2g 2g
so
µ ¶
V22 VA2
pA = γ − zA −
2g 2g
Ã !
2 2
(50.93 ft/ s) − (12.73 ft/ s)
= 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × − 18
2 × 32.2 ft/ s2
= 1233 psfg
pA = 8.56 psig
51
Situation:
Water flows through a pipe with a venturi meter.
D = 30 cm, d = 15 cm.
patm = 100 kPa, H = 5 m.
Find:
Maximum allowable discharge before cavitation.
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
Properties:
Water (10 ◦ C) , Table A.5: pv = 2340 Pa, abs.
SOLUTION
Energy equation (locate 1 on the surface of the tank; 2 at the throat of the venturi)
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2
γ 2g γ 2g
p2,vapor V22
0+0+5 = + +0
γ 2g
p2,vapor = 2340 − 100, 000 = −97, 660 Pa gage
Then
V22 97660 Pa
= 5m + = 14.97 m
2g 9790 N/ m3
V2 = 17.1 m/s
Flow rate equation
Q = V2 A2
= 17.1 m/ s × π/4 × (0.15 m)2
Q = 0.302 m3 /s
52
Situation:
A reservoir discharges to a pipe with a venturi meter before draining to atmosphere.
D = 40 cm, d = 25 cm.
patm = 100 kPa, hL = 0.9V22 /2g.
Find:
Head at incipient cavitation ( m).
Discharge at incipient cavitation ( m3 / s).
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
Properties:
From Table A.5 pv = 2340 Pa, abs.
PLAN
First apply the energy equation from the Venturi section to the end of the pipe. Then
apply the energy equation from reservoir water surface to outlet:
SOLUTION
Energy equation from Venturi section to end of pipe:
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
pvapor V12 V2 V2
+ = 0 + 2 + 0.9 2
γ 2g 2g 2g
pvapor = 2, 340 Pa abs. = −97, 660 Pa gage
Continuity principle
V1 A1 = V2 A2
V2 A2
V1 =
A1
= 2.56V2
Then
V12 V2
= 6.55 2
2g 2g
53
Substituting into energy equation
V22 V2
−97, 660/9, 790 + 6.55 = 1.9 2
2g 2g
V2 = 6.49 m/s
Flow rate equation
Q = V2 A2
= 6.49 m/ s × π/4 × (0.4 m)2
Q = 0.815 m3 /s
Energy equation from reservoir water surface to outlet:
V22
z1 = + hL
2g
V2
H = 1.9 2
2g
H = 4.08 m
54
Situation:
A pump fills a tank with water from a river.
Dtank = 5 m, Dpipe = 5 cm.
hL = 10V22 /2g, hp = 20 − 4 × 104 Q2 .
Find:
Time required to fill tank to depth of 10 m.
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
SOLUTION
Energy equation (locate 1 on the surface of the river, locate 2 on the surface of the
water in the tank).
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
but p1 = p2 = 0, z1 = 0, V1 = 0, V2 ' 0. The energy equation reduces to
0 + 0 + 0 + hp = 0 + 0 + (2 m + h) + hL
where h =depth of water in the tank
V2 V2
20 − (4)(104 )Q2 = h + 2 + + 10
2g 2g
where V 2 /2g is the head loss due to the abrupt expansion. Then
V2
18 = (4)(104 )Q2 + 11 +h
2g
Q
V =
A µ ¶
V2 11 Q2
11 = = (1.45)(105 )Q2
2g 2g A2
18 = 1.85 × 105 Q2 + h
18 − h
Q2 =
1.85 × 105
(18 − h)0.5
Q =
430
55
But Q = AT dh/dt where AT = tank area, so
dh (18 − h)0.5 (18 − h)0.5

∴ = =
dt (430)(π/4)(5)2 8, 443
dh/(18 − h)0.5 = dt/8, 443
Integrate:
t
−2(18 − h)0.5 = + const.
8, 443
But t = 0 when h = 0 so const. = −2(18)0.5 . Then
t = (180.5 − (18 − h)0.5 )(16, 886)
For h = 10 m
t = (180.5 − 80.5 )(16, 886)

= 23, 880 s
t = 6.63 h
56
Situation:
Water is flowing in a horizontal pipe.
D = 0.15 m, L = 60 m.
V = 2 m/ s. hL = 2 m.
Find:
Pressure drop (Pa).
Pumping power (W).
Properties:
PLAN
1. Find pressure drop using the energy equation.
2. Find power using the power equation.
SOLUTION
1. Energy equation:
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
• let ∆p = p1 − p2
• KE terms cancel.
• Elevation terms cancel.
• hp = ht = 0
∆p = γhL
¡ ¢
= 9800 N/ m3 (2 m)
∆p = 19.6 kPa
2. Power equation:
Ẇp = γQhp = ṁghp
• The head of the pump must equal the head loss.
57
• Q = V A = (2 m/ s) (π/4) (0.15 m)2 = 0.0353 m3 / s.
Ẇp = γQhL
µ ¶
9800 N ¡ ¢
= 3
0.0353 m3 / s (2 m)
m
Ẇp = 692 W
REVIEW The pump would need to supply about 0.9 hp to the water.
58
Situation:
A fan is moving air through a hair dryer.
∆p = 6 mm-H20 = 58.8 Pa, V = 10 m/ s.
D = 0.044 m, η = 60%.
Find:
Electrical power (watts) to operate the fan.
Assumptions:
Air is at a constant temperature.
Constant diameter: D1 = D2 = 0.044 m.
Properties:
Air (60 ◦ C), Table A.3, γ = 10.4 N/ m3 .
PLAN
1. Find head loss using the energy equation.
2. Find power supplied to the air using the power equation.
3. Find electrical power using the efficiency equation.
SOLUTION
1. Energy equation:
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
• locate section 1 just downstream of fan (p1 = 58.8 Pa); section 2 at exit plane
(p2 = 0) .
• Elevation terms cancel.
• hp = ht = 0.
p1 58.8 Pa
hL = = = 5.65 m
γ 10.4 N/ m3
59
2. Power equation:
Ẇp = γQhp = ṁghp
• Assume that head supplied by the fan equals the head loss.
• Q = V A = (10 m/ s) (π/4) (0.044 m)2 = 0.0152 m3 / s.
Ẇfan = γQhL
µ ¶
10.4 N ¡ 3
¢
= 0.0152 m / s (5.65 m)
m3
= 0.893 W
3. Efficiency equation:
Pfan 0.893 W
Pelectrical = =
η 0.6
Pelectrical = 1.49 W
REVIEW
The electrical power to operate the fan (≈ 1.5 W) is small compared to the electrical
power to heat the air.
60
Situation:
A pump supplies energy to a flowing fluid
Q = 5 ft3 / s, α = 1.0.
DA = 1.0 ft, pA = 5 psig.
DB = 0.5 ft, pB = 90 psig.
Find:
Horsepower delivered by pump ( hp).
PLAN
Apply the flow rate equation, then the energy equation from A to B. Then apply the
power equation.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation:
Q 5 ft3 / s
VA = = = 6.366 ft/ s
AA (π/4) × (1 ft)2
VA2 (6.366 ft/ s)2
= = 0.6293 ft
2g 2 × (32.2 ft/ s2 )
Q 5 ft3 / s
VB = = = 25.47 ft/s
AB (π/4) × (0.5 ft)2
VB2 (25.47 ft/ s)2
= = 10.07 ft
2g 2 × (32.2 ft/ s2 )
Energy equation:
pA VA2 pB VB2
+ + zA + hp = + + zB
γ 2g γ 2g
144 144
5× + (0.6293) + 0 + hp = 90 × + 10.07 + 0
62.4 62.4
hp = 205.6 ft
Power equation:
61
Qγhp
P (hp) =
550
5 ft3 / s × 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 205.6 ft
=
550
P = 117 hp
62
Situation:
A pump moves water from a tank through a pipe.
Q = 8 m3 / s, hL = 7V 2 /2g.
D = 1 m.
Find:
Power supplied to flow ( MW).
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
PLAN
Find power using the power equation. The steps are
1. Find velocity in the pipe using the flow rate equation.
2. Find head of the pump using the energy equation.
3. Calculate power.
SOLUTION
Q
V =
A
8
=
π/4 × (1 m)2
= 10.2 m/s
2. Energy equation (locate 1 on the reservoir surface; locate 2 at the out of the pipe).
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
2
V V2
0 + 0 + 40 + hp = 0 + + 20 + 7
2g 2g
2
V2 (10.2 m/ s)
= = 5.30 m
2g 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
63
Then
V2 V2
40 + hp = + 20 + 7
2g 2g
hp = 8 × 5.30 + 20 − 40
= 22.4 m
3. Power equation
P = Qγhp
= 8 ft3 / s × 9810 N/ m3 × 22.4 m
P = 1.76 MW
64
Situation:
An engineer is estimating the power that can be produced by a small stream.

Q = 1.4 cfs, T = 40 ◦ F, H =34 ft.
Find:
Estimate the maximum power that can be generated ( kW) if:
hL = 0 ft, η t = 100%, ηg = 100%.
hL = 5.5 ft, η t = 70%, η g = 90%.
PLAN To find the head of the turbine (h ), apply the energy equation from the
t
upper water surface (section 1) to the lower water surface (section 2). To calculation
power, use P = η(ṁght ), where η accounts for the combined efficiency of the turbine
and generator.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL (1)
γ 2g γ 2g
Term by term analysis
p1 = 0; V1 ≈ 0
p2 = 0; V2 ≈ 0
z1 − z2 = H
Eq. (1) becomes
H = ht + hL
ht = H − hL
65
Flow rate
ṁg = γQ
¡ ¢¡ ¢
= 62.4 lbf/ ft3 1.4 ft3 / s
= 87.4 lbf/ s
Power (case a)
P = ṁght
= ṁgH
= (87.4 lbf/ s) (34 ft) (1.356 J/ ft · lbf)
= 4.02 kW
Power (case b).
P = η ṁg (H − hL )
= (0.7)(0.9) (87.4 lbf/ s) (34 ft − 5.5 ft) (1.356 J/ ft · lbf)
= 2.128 kW
Power (case a) = 4.02 kW

Power (case b) = 2.13 kW
REVIEW
1. In the ideal case (case a), all of the elevation head is used to make power.
When typical head losses and machine efficiencies are accounted for, the power
production is cut by nearly 50%.
2. From Ohm’s law, a power of 2.13 kW will produce a current of about 17.5 amps
at a voltage of 120V. Thus, the turbine will provide enough power for about
1 typical household circuit. It is unlikely the turbine system will be practical
(too expensive and not enough power for a homeowner).
66
Situation:
A pump draws water out of a tank and moves this water to a higher elevation.
DA = 8 in, DC = 4 in.
VC = 12 ft/ s, P = 25 hp.
η = 60%, hL = 2VC2 /2g.
Find:
Height (h)above water surface.
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the reservoir water surface to the outlet.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
2
V V2
0 + 0 + 0 + hp = 0 + c + h + 2 c
2g 2g
2
V
hp = h + 3 c (1)
2g
Velocity head
Vc2 (12 ft/ s)2
= = 2.236 ft (2)
2g 64.4 ft/ s2
Flow rate equation
Q = VC AC
µ ¶Ã !
12 ft π (4/12 ft)2
=
s 4
= 1.047 ft3 / s
67
Power equation
Qγhp
P ( hp) =
550η
P (550) η
hp =
Qγ
25 hp (550) 0.6
=
1.047 ft3 / s × 62.4 lbf/ ft3
= 126.3 ft (3)
Substitute Eqs. (2) and (3) into Eq. (1)
Vc2
hp = h + 3
2g
126.3 ft = h + (3 × 2. 236) ft
h = 119.6 ft
h = 120 ft
68
Situation:
A pump draws water out of a tank and moves this water to a higher elevation.
DA = 20 cm, DC = 10 cm.
VC = 3 m/ s, P = 35 kW.
η = 60%, hL = 2VC2 /2g.
Find:
Height h in meters.
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
Properties:
SOLUTION
Energy equation:
pA V2 pC V2
+ αA A + zA + hp = + αC C + zC + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
2
V V2
0 + 0 + 0 + hp = 0 + c + h + 2 c
2g 2g
2
V
hp = h + 3 c (1)
2g
Velocity head:
Vc2 (3 m/ s)2
= = 0.4587 m
2g 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
Flow rate equation:
Q = VC AC
Ã !
π (0.1 m)2
= (3 m/ s)
4
= 0.02356 m3 / s
69
Power equation:
Qγhp
P =
η
Pη 35000 W × 0.6
hp = = = 91.05 m
Qγ (0.02356 m3 / s) (9790 N/ m3 )
Eq. (1):
Vc2
h = hp − 3 = (91.05 m) − 3 (0.4587 m)
2g
h = 89.7 m
70
Situation:
A subsonic wind tunnel is being designed.
A = 4 m2 , V = 60 m/ s.
V2
hL = 0.025 2gT .
Find:
Power required ( kW).
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
To find power, apply the power equation. The steps are
1. Find the head of the pump by applying the energy equation and the continuity
equation together.
2. Calculate power.
SOLUTION
1. Finding head of the pump
• Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 + hp = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V2 V2
0 + 0 + 0 + hp = 0 + 2 + 0 + 0.025 T
2g 2g
• Continuity principle
VT AT = V2 A2
VT AT
V2 =
A2
= VT × 0.4
V22 V2
= 0.16 T
2g 2g
71
• Combining previous two equations
VT2
hp = (0.185)
2g
(60 m/ s)2
= (0.185)
2 × 9.81 m/ s2
hp = 33.95 m
2. Power equation
P = Qγhp
= (V A) (ρg) hp
¡ ¢¡ ¢
= 60 m/ s × 4 m2 1.2 kg/ m3 × 9.81 m/ s2 (33.95 m)
P = 95.9 kW
72
Situation:
A pumping system delivers water.
zA = 110 ft, zB = 200 ft.
zC = 110 ft, zD = 90 ft.
A = 0.1 ft2 .
Find:
Power delivered by pump ( hp).
SOLUTION
0 + 0 + 110 + hp = 0 + 0 + 200; hp = 90 ft
Qγhp
P (hp) =
550
Q = Vj Aj = 0.10 Vj
p
Vj = 2g × (200 − 110) ft = 76.13 ft/s
Q = 7.613 ft3 /s
Power equation
P = Qγhp
7.613 ft3 / s × 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 90 ft
P =
550
P = 77.7 hp
73
Situation:
A pumping system delivers water.
zA = 40 m, zB = 65 m.
zC = 35 m, zD = 30 m.
A = 25 cm2 .
Find:
Power delivered by pump ( kW).
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the reservoir water surface to point B. Then apply
the power equation.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p V2 pB VB2
+ + z + hp = + + zB
γ 2g γ 2g
0 + 0 + 40 + hp = 0 + 0 + 65; hp = 25 m
Flow rate equation
Q = Vj Aj = 25 × 10−4 m2 × Vj
p
where Vj = 2g × (65 − 35) = 24.3 m/s
Q = 25 × 10−4 × 24.3 = 0.0607 m3 /s
Power equation
P = Qγhp
P = 0.0607 m3 / s × 9, 810 N/ m3 × 25 m
P = 14.9 kW
74
Situation:
A pumping system pumps oil.
L = 1 mi, D = 1 ft.
Q = 3500 gpm, ∆z = 200 ft.
∆p = 60 psi.
Find:
Power required for pump ( hp).
Properties:
γ = 0.53 lbf/ ft3 .
SOLUTION
Energy equation
hp = z2 − z1 + hL
Expressing this equation in terms of pressure
γhp = γz2 − γz1 + ∆ploss

Thus pressure rise across the pump is
γhp = 53 lbf/ft3 × 200 ft +60 × 144 lbf/ft2 = 19, 240 psf

Flow rate equation
Q = V ×A
ft3 /s
Q = 3500 gpm × 0.002228 = 7.80 cfs
gpm
Power equation
Ẇ = Qγhp
19, 240 psf
= 7.80 cfs ×
550
Ẇ = 273 hp
75
Situation:
Water is pumped from a reservoir through a pipe.
V2
Q = 0.35 m3 / s, hL = 2 2g2 .
z1 = 6 m, z2 = 10 m.
D1 = 40 cm, D2 = 10 cm.
p2 = 100 kPa.
Find:
Power (kW) that the pump must supply.
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
Properties:
PLAN
Apply the flow rate equation, then the energy equation from reservoir surface to the
10 m elevation. Then apply the power equation.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation:
Q
V =
A
0.35
=
(π/4) × (0.3 m)2
= 4.95 m/s
V22
= 1.250 m
2g
76
Energy equation (locate 1 on the reservoir surface; locate 2 at the pressure gage)
100000 Pa
0 + 0 + 6 m + hp = + 1.25 m + 10 m + 2.0 (1.25 m)
9810 N/ m3
hp = 17.94 m
Power equation:
P = Qγhp
¡ ¢¡ ¢
= 0.35 m3 / s 9810 N/ m3 (17.94 m)
P = 61.6 kW
77
Situation:
Oil is pumped through a pipe attached to a manometer filled with mercury.
Q = 6 ft3 / s, ∆h = 46 in.
D1 = 12 in, D2 = 6 in.
Find:
Horsepower pump supplies ( hp).
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
Properties:
Table A.5: Smercury = 13.55.
Soil = 0.88
PLAN
Apply the flow rate equation, then the energy equation. Then apply the power
equation.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q 6 ft3 / s
V12 = = = 7.64 ft/ s
A12 (π/4) × (1 ft)2
V122 /2g = 0.906 ft
V6 = 4V12 = 30.56 ft/s
2
V6 /2g = 14.50 ft
78
Energy equation
µ ¶ µ ¶ ¡ ¢
p6 p12 (13.55 − 0.88) 46
12
ft
+ z6 − + z12 =
γ γ 0.88
µ ¶ µ ¶
p12 V122 p6 V2
+ z12 + + hp = + z6 + 6
γ 2g γ 2g
µ ¶
13.55
hp = − 1 × 3.833 ft + 14.50 ft − 0.906 ft
0.88
hp = 68.8 ft
Power equation
P (hp) = Qγhp /550

¡ ¢
6 ft3 / s × 0.88 × 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 68.8 ft
P =
550
P = 41.2 hp
79
Situation:
Q = 500 cfs, η = 90%.
2
hL = 1.5 V2g , D = 7 ft.
z1 = 35 ft, z2 = 0 ft.
Find:
Power output from turbine.
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the upstream water surface to the downstream water
surface. Then apply the power equation.
SOLUTION
Energy equation:
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL + ht
γ 2g γ 2g
V2
0 + 0 + 35 = 0 + 0 + 0 + 1.5 + ht
2g
Q 500 ft3 / s
V = = = 12.99 ft/s
A (π/4) × (7 ft)2
V2
= 2.621 ft
2g
ht = 35 ft − 1.5 (2.621 ft) = 31.07 ft
Power equation:
Qγht η
P (hp) =
550
(500 ft3 / s)(62.4 lbf/ ft3 )(31.07 ft × 0.9)
=
550
P = 1590 hp = 1.18 MW
80
Situation:
A hydraulic power system consists of a dam with an inlet connected to a turbine.
H = 15 m, V2 = 5 m/ s.
Q = 1 m3 / s.
Find:
Power produced by turbine ( kW).
Assumptions:
All head loss is expansion loss.
100% efficiency.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the upstream water surface to the downstream water
surface. Then apply the power equation.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL + ht
γ 2g γ 2g
V2
0 + 0 + 15 m = 0 + 0 + 0 + ht + 2
2g
(5 m/ s)2
ht = 15 m −
2 × 9.81 m/ s2
= 13.73 m
Power equation
P = Qγht
= (1 m3 /s)(9810 N/m3 )(13.73 m)
P = 135 kW
81
Situation:
A pump transfers SAE-30 oil between two tanks.
2
hL = 20 V2g , hp = 60 m.
zA = 20 m, zB = 1 m.
Find:
Time required to transfer oil ( h).
PLAN
Apply the energy equation between the top of the fluid in tank A to that in tank B.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
hp + zA = zB + hL
or
V2 V2
hp + zA = zB + 20 +
2g 2g
Solve for velocity
2g
V2 = (hp + zA − zB )
21
2 × 9.81
V2 = (60 + zA − zB )
21
V = 0.966 6 (60 + zA − zB )1/2
The sum of the elevations of the liquid surfaces in the two tanks is
zA + zB = 21
So the energy equation becomes
82
V = 0.9666(81 − 2zB )1/2
Continuity equation
dzB Apipe (0.2 m)2

= V =V
dt Atank (12 m)2
¡ ¢
= 2.778 × 10−4 V
¡ ¢
= 2.778 × 10−4 0.9666(81 − 2zB )1/2
= 2.685 × 10−4 (81 − 2zB )1/2
Separate variables
dzB
1/2
= 2.685 × 10−4 dt
(81 − 2zB )
Integrate
Z20 ft Z∆t
dzB
1/2
= 2.685 × 10−4 dt
(81 − 2zB )
1 0
¡ √ ¢20 ft ¡ ¢
− 81 − 2zB 1 ft = 2.685 × 10−4 ∆t
³ p p ´ ¡ ¢
− 81 − 2 (20) + 81 − 2 (1) = 2.685 × 10−4 ∆t
¡ ¢
2. 485 1 = 2.685 × 10−4 ∆t
∆t = 9256 s
t = 9260 s = 2.57 h
83
Situation:
A pump is used to pressurize a tank.
2
hL = 10 V2g , hp = 50 m.
zA = 20 m, zB = 1 m.
3
pT = 4−z t
p0 , p0 = 0 kPa gage = 100 kPa.
Find:
Write a computer program to show how the pressure varies with time.
Time to pressurize tank to 300 kPa ( s) .
PLAN
Apply the energy equation between the water surface at the intake and the water
surface inside the tank.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p2
hp + z1 = + z2 + hL
γ
Expressing the head loss in terms of the velocity allows one to solve for the velocity
in the form
2g pt
V2 = (hp + z1 − zt − )
10 γ
Substituting in values
3 1/2
V = 1.401(46 − zt − 10.19 )
4 − zt
The equation for the water surface elevation in the tank is
Ap V
∆zt = V ∆t = ∆t
At 2500
84
A computer program can be written taking time intervals and finding the fluid level
and pressure in the tank at each time step. The time to reach a pressure of 300 kPa
abs in the tank is 698 seconds or 11.6 minutes. A plot of how the pressure varies
with time is provided.
350
300
Pressure (kPa)
250
200
150
100
50
0 200 400 600 800
Time (sec)
85
Situation:
A pipe discharges water into a reservoir.
Q = 10 cfs, D = 12 in.
Find:
Head loss at pipe outlet ( ft).
PLAN
Apply the flow rate equation, then the sudden expansion head loss equation.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
10 ft3 / s
=
(π/4) × (1 ft)2
= 12.73 ft/s
Sudden expansion head loss equation
hL = V 2 /2g
hL = 2.52 ft
86
Situation:
A pipe discharges water into a reservoir.
Q = 0.5 m3 / s, D = 50 cm.
Find:
Head loss at pipe outlet ( m).
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
0.5 ft3 / s
=
(π/4) × (0.5 ft)2
= 2.546 m/s
V2
hL =
2g
(2.546 m/ s)2
=
2 × 9.81 m/ s2
hL = 0.330 m
87
Situation:
Water flows through a sudden expansion.
D8 = 8 cm, V8 = 2 m/ s.
D15 = 15 cm.
Find:
Head loss caused by the sudden expansion ( m).
PLAN
Apply the continuity principle, then the sudden expansion head loss equation.
SOLUTION
Continuity principle:
V8 A8 = V15 A15
µ ¶2
V8 A8 8
V15 = =2× = 0.569 m/s
A15 15
Sudden expansion head loss:
(V8 − V15 )2
hL =
(2g)
(2 m/ s − 0.569 m/ s)2
hL =
(2 × 9.81 m/ s2 )
hL = 0.104 m
88
Situation:
Water flows through a sudden expansion.
D6 = 6 in = 0.5 ft.
D12 = 12 in = 1 ft.
Q = 5 cfs.
Find:
Head loss
PLAN
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q 5
V6 = = = 25.46 ft/s;
A6 (π/4) × (0.5 ft)2
1
V12 = V6 = 6.37 ft/s
4
(V6 − V12 )2
hL =
2g
(25.46 ft/ s − 6.37 ft/ s)2
=
2 × 32.2 ft/ s2
hL = 5.66 ft
89
Situation:
Two tanks are connected by a pipe with a sudden expansion.
∆z = 10 m, A1 = 8 cm2 .
A2 = 25 cm2 .
Find:
Discharge between two tanks ( m3 / s)
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from water surface in A to water surface in B.
SOLUTION
Energy equation (top of reservoir A to top of reservoir B)
pA VA2 pB VB2
+ + zA = + + zB + ΣhL
γ 2g γ 2g
0 + 0 + 10 m = 0 + 0 + 0 + ΣhL (1)
Let the pipe from A be called pipe 1. Let the pipe into B be called pipe 2
Then
(V1 − V2 )2 V22
ΣhL = + (2)
2g 2g
Continuity principle:
V1 A1 = V2 A2
V2 A2 (25 cm2 )
V1 = = V2 = 3.125V2 (3)
A1 (8 cm2 )
Combine Eq. (1), (2), and (3):
(3.125V2 − V2 )2 V2 2
10 m = +
2 (9.81 m/ s2 ) 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
V2 = 5.964 m/ s
Flow rate equation:
Q = V2 A2
µ ¶2
21.0 m
= (5.964 m/ s) (25 cm )
100 cm
Q = 0.0149 m3 / s
90
Situation:
A horizontal pipe with an abrupt expansion.
D40 = 40 cm, D60 = cm.
Q = 1.0 m3 / s, p1 = 70 kPa gage.
Find:
Horizontal force required to hold transition in place ( kN).
Head loss ( m).
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
Properties:
Water, ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the flow rate equation, the sudden expansion head loss equation, the energy
equation, and the momentum principle.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q 1.0 m3 / s
V40 = = = 7.96 m/s
A40 (π/4) × (0.40 m)2
V402
= 3.23 m
2g
µ ¶2
4
V60 = V40 × = 3.54 m/s
6
V602
= 0.639 m
2g
(V40 − V60 )2
hL =
2g
= 0.996 m
Energy equation
p40 V402 p60 V602

+ = + + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p60 = 70, 000 Pa + 9810 N/ m3 (3.23 − 0.639 − 0.996) m = 85, 647 Pa
Momentum principle
91
Fx
p 2 A2
p 1 A1
X
Fx = ṁo Vx,o − ṁi Vx,i
Substituting values
70, 000 Pa × π/4 × (0.4 m)2 − 85, 647 Pa × π/4 × (0.6 m)2 + Fx
= 1000 kg/ m3 × 1.0 m3 / s × (3.54 m/ s − 7.96 m/ s)
The result is
Fx = −8796 + 24, 216 − 4, 420

= 11, 000 N
Fx = 11.0 kN
92
Situation:
Water flows in a horizontal pipe before discharging to atmosphere.
A = 9 in2 , V = 15 ft/ s.
hL = 3 ft.
Find:
Force on pipe joint.
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
Properties:
γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the momentum principle, then the energy equation.
SOLUTION
Fj
Vx
p1A1 x
p2=0
Momentum Equation
X
Fx = ṁVo,x − ṁVi,x
Fj + p1 A1 = −ρVx2 A + ρVx2 A
Fj = −p1 A1
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p1 − p2 = γhL
p1 = γ(3) = 187.2 psfg
9 in2
Fj = −187.2 lbf/ ft2 × ( )
144 in2 / ft2
Fj = −11.7 lbf
Fj = 11.7 lbf acting to the left
93
Situation:
An abrupt expansion dissipates high energy flow.
D1 = 5 ft, p1 = 5 psig.
V = 25 ft/ s, D2 = 10 ft.
Find:
(a) Horsepower lost ( hp).
(b) Pressure at section 2 (psig).
(c) Force needed to hold expansion ( lbf).
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
Properties:
Water, γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
Find the head loss by applying the sudden expansion head loss equation, first solving
for V2 by applying the continuity principle. Then apply the power equation, the
energy equation, and finally the momentum principle.
SOLUTION Continuity equation
A1
V2 = V1
A2
µ ¶
1
= 25 ft/ s
4
= 6.25 ft/s
hL = (V1 − V2 )2 /(2g)
(25 ft/ s − 6.25 ft/ s)2
hL =
64.4 ft/ s2
= 5.46 ft
94
a) Power equation
P (hp) = Qγh/550
Q = V A = 25 ft/ s(π/4) (5 ft)2 = 490.9 ft3 /s
P = (490.9 ft3 / s)(62.4 lbf/ ft3 )(5.46)/550
P = 304 hp
b) Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
(5 × 144) lbf/ ft2 (25 ft/ s)2 p2 (6.25 ft/ s)2
+ = + + 5.46 ft
62.4 lbf/ ft3 64.4 ft/ s2 γ 64.4 ft/ s2
p2 /γ = 15.18 ft
p2 = 15.18 ft × 62.4 lbf/ ft3
= 947 psfg
p2 = 6.58 psig
c) Momentum equation
ṁ = 1.94 slug/ ft3 × (π/4) × (5 ft)2 × 25 ft/ s

= 952.3 kg/s
X
Fx = ṁo Vx,o − ṁi Vx,i
p1 A1 − p2 A2 + Fx = ṁ(V2 − V1 )
(5 lbf/ in2 )(144 in2 / ft2 )(π/4) (5 ft)2 − (6.58 lbf/ in2 )(144 in2 / ft2 )(π/4) (10 ft)2 + Fx
= 952.3 kg/ s × (6.25 ft/ s − 25 ft/ s)
Fx = 42,400 lbf
95
Situation:
Rough aluminum pipe discharges water.
L = 50 ft, D = 6 in.
W = (1.5 lbf) L, Q = 6 cfs.
hL = 10 ft.
Find:
Longitudinal force transmitted through pipe wall ( lbf).
Properties:
Water, γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 .
PLAN
Apply the energy equation, then the momentum principle.
SOLUTION
c.s.
1
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
96
but V1 = V2 and p2 = 0. Therefore
p1 /γ = −50 ft + 10 ft
p1 = −2496 lbf/ft2
Momentum principle
X
Fy = ṁVy,o − ṁVy,i = ρQ(V2y − V1y )
−p1 A1 − γAL − 2L + Fwall = 0
Fwall = 1.5L + γA1 L − p1 A1

£ ¤
= 75 lbf + (π/4) × (0.5 ft)2 (62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 50 ft − 2, 496 lbf/ ft3 )
= 75 lbf + 122.5 lbf
Fwall = 198 lbf acting upward
97
Situation:
Water flows in a bend.
Q = 5 m3 / s, p = 650 kPa.
hL = 10 m, D = 80 cm.
d = 50 cm.
Find:
Pressure at outlet of bend ( kPa).
Force on anchor block in the x-direction ( kN).
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation, then the momentum principle.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p50 V502 p80 V802
+ + z50 = + + z80 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
where p50 = 650, 000 Pa and z50 = z80
Flow rate equation
Q 5 m3 / s
V80 = = = 9.947 m/s
A80 (π/4) × (0.8 m)2
V802 /2g = 5.04 m
Continuity equation
V50 = V80 × (8/5)2 = 25.46 m/s

V502
= 33.04 m
2g
hL = 10 m
98
Then
p80 650, 000 Pa
= + 33.04 − 5.04 − 10
γ γ
¡ ¢
p80 = 650, 000 Pa + 9, 810 N/ m3 (33.04 − 5.04 − 10) m = 826, 600 Pa
p80 = 827 kPa
Momentum principle
X
Fx = ṁVo − ṁVi = ρQ(V80,x − V50,x )
p80 A80 + p50 A50 × cos 60◦ + Fx = 1, 000 kg/ m3 × 5 m3 / s(−9.947 m/ s − 0.5 m × 25.46 m/ s)
Fx = −415, 494 − 63, 814 − 113, 385
= −592, 693 N
Fx = -593 kN
99
Situation:
Fluid in a pipe flows around an accelerated disk.
U = 10 m/ s, D = 5 cm.
d = 4 cm.
Find:
Develop an expression for the force required to hold the disk in place in terms of
U, D, d, and ρ.
Force required under given conditions ( N).
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
Properties:
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from section (1) to section (2), and apply the momentum
principle.
SOLUTION
Control volume
U2
U1
F disk on fluid
Energy equation
ρU12 ρU22
p1 + = p2 +
2 2
ρU22 ρU12
p1 − p2 = −
2 2
100
but
U1 A1 = U2 (π/4)(D2 − d2 )
U1 D2
U2 = (1)
(D2 − d2 )
Then ³ρ´ ∙ ¸
D4
p1 − p2 = U12 −1 (2)
2 (D2 − d2 )2
Momentum principle for the C.V.
X
Fx = ṁo Uo − ṁi Ui = ρQ(U2x − U1x )
p1 A − p2 A + Fdisk on fluid = ρQ(U2 − U1 )
Ffluid on disk = Fd = ρQ(U1 − U2 ) + (p1 − p2 )A
Eliminate p1 − p2 by Eq. (2), and U2 by Eq. (1):

µ ¶ µ 2¶∙ ¸
U1 D2 ρU D4
Fd = ρU A U1 − + −1 A
(D2 − d2 ) 2 (D2 − d2 )2
h i
ρU 2 πD2 1
Fd = 8 (D2 /d2 −1)2
When U = 10 m/s, D = 5 cm, d = 4 cm and ρ = 1.2 kg/m3

∙ ¸
1.2 kg/ m3 × (10 m/ s)2 × π × (0.05 m)2 1
Fd =
8 ((0.05 m/0.04 m)2 − 1)2
Fd = 0.372 N
101
Problem 7.67
No solution provided.
102
Problem 7.68
Answer the following questions.
a. What are three important reasons that engineers use the HGL and EGL?
• Identify where head loss is occurring.
• Identify potential sites of cavitation.
• Visualize how the energy equation is being satisfied.
b. What factors influence the magnitude of the HGL? What factors influence the
magnitude of the EGL?
• Since the HGL = (p/γ) + z, the factors are:
— Pressure head (p/γ), which is influenced by the pressure and the specific
weight of the fluid.
— Elevation head (z) .
• Since the EGL = (p/γ) + z + (V 2 /(2g)), the factors are:
— Pressure head and elevation head (as described above).
— Velocity head (V 2 /(2g)) , which is influenced by the flow rate and pipe
section area.
c. How are the EGL and HGL related to the piezometer? To the stagnation tube?
• When liquid flows in a pipe, the HGL is coincident with the water level in a
piezometer that is tapped into the pipe.
• When liquid flows in a pipe, the EGL is coincident with the water level in a
stagnation tube that is tapped into the pipe.
d. How is the EGL related to the energy equation?

• The EGL involves three of the terms that appear in the energy equation.
• The terms represent transport of energy across the control surface (PE + KE)
plus flow work at the control surface.
e. How can you use an EGL or an HGL to determine the direction of flow?
• In a pipe of constant diameter, the flow goes from locations of high EGL &
HGL to locations of low HGL & EGL.
• In a pipe of variable diameter, flow goes from locations of high EGL to locations
of low EGL.
103
Situation:
A piping system with a black box shows a large EGL change at the box.
Find:
What the black box could be.
SOLUTION
• Because the EGL slopes downward to the left, the flow is from right to left.
• In the ”black box” is a device that removes energy from the flowing fluid because
the EGL drop.
• Thus, there could either be a turbine, an abrupt expansion or a partially closed

valve. b, c, d.

Situation:
A constant diameter pipe is shown with an HGL.
Find:
Whether this system is possible, and if so under what conditions.
SOLUTION
Possible if the fluid is being accelerated to the left.
104
Situation:
Two tanks are connected by a pipe with a machine.
Find:
(a) Direction of flow.
(b) What kind of machine is at point A.
(c) Compare the diameter of pipe sections.
(d) Sketch the EGL.
(e) If there is a vacuum at anywhere, if so where it is.
SOLUTION
(a) Flow is from right to left.
(b) Machine is a pump.
(c) Pipe CA is smaller because of steeper HGL
(d)
EGL
(e) No vacuum in the system.
105
Situation:
An HGL and EGL are shown for a flow system.
Find:
(a) Direction of flow.
(b) Whether there is a reservoir.
(c) Whether the diameter at E is uniform or variable.
(d) Whether there is a pump.
(e) Sketch a physical set up that could exist between C and D.
(f) Whether there is anything else revealed by the sketch.
SOLUTION
(a) Flow is from A to E because EGL slopes downward in that direction.
(b) Yes, at D, because EGL and HGL are coincident there.
(c) Uniform diameter because V 2 /2g is constant (EGL and HGL uniformly spaced).
(d) No, because EGL is always dropping (no energy added).
(e)
(f) Nothing else.
106
Situation:
Two tanks are connected by a uniformly tapered pipe.
Find:
Draw the HGL and EGL.
SOLUTION
EGL
HGL
107
Situation:
A system with an HGL and EGL is described in the problem statement.
Find:
(a) Which line is HGL and which is EGL.
(b) If pipes are the same size and which is smallest.
(c) If and where pipe pressure falls below zero.
(d) Point of max pressure.
(e) Point of minimum pressure.
(f) What is at point E.
(g) Air pressure in the tank above or below atmospheric.
(h) What is at point B.
SOLUTION
(a) Solid line is EGL, dashed line is HGL.
(b) No; AB is smallest.
(c) From B to C.
(d) pmax is at the bottom of the tank.
(e) pmin is at the bend C.
(f) A nozzle.
(g) above atmospheric pressure.
(h) abrupt expansion.
108
Situation:
Water flows from a tank through a pipe system before discharging through a nozzle.
z1 = 100 m, z2 = 30 m.
L1 = 100 m, L2 = 400 m.
D1 = D2 = 60 cm, Djet = 30 cm.
Head loss in the pipe is given by
L Vp2
hL = 0.014
D 2g
Find:
(a) Discharge.
(b) Draw HGL and EGL.
(c) location of maximum pressure.
(d) location of minimum pressure.
(e) values for maximum and minimum pressure.
Properties: Water (15 ◦ C), Table A.5, γ = 9800 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
Energy equation (locate 1 on the reservoir water surface; locate 2 at outlet of the
nozzle).
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
µ ¶µ 2¶
V22 L Vp
0 + 0 + 100 = 0 + + 30 + 0.014
2g D 2g
2
µ ¶ 2
V 500 V2
100 = 0 + 2 + 30 + 0.014
2g 0.6 2g
Continuity equation
109
V2 A2 = Vp Ap
Ap
V2 = Vp
AL
V2 = 4Vp
Then
Vp2
(16 + 11.67) = 70 m
2g
Vp = 7.045 m/ s
Vp2
= 2.53 m
2g
Flow rate equation
Q = Vp Ap
= 7.045 m/ s × (π/4) × (0.60 m)2
Q = 1.99 m3 /s
pmin
EGL
HGL
40.5 m
pmax
Minimum pressure. Apply the Energy equation (point 1 on reservoir surface; point 2
in pipe at location of minimum pressure)
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
pmin Vp2 L1 Vp2
0 + 0 + z1 + 0 = + + z2 + 0 + 0.014
γ 2g D 2g
2
pmin Vp L1 Vp2
z1 = + + z2 + 0.014
γ 2g D 2g
µ ¶
pmin (7.045 m/ s)2 100 m (7.045 m/ s)2
100 m = + + 100 m + 0.014
9800 N/ m3 2 (9.81 m/ s2 ) 0.6 m 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
pmin = -82.6 kPa gage
110
Maximum pressure. Apply the Energy equation (point 1 on reservoir surface; point
2 in pipe at location of maximum pressure)
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
pmax Vp2 L Vp2
0 + 0 + z1 + 0 = + + z2 + 0 + 0.014
γ 2g D 2g
2
pmax Vp L Vp2
z1 = + + z2 + 0.014
γ 2g D 2g
µ ¶
pmax (7.045 m/ s)2 500 m (7.045 m/ s)2
100 m = + + 30 m + 0.014
9800 N/ m3 2 (9.81 m/ s2 ) 0.6 m 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
pmax = 373 kPa gage
111
Situation:
A reservoir discharges into a pipe.
Find:
Draw the HGL and EGL.
SOLUTION
37.2 m
80 m
42.6 m
2000 m
112
Situation:
Water discharges through a turbine.
Q = 1000 cfs, η = 85%.
hL = 4 ft, H = 100 ft.
Find:
Power generated by turbine ( hp).
Sketch the EGL and HGL.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the upper water surface to the lower water surface.
Then apply the power equation.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22 X
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL + ht
γ 2g γ 2g
0 + 0 + 100 ft = 0 + 0 + 4 ft + ht
ht = 96 ft
Power equation
P = (Qγht )(eff.)
Qγht η 1, 000 ft3 / s × 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 96 ft × 0.85
P (hp) = =
550 550
P = 9260 hp
EGL
HGL
Turbine
113
114
Situation:
Water discharges from a reservoir through a pipe and out a nozzle.
L V2
hL = 0.025 D 2g
, D = 1 ft.
L = 1000 ft, Djet = 6 in.
z1 = 100 ft, z2 = 60 ft.
Find:
(a) Discharge (cfs) .
(b) Draw the HGL and EGL.
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the reservoir surface to the exit plane of the jet.
SOLUTION
Energy equation. Let the velocity in the 6 inch pipe be V6 . Let the velocity in the
12 inch pipe be V12 .
p1 V12 p2 V62
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
µ ¶
V62 1000 V122
0 + 0 + 100 = 0 + + 60 + 0.025
2g 1 2g
V6 A6 = V12 A12
A12
V6 = V12
A6
122
V6 = V12 2 = 4V12
6
V62 V122
= 16
2g 2g
115
Substituting into energy equation
µ ¶
V122
40 ft = (16 + 25)
2g
µ ¶
2 40 ft ¡ ¢
V12 = 2 × 32.2 ft/ s2
41
V12 = 7.927 ft/s
Flow rate equation
Q = V12 A12
= (7.927 ft/ s)(π/4) (1 ft)2
Q = 6.23 ft3 /s
EGL
HGL
116
Situation:
Water moves between two reservoirs through a contracting pipe.
L V2
hL = 0.02 D 2g
.
Dd = 15 cm, Ld = 100 m.
Lu = 100 m, Du = 30 cm.
z1 = 100 m, z2 = 60 m.
Find:
Discharge of water in system ( m3 / s) .
PLAN
Apply energy equation from upper to lower reservoir.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22 X
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
X
0 + 0 + 100 m = 0 + 0 + 70 m + hL
X
hL = 30 m
V2
hL = .02 × (L/D)( )
2g
µ ¶µ 2¶ µ µ ¶ ¶ 2
200 Vu 100 m Vd
30 = 0.02 × + 0.02 + 1.0 (1)
0.3 2g 0.15 m 2g
Flow rate equation
Q Q
Vu = = (2)
Au (π/4) × (0.3 m)2
Q Q
Vd = = (3)
Ad (π/4) × (0.15 m)2
Substituting Eq. (2) and Eq. (3) into (1) and solving for Q yields:
Q = 0.110 m3 / s
117
Situation:
Water is pumped from a lower reservoir to an upper one.
z1 = 90 ft, z2 = 140 ft.
L1 = 1000 ft, L2 = 2000 ft.
D1 = 8 in, D2 = 8 in.
L V2
Q = 3 cfs, hL = 0.018 D 2g
.
Find:
(a) Power supplied to the pump ( hp).
(b) Sketch the HGL and EGL.
Properties:
PLAN
Apply the flow rate equation to find the velocity. Then calculate head loss. Next
apply the energy equation from water surface to water surface to find the head the
pump provides. Finally, apply the power equation.
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
3.0 ft3 / s
=
(π/4) × (8/12 ft)2
= 8.594 ft/s
Head loss
µ ¶ µ 2¶
L V2 V
hL = 0.018 +
D 2g 2g
µ ¶
3000 ft (8.594 ft/ s)2 (8.594 ft/ s)2
= 0.018 +
8/12 ft 2 (32.2 ft/ s2 ) 2 (32.2 ft/ s2 )
= 94. 04 ft
118
Energy equation
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
0 + 0 + 90 + hp = 0 + 0 + 140 + 94.04
hp = 144.0 ft
Power equation
P = Qγhp
= 3.0 ft3 / s × 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 144 ft
µ ¶
ft lbf ft · lbf
= 26957
s 550 hp · s
P = 49.0 hp
EGL
EGL HGL
HGL
119
Situation:
Water flows between two reservoirs.
D = 1 m, L = 300 m.
H = 16 m, h = 2 m.
L V2
hL = 0.01 D 2g
.
Find:
(a) Discharge in pipe ( m3 / s).
(b) Pressure halfway between two reservoirs ( kPa).
PLAN
To find the discharge, apply the energy equation from water surface A to water surface
in B. To find the pressure at location P, apply the energy equation from water surface
A to location P .
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
µ ¶
300 Vp2 Vp2
0 + 0 + H = 0 + 0 + 0 + 0.01 × +
1 2g 2g
2
16 = 4Vp /2g
√
Vp = 4 × 2 × 9.81 = 8.86 m/s
Flow rate equation
Q = VA
= 8.86 × (π/4) × 12
Q = 6.96 m3 /s
Energy equation between the water surface in A and point P :
120
µ ¶
pp Vp2 150 m Vp2
0+0+H = + − h + 0.01 ×
γ 2g 1m 2g
pp Vp2
16 = − 2 + 2.5
γ 2g
where Vp2 /2g = 4 m. Then

¡ ¢
pp = 9, 810 N/ m3 (16 + 2 − 10) m
pp = 78.5 kPa
V2/2g=4 m
EGL
HGL
p/γ
121
Situation:
Two reservoirs are connected by a pipe with an abrupt expansion.
L V2
hL = 0.02 D 2g
, Q = 16 ft3 / s.
Find:
Elevation in left reservoir.
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the left reservoir to the right reservoir.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
pL VL2 pR VR2
+ + zL = + + zR + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
µ ¶
200 V12
0 + 0 + zL = 0 + 0 + 110 + 0.02
1.128 2g
µ ¶ 2
300 V2 (V1 − V2 )2 V22
+0.02 + +
1.596 2g 2g 2g
Flow rate equation
Q
V1 =
A1
16 ft3 / s
= = 16 ft/s
1 ft2
V2 = 8 ft/s
Substituting into the energy equation

µ ¶ ∙µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
0.02 200 2 300 2 (16 ft/ s − 8 ft/ s)2 (8 ft/ s)2
zL = 110 + (16) + (8) + ( )+
2 × 32.2 1.238 1.596 64.4 ft/ s2 64.4 ft/ s2
= 110 + 16.58 + 0.99 + 0.99
122
‫‪zL = 129 ft‬‬
‫‪V12/2g‬‬
‫‪EGL‬‬
‫‪HGL‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬
‫‪V2 /2g‬‬
‫‪V1‬‬ ‫‪V2‬‬
‫‪123‬‬
Situation:
Water is pumped from a lower to an upper reservoir.
L1 = 100 m, L2 = 1000 m.
D1 = 1 m, D2 = 50 cm.
η = 74%, Q = 3 m3 / s.
z1 = 150 m, z2 = 250 m.
Find:
(a) Pump power ( MW).
(b) Sketch the HGL and EGL.
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the upper reservoir surface to the lower reservoir
surface.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 + hp = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
X µ ¶ 2
L V V2
0 + 0 + 150 + hp = 0 + 0 + 250 + 0.018 +
D 2g 2g
Flow rate equation
Q 3 m3 / s
V1 = = = 3.82 m/s
A1 (π/4) × (1 m)2
V12
= 0.744 m
2g
V2 = Q/A2 = 4V1 = 15.28 m/s
V22
= 11.9 m
2g
124
Substituting into the energy equation
∙µ ¶ µ ¶ ¸
100 m 1000 m
hp = 250 m − 150 m + 0.018 × 0.744 m + × 11.9 m + 11.9 m
1m 5 cm
= 541.6 m
Power equation
Qγhp
P =
η
3 m3 / s × 9, 810 N/ m3 × 541.6 m
=
0.74
P = 21.5 MW
11.9 m
EGL
hp=535 m
HGL
0.794 m
125
Situation:
Water flows out of a reservoir into a pipe that discharges to atmosphere.
L V2
hL = 0.018 D 2g
, z1 = 200 m.
z2 = 185 m, zpipe = 200 m.
D = 30 cm, L = 200 m.
Find:
(a) Water discharge in pipe ( m3 / s) .
(b) Pressure at highest point in pipe ( kPa).
Assumptions:
α = 1.0.
PLAN
First apply energy equation from reservoir water surface to end of pipe to find the V
to calculate the flow rate. Then to solve for the pressure midway along pipe, apply
the energy equation to the midpoint:
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V2 V2
0 + 0 + 200 = 0 + + 185 + 0.02(200/0.30)
2g 2g
2
V
14.33 = 15
2g
V2
= 1.047
2g
V = 4.53 m/s
Flow rate equation
Q = VA
= 4.53 m/ s × (π/4) × (0.30 m)2
Q = 0.320 m3 /s
126
Energy equation to the midpoint:
p1 V12 pm Vm2
+ + z1 = + + zm + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
µ ¶
pm Vm2 100 V 2
0 + 0 + 200 = + + 200 + 0.02
γ 2g 0.3 2g
µ 2¶
V
pm /γ = − (1 + 6.667)
2g
= (−1.047)(7.667) = −8.027 m
pm = −8.027γ
= −78, 745 Pa
pm = −78.7 kPa
127
Situation:
Kerosene flows in a pipe.
Q = 0.04 m3 / s, D = 25 cm.
Find:
Is the flow laminar or turbulent?
Entrance length (meters).
Properties:
Kerosene (20 ◦ C),Table A.4, ν = 2.37 × 10−6 m2 / s.
SOLUTION
Reynolds number:.
4Q 4 (0.04 m3 / s)
Re = = = 85957
πDν π (0.25 m) (2.37 × 10−6 m2 / s)
Re > 3000 Flow is turbulent

Entrance length:
Le
= 50
D
Le = 50D = 50 (0.25 m) = 12.5 m
1
Situation:
A compressor is drawing ambient air through a duct.
Q = 0.3 m3 / s, D = 0.15 m.
L = 10 m, T = 10 ◦ C.
Find:
Determine if the flow is laminar or turbulent.
Entrance length (meters).
Assumptions:
Smooth inlet, so Le correlations apply.
Pressure in duct is 1.0 atm.
Properties:
Air (10 ◦ C), Table A.3, ν = 14.1 × 10−6 m2 / s.
SOLUTION
Reynolds number:.
4Q 4 (0.3 m3 / s)
Re = = = 180601
πDν π (0.15 m) (14.1 × 10−6 m2 / s)
Since Re > 3000, the flow is turbulent.
Flow is turbulent
Entrance length:
Le
= 50
D
Le = 50D = 50 (0.15 m) = 7.5 m
Le = 7.5 m
2
Situation:
A tube carries SAE 10W-30 oil.
Q = 0.2 L/ s = 0.0002 m3 / s, T = 38 ◦ C.
Flow must be laminar and fully developed.
Find:
Specify a tube length (millimeters).
Specify a tube diameter (millimeters).
Assumptions:
Smooth inlet, so Le correlations apply.
Properties:
SAE 10W-30 oil (38 ◦ C), Table A.4, ν = 7.6 × 10−5 m2 / s.
PLAN
1. Find diameter D by specifying a Reynolds number of 1500 (laminar).
2. Find length L by specifying a length so L > 0.05D Re .
SOLUTION
Reynolds number:.
4Q 4 (0.0002 m3 / s)
Re = = = 1500
πDν πD (7.6 × 10−5 m2 / s)
D = 2.23 mm
Entrance length:
L > 0.05D Re
L > 0.05 (0.00223 m) (1500) = 0.167 m
Select
L = 200 mm
REVIEW Notice that the answer will change if a different value of Re is selected.
3
Problem 10.4
a.) What is pipe head loss? How is pipe head loss related to total head loss?
• Pipe head loss ==> head loss associated with fully developed flow in straight
sections of pipe.
• Total head loss = (Pipe head loss) + (Component head loss).
b.) What is the friction factor f ? How is f related to wall shear stress?
• f is a π-group
• f is defined as the ratio of wall shear stress to kinetic pressure (with an extra
constant of 0.25 included)
τ wall
f≡
0.25 × ρV 2 /2
• f can be thought of as a dimensionless wall shear stress
c.) What assumptions need to be satisfied to apply the Darcy Weisbach equation?
• the conduit needs to be completely full of the flowing fluid
• fully developed flow
• steady flow
4
Problem 10.5
Apply the grid method to each situation described below. Apply the DW equation.
Situation: (a)
Water is flowing in a pipe.
Q = 20 gpm, V = 180 ft/ min.
L = 200 ft, f = 0.02.
Find:
Head loss (ft).
Solution:
Flow rate eqn:
µ¶
πD2
Q = V
4
r s µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶
4Q 4 20 gal min 1.0 ft3
D = = = 0.1375 ft
πV π min 180 ft 7.481 gal
Darcy Weisbach eqn:

µ ¶µ ¶2 µ ¶µ ¶2
L V2 200 ft 180 ft 1.0 1.0 min
hf = f = 0.02
D 2g 0.1375 ft min 2 (32.2 ft/ s2 ) 60 s
hf = 4.07 ft
Situation: (b)
Flow in a PVC pipe.
hf = 0.8 m, f = 0.012, L = 15 m Q = 2 ft3 / s..
Find:
Pipe diameter (meters).
Solution:
L V2 L (Q/A)2 L 16Q2
hf = f =f =f
D 2g D 2g D 2gπ 2 D4
s µ ¶ s
µ ¶ µ 3 ¶2 µ ¶2
5 L 16Q2 5 15 m 16 1 ft m3
D = f = 0.012
hf 2gπ 2 0.8 m 2 (9.81 m/ s2 ) π 2 s 35.31 ft3
D = 0.108 m
5
Situation:
Air is flowing from a large tank to ambient through a horizontal pipe.
Pipe is 1" Schedule 40. D = 1.049 in = 0.0266 m.
V = 10 m/ s. f = 0.015, L = 50 m.
Sketch:
Find:
Pressure in the tank (Pa).
Assumptions:
Air has constant density (look up properties at 1 atm).
KE correction factor is a2 = 1.0.
Properties:
Air (20 ◦ C, 1 atm), Table A.3, ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
1. Relate pressure in tank to head loss using the energy equation.
2. Describe head loss using the Darcy-Weisbach equation.
3. Combine steps 1 & 2.
SOLUTION
1. Energy eqn. (location 1 inside the tank, location 2 at the pipe exit)
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
2
p1 V
+ 0 + 0 + 0 = 0 + 2 + 0 + hf (1)
γ 2g
2. Darcy-Weisbach eqn.:
L V2
hf = f (2)
D 2g
3. Combine Eqs. (1) and (2).
µ ¶ µ ¶
V22 L ρV22 L
p1 = γ 1+f = 1+f
2g D 2 D
3 2 µ ¶
(1.2 kg/ m ) (10 m/ s) (50 m)
= 1 + (0.015)
2 (0.0266 m)
= 1.75 kPa-gage
6
ptank = 1.75 kPa gage
REVIEW The constant density assumption is valid because the pressure in the tank
is less than 2% of atmospheric pressure.
7
Situation:
Water is flowing through a horizontal pipe (garden hose).
D = 0.018 m, L = 20 m.
f = 0.012, V = 1.5 m/ s.
Find:
Pressure drop (Pa) for 20 m of hose.
Properties:
Water (15 ◦ C), Table A.5, ρ = 999 kg/ m3 .
PLAN
1. Relate pressure drop to head loss using the energy equation.
3. Combine steps 1 & 2.
SOLUTION
1. Energy eqn. (location 1 upstream; location 2 is 20 m downstream)
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + 0 + 0 = + α2 2 + 0 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
since V1 = V2 , KE terms cancel
∆p = γhL (1)
L V2
hL = hf = f (2)
D 2g
µ ¶ µ ¶
L V2 ρV 2 L
∆p = γ f = f
D 2g 2 D
3 2 µ ¶
(999 kg/ m ) (1.5 m/ s) 20 m
= 0.012 ×
2 0.018 m
∆p = 15.0 kPa
8
Situation:
Water is flowing from a tank through a tube & then discharging to ambient.
D = 0.008 m, L = 6 m.
H = 3 m, f = 0.015.
Sketch:
Find:
Exit velocity (m/s).
Discharge (L/s).
Sketch the HGL & EGL.
Assumptions:
The only head loss is in the tube.
Turbulent flow so α2 = 1.0.
Properties:
Water (15 ◦ C), Table A.5, ρ = 999 kg/ m3 ν = 1.14 × 10−6 m2 / s.
PLAN
1. Relate H to head loss using the energy equation.
3. Find V by combining steps 1 & 2.
4. Find Q by using the flow rate equation.
SOLUTION
1. Energy eqn. (location 1 at the free surface, location 2 at the pipe exit)
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
2
V
0 + 0 + H + 0 = 0 + 2 + 0 + hL (1)
2g
L V2
hf = f (2)
D 2g
9
µ ¶
V2 L
H = 2 1+f
2g D
s
2gH
V2 = L
1+fD
s
2 (9.81 m/ s2 ) (3 m)
= (6 m)
1 + 0.015 (0.008 m)
V = 2.19 m/ s
4. Flow rate equation:
πD2 π (0.008 m)2
Q= VA=V = (2.192 m/ s)
4 4
Q = 0.110 L/ s
5. Sketch HGL & EGL
• Locate the EGL & HGL on free surface of tank.
• Velocity head and head loss:
V2 (2.192 m/ s)2
= = 0.24 m
2g 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
LV2 (6 m) (2.192 m/ s)2
hf = f = 0.015 = 2.76 m
D 2g (0.008 m) 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
• Locate the EGL and HGL at the end of the pipe. Sketch lines.
REVIEW Check the turbulent flow assumption.

VD (2.192 m/ s) (0.008 m)
Re = =
ν (1.14 × 10−6 m2 / s)
Re = 15400 > 3000
Thus, the assumption of turbulent flow is valid.
10
Situation:
Water flows through a pipe.
V = 3 m/ s, z1 = 10 m.
z2 = 11 m, D = 5 cm
Sketch:
Find: Resistance coefficient, f .
SOLUTION
Manometer equation
hf = ∆hmanometer (γ m /γ H2O − 1)
hf = (0.90 m) (2.5 − 1) = 1.35 m of water
Darcy Weisbach
hf = f (L/D)V 2 /2g
Solve for f
µ ¶ ¶µ
2g
D
f = hf
V2L
µ ¶µ ¶
0.05 m 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
= (1.35 m)
4m (3 m/ s)2
f = 0.037
11
Problem 10.10
a. What are the main characteristics of laminar flow?
• Flow in layers
• Smooth flow; visualize flow of honey.
• Low rates of mixing.
• Low values of Reynolds number.
b. What is the meaning of each variable that appears in Eq. (10.27)?
• V is the area-averaged velocity in the pipe; also called the mean velocity
• ro is the pipe radius.
• μ is the dynamic viscosity of the fluid.
• γ is the specific weight of the fluid.
• ∆h is the change in piezometric head from location 1 to location 2.
• ∆L is the length between location 1 to location 2.
c. In Eq. (10.33), what is the meaning of hf ?
• hf is the head loss associated with flow in a conduit.
12
Situation:
Fluid flowing in a pipe.
V = 0.04 m/ s, D = 0.1 m.
Find:
(a) Reynolds number.
(b) Maximum velocity in the pipe.
(c) Friction factor f.
(d) Shear stress at the wall.
(e) Shear stress 25 mm from pipe center.
Properties: μ = 10−2 Pa · s, ρ = 800 kg/ m3
SOLUTION Reynolds number:
V Dρ
Re =
μ
0.04 × 0.1 × 800
=
0.01
Re = 320
Therefore, the flow is laminar:
Vmax = 2V = 8 cm/s
f = 64/ Re
= 64/320
= 0.20
Wall shear stress (from definition of f ) :

4τ o
f =
ρV 2 /2
µ ¶µ 2¶ Ã !
f ρV 0.2 (800 kg/ m3 ) (0.04 m/ s)2
τo = = = 0.032 Pa
4 2 4 2
τ o = 0.032 Pa
Get τ r=0.025 by using proportions. Rationale: shear stress varies linearly from τ = 0
at r = 0 to τ = τ o at r = ro .
13
‫‪0.025/0.05 = τ /τ 0‬‬
‫‪τ = 0.5τ 0‬‬
‫)‪τ = 0.5 (0.032 Pa‬‬
‫=‬ ‫‪0.016 N/m2‬‬
‫‪14‬‬
Situation:
Water is flowing in a pipe. Re = 1000, T = 15 ◦ C.
Nominal diameter = 1/2" Schedule 40. D = 0.622 in = 0.0158 m.
Find:
(a) Mass flow rate (kg/s).
(b) Friction factor f.
(c) Head loss per meter of pipe length.
(d) Pressure drop per meter of head length.
Properties: Water (15 ◦ C), Table A.5, ρ = 999 kg/ m3 , γ = 9800 N/ m3 , ν =
1.14 × 10−6 m2 / s.
PLAN
1. Find V by using known Re.
2 Find ṁ by using ṁ = ρAV.
3. Find f by using 64/Re.
4. Find hL by using Darcy-Weisbach eqn.
5. Find ∆p by using the energy eqn.
SOLUTION
1. Reynolds Number:
VD
Re =
ν
ν Re (1.14 × 10−6 m2 / s) (1000)
V = =
D (0.0158 m)
V = 0.0722 m/ s
2. Mass flow rate:
ṁ = ρAV
Ã !
2
¡ ¢ π (0.0158 m)
= 999 kg/ m3 (0.0722 m/ s)
4
= 0.0141 kg/ s
ṁ = 0.0141 kg/ s
3. Friction factor:
64 64
f= =
Re 1000
f = 0.064
15
4. Darcy-Weisbach Eqn.:
Ã !
hf f V2 (0.064) (0.0722 m/ s)2
= =
L D 2g (0.0158 m) 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
hf
L
= 0.00108 m per m of pipe length
5. Energy eqn.
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
• Assume horizontal pipe.
• hp = ht = 0. hL = hf
p1 p2
+0+0+0 = + 0 + 0 + 0 + hf
γ γ
¡ ¢
∆p = γhf = 9800 N/ m3 (0.00108)
∆p
L
= 10.6 Pa per m of pipe length
16
Situation:
Liquid flows through a smooth pipe.
V = 1 m/ s. hf = 2 m per m, D = 0.03 m.
Find:
Friction factor.
Reynolds number.
Prove that doubling the flow will double the head loss.
Assumptions:
Laminar flow.
Fully developed flow.
PLAN
1. Find f using the Darcy-Weisbach eqn.
2. Find Re using f = 64/ Re .
3. Determine the effect of doubling Q by logical reasoning with the head loss eqn.
SOLUTION
1. Darcy-Weisbach:
L V2
hf = f
D 2g
hf 2gD
f = 2
µL V ¶
2 m 2 (9.81 m/ s2 ) (0.03 m)
= = 1.177
1m (1 m/ s)2
2. Assume laminar flow:

64
f =
Re
64 64
Re = = = 54.4
f 1.177
Since Re << 2000, we conclude that the flow is laminar.
3. Head loss in laminar flow

32μLV
hf =
γD2
is linear with V. Thus, doubling Q will increase V by a factor of 2 and increase hf by
a factor of 2.
17
Situation:
Air flows through a round tube.
D = 0.0005 m, L = 0.75 m.
p2 = −1.5 inch H20 = -373 Pa gage.
Sketch:
Find:
Velocity in the tube (m/s).
Assumptions:
Fully developed flow.
Laminar flow.
Only source of head loss is flow in tube.
Properties:
Air (20 ◦ C), Table A.3, μ = 1.81 × 10−5 N · s/ m2 , ν = 15.1 × 10−6 m2 / s.
PLAN
1. Relate velocity to pressure using the energy equation.
2. Find head loss.
3. Find velocity by combining steps 1 and 2.
4. Check laminar flow assumption by calculating Re.
SOLUTION
1. Energy eqn (point 1 back from tube inlet; point 2 at tube outlet):
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p2 V2
0+0+0+0 = + α2 2 + 0 + 0 + hf (1)
γ 2g
2. Head loss (laminar flow):

32μLV
hf = (2)
γD2
18
3. Combine Eq. (1) and (2):
ρV22 32μLV2
−p2 = α2 +
2 D2
(1.2 kg/ m ) V22 32 (1.81 × 10−5 N · s/ m2 ) (0.75 m) V2
3
(+373 Pa) = 2 +
2 (0.0005 m)2
Solve using quadratic equation:
V2 = 0.215 m/ s
4. Reynolds number:
VD (0.215 m/ s) (0.0005 m)
Re = = = 7.1
ν (15.1 × 10−6 m2 / s)
Since Re < 2000, the laminar flow assumption is valid.
19
Situation:
Liquid flows in a vertical pipe; flow direction is unknown.
D = 0.008 m.
Sketch:
Find:
Direction of flow.
Velocity (m/s).
Properties:
γ = 10 kN/ m3 , μ = 3.0 × 10−3 N · s/ m2 .
PLAN
1. Find the flow direction by calculating the piezometric head at locations 1 and 2.
Rationale: using the HGL shows that flow goes from high to low piezometric head in
a constant diameter pipe.
2. Find head loss using the energy eqn.
3. Find velocity by using the equation for head loss in laminar flow.
SOLUTION
1. Piezometric Head (location 1 at z = 10 m):
p1 110 kPa
h1 = + z1 = + 10 m = 21 m
γ 10 kN/ m3
p2 200 kPa
h2 = + z2 = + 0 m = 20 m
γ 10 kN/ m3
Since h1 > h2 , the direction of flow is downward.
20
2. Energy equation:
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p1 p2
+ 0 + z1 + 0 = + 0 + z2 + hf
γ γ
21 m = 20 m + hf
hf = 1m

32μLV
hf =
γD2
hf γD2
V =
32μL
(1 m) (10000 N/ m3 ) (0.008 m)2
=
32 (3.0 × 10−3 N · s/ m2 ) (10 m)
= 0.667 m/ s
V = 0.667 m/ s
21
Situation:
Oil is pumped through a horizontal pipe. Q = 0.004 ft3 / s.
Nominal diameter = 1 in. Schedule 80. D = 0.957 in = 0.0798 ft.
Find:
Head loss (ft) per 100 feet of pipe.
Properties:
Oil, S = 0.97, μ = 10−2 lbf · s/ ft2 .
PLAN
1. Find V using the flow rate equation.
2. Find flow regime by calculating Re.
3. Find hf .
SOLUTION
¡ ¢
Q 4Q 4 0.004 ft3 / s
V = = = = 0.8 ft/ s
A πD2 π (0.0798 ft)2
2. Reynolds number:
¡ ¢
V Dρ (0.8 ft/ s) (0.0798 ft) 0.97 × 1.94 slug/ ft3
Re = = ¡ ¢
μ 10−2 lbf · s/ ft2
= 12 (thus, flow is laminar)

32μLV
hf =
γD2
¡ ¢
32 10−2 lbf · s/ ft2 (100 ft) (0.8 ft/ s)
= ¡ ¢
0.97 × 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (0.0798 ft)2
hf = 66.4 ft per 100 ft run of pipe
22
Situation:
A liquid flows in a pipe.
D = 0.1 m, V = 1.5 m/ s.
Find:
Show that the flow is laminar.
Friction factor f.
Head loss per meter of pipe length. .
Properties:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 , μ = 10−1 N · s/ m2 , ν = 10−4 m2 / s.
SOLUTION
1. Reynolds number:
VD
Re =
ν
(1.5 m/ s) (0.1 m)
=
(10−4 m2 / s)
= 1500
Since Re < 2000, the flow is laminar .

2. Friction factor:
64 64
f= =
Re 1500
f = 0.043
3. Darcy Weisbach eqn.:
hf f V2 0.043 (1.5 m/ s)2

= =
L D 2g (0.1 m) 2 (9.81 m/ s2 )
hf
L
= 0.049 m per m of pipe length
23
Situation:
Kerosene flows out a tank and through a tube.
D = 0.25 in, L = 10 ft.
z1 = 0.5 ft.
Find:
Mean velocity in the tube.
Discharge.
Assumptions:
Laminar flow so α = 2.
Only head loss is in the tube.
Properties:
Kerosene (68 ◦ F): S = 0.8.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the surface of the reservoir to the pipe outlet.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 /γ + α1 V12 /2g + z1 = p2 /γ + 2V 2 /2g + z2 + 32μLV /(γD2 )
0 + 0 + 0.50 = 0 + V 2 /g + 32μLV /(γD2 )
Thus
V 2 /g + 32μLV /(γD2 ) − 0.50 = 0
V 2 /32.2 + 32(4 × 10−5 )(10)V /(0.80 × 62.4 × (1/48)2 ) − 0.50 = 0
V 2 + 19.0V − 16.1 = 0
Solving the above quadratic equation for V yields:
V = 0.81 ft/s
Check Reynolds number to see if flow is laminar
Re = V Dρ/μ
= 0.81 × (1/48)(1.94 × 0.8)/(4 × 10−5 )
Re = 654.8 (laminar)
Q = VA
= 0.81 × (π/4)(1/48)2 = 2.76 × 10−4 cfs
24
Q = 2.76 × 10−4 cfs
25
Situation:
Oil is pumped through a horizontal pipe.
D = 0.05 m, V = 0.5 m/ s.
Find:
Head loss per 10 m of pipe.
Properties:
S = 0.94, μ = 0.048 N · s/ m2 .
PLAN
1. Determine flow regime (laminar or turbulent) by finding the Reynolds number.
2. Relate pressure drop to head loss using the energy eqn.
3. Apply eqn. for head loss in laminar flow.
4. Combine steps 2 and 3.
SOLUTION
1. Reynolds number:
ρV D (0.94 × 1000 kg/ m3 ) (0.5 m/ s) (0.05 m)

Re = =
μ (0.048 N · s/ m2 )
= 490 (laminar flow)
2. Energy equation:
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p1 p2
+0+0+0 = + 0 + 0 + 0 + hf
γ γ
∆p = γhf (1)

32μLV
hf = (2)
γD2
32μLV 32 (0.048 N · s/ m2 ) (10 m) (0.5 m/ s)

∆p = γhf = =
D2 (0.05 m)2
∆p = 3.07 kPa per 10 m of pipe length
26
Situation:
SAE 10-W oil is pumped through a tube.
L = 8 m, D = .01 m.
Q = 7.85 × 10−4 m3 / s, η = 1.0
Pressures at points 1 and 2 are equal.
Find: Power to operate the pump.

Properties: SAE 10W-30 Oil, ν = 7.6 × 10−5 m2 / s, γ = 8630 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 /γ + z1 + α1 V12 /2g + hp = p2 /γ + α2 V22 /2g + z2 + hL

Simplify
hp = hL = f (L/D)(V 2 /2g)
Flow rate equation
V = Q/A = 7.85 × 10−4 /((π/4)(0.01)2 ) = 10 m/s
Reynolds number
Re = V D/ν = (10)(0.01)/(7.6 × 10−5 ) = 1316 (laminar)
Friction factor (f )
64
f =
Re
64
=
1316
= 0.0486
Head of the pump
hp = f (L/D)(V 2 /2g)
= 0.0486(8/0.01)(102 /((2)(9.81))
= 198 m
27
‫‪Power equation‬‬
‫‪P = hp γQ‬‬
‫¡‬ ‫‪¢‬‬
‫‪= 198 × 8630 × 7.85 · 10−4 = 1341 W‬‬
‫‪P = 1341 W‬‬
‫‪28‬‬
Situation:
Oil flows downward in a pipe.
D = 0.1 ft, V = 2 ft/ s, Slope of 30 ◦ .
Sketch:
Find:
Pressure gradient along the pipe (psf/ft).
Properties:
Oil, S = 0.9, μ = 10−2 lbf s/ ft2 , v = 0.0057 ft2 / s.
SOLUTION
VD
Re =
v
(2 ft/ s)(0.10 ft)
=
0.0057 ft2 / s
= 35.1 (laminar)
d 32μV
− (p + γz) =
ds D2
dp dz (32)(10−2 lbf s/ ft2 )(2 ft/ s)
− −γ =
ds ds (0.1 ft)2
dp
− − γ(−0.5) = 64 lbf/ ft3
ds
dp
= (0.5)(0.9)(62.4 lbf/ ft3 ) − 64
ds
dp
= 28.08 − 64
ds
dp
= −35.9 psf/ft
ds
29
Situation:
Fluid flows out of a tank through a pipe with an abrupt contraction.
L1 = L2 = 100 m, f = 0.01.
D1 = 2 m, D2 = 1 m.
Sketch:
Find:
Ratio of head loss.
hL (1-m pipe)
hL (2-m pipe)
SOLUTION
L1 V12
hL = f1
D 2g
µ 1 2 ¶
hL (1-m pipe) f1 L1 V1 / (D1 )
=
hL (2-m pipe) f2 L2 V 2 / (D2 )
µ ¶ µ2 2 ¶
D2 V1
=
D1 V22
V1 A1 = V2 A2
µ ¶2
V1 A2 D2
= =
V2 A1 D1
µ ¶2 µ ¶4
V1 D2
=
V2 D1
Thus
µ ¶µ ¶4
hL (1-m pipe) D2 D2
=
hL (2-m pipe) D1 D1
µ ¶5
D2
= = 25 = 32
D1
Correct choice is (d)
30
Situation:
Glycerin flows in a pipe
D = 0.5 ft, V̄ = 2 ft/ s.
Find:
Determine if the flow is laminar or turbulent.
Plot the velocity distribution.
Properties:
Glycerin at 68 ◦ F from Table A.4:
μ = 0.03 lbf · s/ ft2 , ν = 1.22 × 10−2 ft2 / s.
SOLUTION
VD
Re =
ν
2 × 0.5
=
1.22 × 10−2
= 81.97 (laminar)
To plot the velocity distribution, begin with Eq. (10.23) from EFM9e.
µ ¶
r2
V (r) = Vmax 1 − 2
r
Ã oµ ¶!
2
r
= (4 ft/ s) 1 −
ro
Create a table of values and then plot
r (in) r/r0 V (r) (ft/s)

0 0 4
0.5 1/6 3.89
1.0 1/3 3.56
1.5 1/2 3.00
2 2/3 2.22
2.5 5/6 1.22
3 1 0
31
‫‪3‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
‫)‪Radius (in‬‬
‫‪1‬‬
‫‪0‬‬
‫‪0‬‬ ‫‪1‬‬ ‫‪2‬‬ ‫‪3‬‬ ‫‪4‬‬ ‫‪5‬‬
‫)‪Velocity (ft/s‬‬
‫‪32‬‬
Situation:
Glycerin flows through a funnel
D = 1 cm, L = 20 cm.
Sketch:
Find: Mean velocity (in m/ s)at the exit.

Assumptions:
Laminar flow (α2 = 2.0) .
The only head loss is due to friction in tube.
Properties:
Glycerin (20 ◦ C) ,Table A.4:
ρ = 1260 kg/ m3 , γ = 12, 300 N/ m3 .
μ = 1.41 N · s/ m2 , ν = 1.12 × 10−3 m2 / s.
SOLUTION
Energy equation (Let section 1 be the surface of the liquid and section 2 be the exit
plane of the funnel).
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
.
µ ¶
V22 32μLV2
0 + 0 + 0.30 = 0 + 2.0 +0+
2g γD2
µ ¶ µ ¶
V22 32 × 1.41 N s/ m3 × 0.2 m × V2
0.30 = 2.0 +
2 × 9.81 12300 N/ m3 × (0.01 m)2
Solve quadratic equation.
V2 = −72. 01 m/ s
V2 = 4. 087 × 10−2 m/ s
Select the positive root
V2 = 0.0409 m/s
33
Check the laminar flow assumption
V Dρ
Re =
μ
0.0409 m/ s × 0.01 m × 1260 kg/ m3
=
1.41 N s/ m2
= 0.365
Since Re ≤ 2000, the laminar flow assumption is valid.
34
Situation:
Castor oil flows through a steel pipe.
Q = 0.2 ft3 / s, L = 0.5 mi = 2640 ft.
Allowable pressure drop is 10 psi.
Find:
Nominal diameter of pipe ( ft).
Assumptions:
Laminar flow.
Horizontal pipe.
Properties:
Castor oil (90 ◦ F): μ = 0.085 lbf · s/ ft2 , S = 0.85.
SOLUTION
1. Energy eqn.
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ α1 + z1 + hp = + α2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
• hp = ht = 0. hL = hf
p1 p2
+0+0+0 = + 0 + 0 + 0 + hf
γ γ
∆p = γhf (1)
2. Head loss (laminar flow)

32μLV
hf = (2)
γD2
3. Combine Eq. (1) and (2)
32μLV
∆p =
D2
4.Let V = Q/A
32μLQ
∆p =
(π/4) × D4
5. Solve for diameter.
128μLQ
D4 =
π∆p
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
128 0.085 lbf · s/ ft2 (2640 ft) 0.2 ft3 / s
= ¡ ¢
π 1440 lbf/ ft2
D > 1.06 ft
35
6. Select a nominal pipe size.
D > 12.7 in
Thus, select a 14 inch nominal diameter NPS schedule 40 pipe (ID = 13.1 in)
7. Check Laminar flow assumption:

Velocity:
Q
V =
A¡ ¢
0.2 ft3 / s
=
π/4 (1.094 ft)2
= 0.213 ft/ s
Reynolds number
V Dρ
Re =
μ
¡ ¢
(0.213 ft/ s) (1.094 ft) 0.85 × 1.94 slug/ ft3
= ¡ ¢
0.085 lbf · s/ ft2
= 4.52
Thus, the initial assumption of laminar flow is valid.
36
Situation:
Velocity measurements are made in a pipe.
D = 0.3 m, V = 1.5 m/ s.
∆p = 1.9 kPa per 100 m of pipe.
Find:
Kinematic viscosity of fluid ( m2 / s).
Assumptions:
Laminar flow (since velocity profile is parabolic).
Horizontal pipe.
Properties:
S = 0.8
SOLUTION
1. Energy eqn.
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
• Assume horizontal pipe.
• hp = ht = 0. hL = hf
p1 p2
+0+0+0 = + 0 + 0 + 0 + hf
γ γ
∆p = γhf (1)
2. Head loss (laminar flow)

32μLV
hf = (2)
γD2
3. Combine Eq. (1) and (2)
32μLV
∆p =
D2
μ ∆pD2
ν = =
ρ 32ρLV
(1900 Pa) (0.3 m)2
= =
32 (0.8 × 1000 kg/ m3 ) (100 m) (0.75 m/ s)
ν = 8.91 × 10−5 m2 / s
37
Situation:
Oil flows through a smooth pipe.
L = 12 m, z1 = 1 m, z2 = 2 m.
V = 1.2 m/ s, D = 5 cm.
Sketch:
Find:
Flow direction.
Resistance coefficient.
Nature of flow (laminar or turbulent).
Viscosity of oil ( N s/ m2 ).
Properties:
S = 0.8.
SOLUTION
Based on the deflection on the manometer, the piezometric head (and HGL) on the
right side of the pipe is larger than that on the left side. Thus, the
flow is downward (from right to left).
Energy principle
p2 V2 p1 V2
+ α2 2 + z2 = + α1 1 + z1 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
Assume α1 V1 = α2 V2 . Let z2 − z1 = 1 m. Also the head loss is given by the Darcy
Weisbach equation: hf = f (L/D)V 2 /(2g). The energy principle becomes
p2 − p1 L V2
= (−1 m) + f (1)
γ oil D 2g
Manometer equation
p2 + (2 m) γ oil + (0.1 m) γ oil − (0.1 m) γ Hg − (1 m) γ oil = p1

Algebra gives
38
p2 − p1 γ Hg
= − (2 m) − (0.1 m) + (0.1 m) + (1 m)
γ oil γ
µ ¶oil
SHg
= − (1 m) + (0.1 m) −1
Soil
µ ¶
13.6
= − (1 m) + (0.1 m) −1
0.8
p2 − p1
= 0.6 m (2)
γ oil
Substituting Eq. (2) into (1) gives
L V2
(0.6 m) = (−1 m) + f
D 2g
or µ ¶ µ ¶
D 2g
f = 1.6
L V2
µ ¶µ ¶
0.05 m 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
= 1.6
12 m (1.2 m/ s)2
f = 0.0908
Since the resistance coefficient is now known, this value can be used to find viscosity.
To perform this calculation, assume the flow is laminar.
64
f =
Re
64μ
0.0908 =
ρV D
or
0.0908ρV D
μ =
64
0.0908 × (0.8 × 1000) × 1.2 × 0.05
=
64
μ = 0.068 N · s/ m2
Now, check Reynolds number to see if laminar flow assumption is valid
V Dρ
Re =
μ
1.2 × 0.05 × (0.8 × 1000)
=
0.068
= 706
Thus, flow is laminar.
39
Situation:
Oil flows through a smooth pipe.
D = 2 in, V = 5 ft/ s.
L = 30 ft, z1 = 2 ft, z2 = 4 ft.
Sketch:
Find:
The direction of the flow.
Resistance coefficient.
Nature of the flow
¡ (laminar ¢ or turbulent).
2
Viscosity of oil lbf s/ ft .
Properties:
Oil, S = 0.8.
SOLUTION
Based on the deflection on the manometer, the piezometric head (and HGL) on the
right side of the pipe is larger than that on the left side. Thus, the flow is downward (from right to left).
Energy principle
p2 V2 p1 V2
+ α2 2 + z2 = + α1 1 + z1 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
α1 V1 = α2 V2 ; z2 − z1 = 2 ft
Darcy Weisbach equation
hL = f (L/D)V 2 /(2g)
Combine equations
p2 − p1 L V2
= (−2 ft) + f (1)
γ oil D 2g
Manometer equation
p2 + (4 ft) γ oil + (0.33 ft) γ oil − (0.33 ft) γ Hg − (2 ft) γ oil = p1
40
Calculate values
p2 − p1 γ Hg
= − (4 ft) − (0.33 ft) + (0.33 ft) + (2 ft)
γ oil γ oil
µ ¶
SHg
= − (2 ft) + (0.33 ft) −1
Soil
µ ¶
13.6
= − (2 ft) + (0.33 ft) −1
0.8
p2 − p1
= 3.28 ft (2)
γ oil
Substitute Eq. (2) into (1)
L V2
(3.28 ft) = (−2 ft) + f
D 2g
or µ ¶ µ ¶
D 2g
f = 5.28
L V2
µ ¶µ ¶
1/6 ft 2 × 32.2 ft/ s2
= 5.28
30 ft (5 ft/ s)2
f = 0.076
Since the resistance coefficient (f ) is now known, use this value to find viscosity.
Resistance coefficient (f) (assume laminar flow)
64
f =
Re
64μ
0.076 =
ρV D
or
0.076ρV D
μ =
64 ¡ ¢
0.076 × 0.8 × 1.94 slug/ ft3 × 5 ft/ s × (1/6 ft)
=
64
μ = 0.00154 lbf · s/ ft2
Check laminar flow assumption
V Dρ
Re =
μ
¡ ¢
5 ft/ s × (1/6 ft) × 0.8 × 1.94 slug/ ft3
=
0.00154 lbf s/ ft2
= 840
Answer ⇒ Flow is laminar .
41
Situation:
Glycerin flows through a commercial steel pipe connected to two piezometers.
D = 2 cm, V = 0.6 m/ s.
Sketch:
Find:
Height differential ( in m).
Properties:
Glycerin (20 ◦ C), Table A.4, μ = 1.41 N · s/ m2 , ν = 1.12 × 10−3 m2 / s.
SOLUTION
Energy equation (apply from one piezometer to the other)
p1 /γ + α1 V12 /2g + z1 = p2 /γ + α2 V22 /2g + z2 + hL

p1 /γ + z1 = p2 /γ + z2 + hL
((p1 /γ) + z1 )) − ((p2 /γ) + z2 ) = hL
∆h = hL
Reynolds number
VD
Re =
ν
(0.6)(0.02)
=
1.12 × 10−3
= 10.71
Since Re < 2000, the flow is laminar. The head loss for laminar flow is
32μLV
hL =
γD2
(32)(1.41)(1)(0.6)
=
12300 × 0.022
= 5. 502 m
42
Energy equation
∆h = hL
∆h = 5.50 m
43
Situation:
Water is pumped through tubes in a heat exchanger
D = 5 mm, L = 5 m, V = 0.12 m/ s.
T1 = 20 ◦ C, T2 = 30 ◦ C.
Sketch:
Find:
Pressure difference across heat exchanger.
Properties:
Water (20 ◦ C), Table A.5: v = 10−6 m2 / s.
SOLUTION
Reynolds number (based on temperature at the inlet)
VD 0.12 m/ s × 0.005 m
Re20◦ = = = 600
ν 10−6 m2 / s
Since Re ≤ 2000, the flow is laminar. Thus,
32μLV
∆p =
D2
Assume linear variation in μ and use the temperature at 25o C. From Table A.5
μavg. = μ25◦
= 8.91 × 10−4 N · s/m2
and
32μLV
∆p =
D2
32 × 8.91 × 10−4 N s/ m2 × 5 m × 0.12 m/ s
= = 684 Pa
(0.005 m)2
∆p = 684 Pa
44
Situation:
Water flows through a PVC pipe.
4" Schedule 40. D = 4.026 in = 0.3355 ft.
Q = 2 ft3 / s, ks = 0.
Find:
Resistance coefficient f.
Properties:
Water (70 ◦ F), Table A.5, ν = 1.06 × 10−5 ft2 / s.
SOLUTION
1. Reynolds number.
¡ ¢
4Q 4 2 ft3 / s
Re = = ¡ ¢
πDν π (0.3355 ft) 1.06 × 10−5 ft2 / s
= 7.16 × 105 (turbulent flow)
2. Swamee and Jain eqn.

0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re 0.9
0.25
= h ³ í2 = 0.0123
5.74
log10 0 + (7.16×105 )0.9
f = 0.012
45
Situation:
Water flows through a brass tube.
ks = 0, D = 3 cm.
Q = 0.002 m3 / s.
Find:
Resistance coefficient, f .
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
0.002 m3 / s
=
π/4 × (0.03 m)2
= 2.83 m/s
Reynolds number
VD
Re =
v
2.83 m/ s × 0.03 m
=
10−6 m2 / s
= 8.49 × 104
Friction factor (Swamee-Jain correlation)

0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re 0.9
0.25
= h ³ í2
5.74
log10 0 + (8.49×10 4 )0.9
f = 0.0185
46
Situation:
Water flows through a smooth pipe.
D = 0.25 m, Q = 0.05 m3 / s.
ks = 0.
Find:
Resistance coefficient, f .
Properties:
Water (10 ◦ C), Table A.5, ν = 1.31 × 10−6 m2 / s.
SOLUTION
1. Reynolds number
4Q
Re =
πDν
4 (0.05 m3 / s)
= −6 2
= 1.94 × 105
π (0.25 m) (1.31 × 10 m / s)
2. Moody diagram:
f = 0.016
47
Situation:
Water flows through a cast-iron pipe.
D = 10 cm, V = 4 m/ s.
Find:
Calculate the resistance coefficient.
Plot the velocity distribution.
Properties:
Water (10 ◦ C), Table A.5: ν = 1.31 × 10−6 m2 /s.
SOLUTION
VD
Re =
ν
4 m/ s(0.1 m)
=
1.31 × 10−6 m2 / s
= 3. 053 × 105
Sand roughness height

ks 0.00026
=
D 0.1
= 0.002 6
Resistance coefficient (Swamee-Jain correlation; turbulent flow)

0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re 0.9
0.25
= h ³ í2
log10 0.002
3.7
6
+ 5.74
(3. 053×105 )0.9
= 0.0258
f = 0.0258
Velocity profile (turbulent flow)
u y
= 5.75 log ( ) + 8.5
u∗ ks
Friction velocity(u∗ )
p
u∗ = τ 0 /ρ (1)
Resistance coefficient µ ¶
f ρV 2
τo = (2)
4 2
48
r
f
u∗ = V
r 8
0.0258
= 4
8
= 0.227 2 m/ s
Velocity profile
h y ´
³ i
u = (0.227 2 m/ s) 5.75 log + 8.5
0.00026
The distance from the wall (y) is related to pipe radius (R) and distance from the
centerline (r) by
y =R−r
Velocity Profile
∙ µ ¶ ¸
0.025 − r
u(r) = (0.227 2 m/ s) 5.75 log + 8.5
0.00026
Plot
4.5
y
4.0
3.5
3.0
2.5
2.0
1.5
0.0000.0020.0040.0060.0080.0100.0120.0140.0160.0180.0200.0220.024
x
49
Situation:
A fluid flows in a smooth pipe.
D = 100 mm, V̄ = 500 mm/ s.
Find:
(a) Maximum velocity ( m/ s).
(b) Resistance coefficient.
(c) Shear velocity ( m/ s).
(d) Shear stress 25 mm from pipe center ( N/ m2 ).
(e) Determine if the head loss will double if discharge is doubled.
Properties:
μ = 10−2 N · s/ m2 , ρ = 800 kg/ m3 .
SOLUTION
Reynolds number
V Dρ
Re =
μ
(0.5 m/ s)(0.1 m)(800 kg/ m3 )
=
10−2
= 4000
Because Re > 2000, assume the flow is turbulent.
a) Table 10.2 relates mean and centerline velocity. From this table,
V̄
Vmax =
0.791
0.50 m/ s
=
0.791
Vmax = 0.632 m/s
b) Resistance coefficient (from Moody diagram)
f = 0.041
c) Shear velocity is defined as
r
τo
u∗ = (1)
ρ
Wall shear stress
f ρV 2
τo =
4 2
50
Combine equations
µ ¶0.5
f
u∗ = V
8
µ ¶0.5
0.041
= (0.5 m/ s)
8
r
0.041 × 0.52
8
u∗ = 0.0358 m/ s
d) In a pipe flow, shear stress is linear with distance from the wall. The distance
of 25 mm from the center of the pipe is half way between the wall and the
centerline. Thus, the shear stress is 1/2 of the wall value:
τo
τ 25 mm =
2
The shear stress at the wall is given by Eq. (1)
τ o = ρu2∗
= 800 kg/ m3 × (0.0358 m/ s)2
= 1.025 N/ m2
Thus
τo
τ 25 mm =
2
1.025 N/ m2
=
2
τ 25 mm = 0.513 N/ m2
e) If flow rate (Q) is doubled, the velocity will also double. Thus, head loss will be
given by µ ¶
L (2V )2
hf = fnew
D 2g
The increase in velocity will increase Reynolds number, thereby decreasing the
friction factor so that fnew < foriginal Overall the head loss will increase by
slightly less than a factor of 4.0.
No, the increase in head loss will be closer to a factor of 4.0
51
Situation:
Water flows in a cast iron pipe.
D = 0.15 m, Q = 0.075 m3 / s.
ks = 0.26 mm.
Find:
Reynolds number.
Friction factor, f .
Shear stress at the wall (P a) .
Properties:
Water (20 ◦ C), Table A.5: ρ = 998 kg/ m3 , ν = 1.00 × 10−6 m2 / s.
SOLUTION
1. Flow rate eqn.
Q (0.075 m3 / s)
V = =
A (π/4) (0.15 m)2
= 4.244 m/ s
2. Reynolds number
VD (4.244 m/ s) (0.15 m)
Re = = = 6. 366 × 105
ν (1.00 × 10−6 m2 / s)
Re = 6. 37 × 105
3. Relative roughness
ks 0.26 mm
= = 1. 733 × 10−3
D 150 mm
4. Swamee Jain eqn.
0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re0.9
0.25
= h ³ í2 = 0.023
1. 733×10−3 5.74
log10 3.7
+ (6. 366×105 )0.9
f = 0.023
5. Definition of f :
f ρV 2 0.023 (998 kg/ m3 ) (4.244 m/ s)2

τ0 = =
8 8
= 51.68 Pa
τ 0 = 51.7 Pa
52
Situation:
Water flows in a uncoated cast iron pipe.
D = 4 in, Q = 0.02 ft3 / s.
Find: Resistance coefficient f.
Properties:
From Table A.5 (60 ◦ F): ν = 1.22 × 10−5 ft2 /s.
From Table 10.4: ks = 0.01 in.
SOLUTION
Reynolds number
4Q
Re =
πDν
4 × 0.02 ft3 / s
=
π × (4/12) ft × (1.22 × 10−5 ft2 / s)
= 6.3 × 103

ks 0.01
=
D 4
= 0.0025
Friction factor (from Moody diagram)
f = 0.038
53
Situation:
Fluid flows in a concrete pipe.
D = 6 in, L = 900 ft.
Q = 3 cfs, ks = 0.0002 ft.
Find:
Head loss ( ft).
Properties:
ρ = 1.5 slug/ft3 , ν = 3.33 × 10−3 ft2 / s.
SOLUTION
Reynolds number
4Q
Re =
πDν
4(3.0 ft3 / s)
=
π(0.5 ft)3.33 × 10−3 ft2 / s
= 2294 (laminar)
Flow rate equation

Q
V =
πD2 /4
3 ft3 / s
=
π/4 × (0.5 ft)2
= 15.28 ft/s
Head loss (laminar flow)

32μLV
hf =
γD2
32 × (5 × 10−3 lbf s/ ft2 ) × 900 ft × 15.28 ft/ s
= = 182.2 ft
1.5 slug/ ft3 × 32.2 ft/ s2 × (0.5 ft)2
hf = 182 ft
54
Situation:
Crude oil flows through a steel pipe.
D = 15 cm, Q = 0.03 m3 / s.
pB = 300 kPa, L = 1 km.
Find:
Pressure at point A ( kPa) .
Properties:
S = 0.82, μ = 10−2 N s/ m2 .
From Table 10.4: ks = 4.6 × 10−5 m.
SOLUTION
Reynolds number
VD
Re =
v
4Q
=
πDν
4 × 0.03 m3 / s
=
π × 0.15 m × (10−2 N s/ m2 /0.82)
2.09 × 104 (turbulent)
ks 4.6 × 10−5
=
D 0.15
= 3.1 × 10−4
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
0.03 m3 / s
=
π × (0.15 m)2 /4
= 1.698 m/s
Friction factor (from Moody diagram)
f = 0.027
L V2
hf = f
D 2g
µ ¶Ã !
1000 m (1.698 m/ s)2
= 0.027
0.15 m 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
= 26.4 m
55
Energy equation
pA /γ + αA VA2 /2g + zA = pB /γ + αB VB2 /2g + zB + hf
pA = 0.82 × 9810[(300000/(0.82 × 9810)) + 20 + 26.41] = 673 kPa

pA = 673 kPa
56
Situation:
A pipe is being using to measure viscosity of a fluid.
D = 1 cm, L = 1 m.
V = 3 m/ s, hf = 50 cm.
Find:
Kinematic viscosity.
SOLUTION
µ ¶µ ¶
L V2
hf = f
D 2g
µ ¶Ã !
1m (3 m/ s)2
0.50 = f
0.01 m 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
f = 0.0109
At this value of friction factor, Reynolds number can be found from the Moody
diagram. The result is:
Re = 1.5 × 106
Thus
VD
ν =
Re
(3 m/ s)(0.01 m)
= 6
= 2.0 × 10−8 m2 / s
1.5 × 10
ν = 2.0 × 10−8 m2 / s
57
Situation:
For a selected pipe:
f = 0.06, D = 40 cm.
V = 3 m/ s, ν = 10−5 m2 / s.
Find:
Change in head loss per unit meter if the velocity were doubled.
SOLUTION
Reynolds number
VD
Re =
v
3 m/ s × 0.4 m
=
10−5 m2 / s
= 1.2 × 105
Since Re > 3000, the flow is turbulent and obviously the conduit is very rough
(f = 0.06); therefore, one would expect f to be virtually constant with increased
velocity. Since hf = f (L/D) (V 2 /2g), we expect, hf ∼ V 2 , so if the velocity is
doubled, the head loss will be quadrupled.
58
Situation:
Water flows through a horizontal run of PVC pipe
V = 5 ft/ s, L = 100 ft.
Nominal diameter 2.5" Schedule 40 D = 2.45 in. = 0.204 ft (look up on internet).
Find:
(a) Pressure drop in psi.
(b) Head loss in feet.
(c) Power in horsepower needed to overcome the head loss.
Assumptions:
Assume ks = 0.
Assume α1 = α2 , where subscripts 1 and 2 denote the inlet and exit of the pipe.
Properties:
Water (50 ◦ F) , Table A.5:
ρ = 1.94 slug/ ft3 , γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 , ν = 14.1 × 10−6 ft2 / s.
PLAN
To establish laminar or turbulent flow, calculate the Reynolds number. Then find
the appropriate friction factor (f ) and apply the Darcy-Weisbach equation to find
the head loss. Next, find the pressure drop using the energy equation. Lastly, find
power using P = ṁghf .
SOLUTION
Reynolds number
VD
Re =
ν
(5 ft/ s) (0.204 ft)
= ¡ ¢
14.1 × 10−6 ft2 / s
= 72, 400
Thus, flow is turbulent.
Friction factor (f ) (Swamee-Jain correlation)

0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re 0.9
0.25
= h ³ í2
5.74
log10 72,400 0.9
= 0.0191
59
Darcy-Weisbach equation
L V2
hf = f
D 2g
µ ¶
100 ft (5 ft/ s)2
= 0.0191
0.204 ft 2 × 32.2 ft/ s2
= 3.635 ft
hf = 3.64 ft (part b)
Energy equation (section 2 located 100 ft downstream of section 1).
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p1 V2 p2 V2
+α +0+0 = +α + 0 + 0 + hf
γ 2g γ 2g
p1 p2
= + hf
γ γ
or ∆p = γhf
¡ ¢
= 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (3.635 ft)
= 227 psf
µ ¶µ ¶
lbf ft2
= 227
ft2 144 in2
∆p = 1.58 psi (part a)
Flow rate equation
ṁ = ρAV
Ã !
2
¡ ¢ π (0.204 ft)
= 1.94 slug/ ft3 (5 ft/ s)
4
= 0.317 slug/ s
Power equation
Ẇ = ṁghf
µ ¶
¡ 2
¢ 1.0 hp
= (0.317 slug/ s) 32.2 ft/ s (3.635 ft)
550 ft · lbf/ s
= 0.06746 hp
Power to overcome head loss = 0.0675 hp (part c)
REVIEW
60
1. The pressure drop for a 100 ft run of pipe (∆p = 227 psf ≈ 1.6 psi )could be
decreased by selecting a larger pipe diameter.
2. The power to overcome the frictional head loss is about 1/15 of a horsepower.
61
Situation:
Water flows with a through a horizontal run of PVC pipe
V = 2 m/ s, L = 50 m.
Nominal diameter 2.5" Schedule 40. D = 2.45 in. = 0.0622 m.
Find:
(a) Pressure drop in kPa.
(b) Head loss in meters.
(c) Power in watts needed to overcome the head loss.
Assumptions:
1.) Assume ks = 0.
2.) Assume α1 = α2 , where subscripts 1 and 2 denote the inlet and exit of the pipe.
Properties:
Water (10 ◦ C), Table A.5:
ρ = 1000 kg/ m3 , γ = 9810 N/ m3 , ν = 1.31 × 10−6 m2 / s.
PLAN
To establish laminar or turbulent flow, calculate the Reynolds number. Then find
the appropriate friction factor (f ) and apply the Darcy-Weisbach equation to find
the head loss. Next, find the pressure drop using the energy equation. Lastly, find
power using P = ṁghf .
SOLUTION
Reynolds number
VD
Re =
ν
(2 m/ s) (0.0622 m)
=
(1.31 × 10−6 m2 / s)
= 94, 960
Thus, flow is turbulent.
Friction factor (f ) (Swamee-Jain equation)

0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re 0.9
0.25
= h ³ í2
5.74
log10 94,960 0.9
= 0.0181
62
L V2
hf = f
D 2g
µ ¶
50 m (2 m/ s)2
= 0.0181
0.0622 m 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
= 2.966 m
hf = 2.97 m (part b)
Energy equation
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
Select a control volume surrounding the pipe. After analysis of each term, the energy
equation simplifies to
p1 p2
= + hf
γ γ
or ∆p = γhf
¡ ¢
= 9810 N/ m3 (2.966 m)
= 29, 096 kPa
∆p = 29.1 kPa (part a)

Flow rate equation
ṁ = ρAV
Ã !
2
¡ ¢ π (0.0622 m)
= 1000 kg/ m3 (2 m/ s)
4
= 6.077 kg/ s
Power equation
Ẇ = ṁghf
¡ ¢
= (6.077 kg/ s) 9.81 m/ s2 (2.966 m)
= 176.8 W
Power to overcome head loss = 177 W (part c)
REVIEW
1. The pressure drop (29 kPa) is about 1/3 of an atmosphere This value could be
decreased by increasing the pipe diameter to lower the speed of the water.
2. The power to overcome the frictional head loss is small, about 1/4 of a horse-
power.
63
Situation:
Air flows through a smooth tube.
Q = 0.015 m3 / s, D = 3 cm.
p = 110 kPa-absolute.
Find:
Pressure drop per meter of tube length.
Properties:
Air (20 ◦ C) Table A.3: μ = 1.81 × 10−5 N·s/m2 , ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 .
Assumptions:
1. Pipe is horizontal.
2. Fully developed flow so V and α are constant.
PLAN Solve the problem by applying the energy equation. The steps are:
1. Develop an equation for ∆p by applying the energy equation.
2. Calculate V using the flow rate equation.
3. Calculate ρ using the ideal gas law
4. Calculate Reynolds number.
5. Look up f on the Moody diagram using the Re from step 4.
6. Calculate hf using the Darcy-Wiesbach equation.
7. Combine results.
SOLUTION
1. Energy equation (cv surrounding a 1-m length of pipe)
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
Since the velocity head terms cancel, z1 = z2 , and hp = ht = 0, the energy equation
simplifies to
p1 p2
= + hL
γ γ
∆p = γhL = ρghf
Q
V =
A
0.015 m3 / s
=
π/4 × (0.03 m)2
= 21.2 m/s
64
3. Ideal gas law
p
ρ =
RT
110, 000 Pa
=
287 J/ kg K × 293 K
= 1.31 kg/m3
4. Reynolds number
V Dρ
Re =
μ
21.2 m/ s × 0.03 m × 1.20 kg/ m3
=
1.81 × 10−5 N s/ m2
= 42166
5. Friction factor (f ) (Moody diagram)
f = 0.0212
6. Darcy Weisbach equation
L V2
hf = f
D 2g
µ ¶Ã !
1m (21.2 m/ s)2
= 0.0212
0.03 m 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
= 16.19 m for a 1.0 m length of pipe
7. Combine results
∆p = hf ρg
¡ ¢¡ ¢
= (16.19 m) 1.31 kg/ m3 9.81 m/ s2
= 207.6 Pafor a 1.0 m length of pipe
∆p/L = 208 Pa/ m
65
Situation:
Water flows from point A to B in a cast iron pipe.
L = 3 mi, D = 24 in.
∆pB−A = 20 psi, ∆hA−B = 30 ft.
Find: ¡ ¢
Direction and rate of flow ft3 / s .
Assumptions:
Flow is from A to B.
Properties:
Water (50 ◦ F), Table A.5: ν = 1.41 × 10−5 ft2 /s.
Pipe Roughness, Table 10.4 (EFM9e), ks = 0.01 in = 0.000833 ft.
SOLUTION
hf = ∆(p/γ + z)
= (−20 × 144/62.4) + 30
= −16.2 ft
Therefore, flow is from B to A.
Parameters for the Moody diagram
Re f 1/2 = (D3/2 /ν)(2ghf /L)1/2

= (23/2 /(1.41 × 10−5 ) × 64.4 × 16.2/(3 × 5, 280))1/2
= 5.14 × 104
ks /D = 4. 2 × 10−4
Resistance coefficient (from the Moody diagram,Fig. 10.8)
f = 0.0175
q
V = hf 2gD/f L
p
= (16.2 × 64.4 × 2)/(0.0175 × 3 × 5, 280)
= 2.74 ft/s
Flow rate equation
q = VA
= 2.74 × (π/4) × 22
= q = 8.60cfs
66
Situation:
Air flows through a smooth tube.
D = 1 in, Q = 30 ft3 / min.
p = 15 psia.
Find:
Pressure drop per foot of tube.
Properties:
Air (80o F) Table A.3: μ = 3.85 × 10−7 lbf-s/ft2 .
SOLUTION
Q 30 ft3 / min × 4
V = = ¡ 1 ¢2 = 91.67 ft/s
A 60 s/ min × π × 12 ft
p 15 psia × 144 in2 / ft2
ρ = = = 0.00233 slugs/ft3
RT 1716 × 540
V Dρ 91. 67 ft/ s × (1/12) ft × 0.00233 slug/ ft3
Re = =
μ 3.85 × 10−7 lbf s/ ft2
= 4.623 × 104
Resistance coefficient (f ) (Swamee-Jain correlation; turbulent flow)

0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re 0.9
0.25
= h ³ í2
5.74
log10 (4.623×10 4 )0.9
= 0.0211
Pressure drop
µ ¶
L ρV 2
∆p = f
D 2
µ ¶Ã !
1 ft 0.00233 slug/ ft3 × (91.67 ft/ s)2
= 0.0211
1/12 ft 2
= 2. 479 psf/ft
∆p
= 2.48 psf per foot of tube
L
67
Situation:
Water is pumped through a vertical steel pipe to an elevated tank.
D = 10 cm, p1 = 1.6 MPa.
L = 80 m, Q = 0.02 m3 / s.
Find:
Pressure at point 80 m above pump.
Properties:
SOLUTION
4Q
Re =
πDν
4 × 0.02 m3 / s
= = 2.55 × 105
π × 0.10 m × 10−6 m2 / s
ks 4.6 × 10−2
= = 4.6 × 10−4
D 100
Resistance coefficient
f = 0.0185
Then
L V2
hf = f
D 2g
where
0.02 m3 / s
V = = 2.546 m/s
π/4) × (0.1 m)2
80 m (2.546 m/ s)2
hf = 0.0185 × × = 4.89 m
0.10 m 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
Energy equation (from pump to location 80 m higher)
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 = + α2 2 + z2 + hf
γ 2g γ 2g
6 2 2
1.6 × 10 Pa V1 p2 V2
3
+ = + + 80 + 4.89
9, 790 N/ m 2g γ 2g
V1 = V2
p2 = 769 kPa
68
Situation:
A train travels through a tunnel.
D = 10 ft, ks = 0.05 ft.
V = 50 ft/ s, L = 2500 ft
Find:
(a) Change in pressure between the front and rear of the train.
(b) Power required to produce the air flow in the tunnel.
(c) Sketch an EGL and a HGL.
Properties:
Air (60 ◦ F) Table A.3: γ = 0.0764 lbf/ft3 , ν = 1.58 × 10−4 ft2 /s.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from front of train to outlet of tunnel.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 = + α2 2 + z2 + hf
γ 2g γ 2g
2
p1 V1 V2 L V22
+ = 0+0+0+ 2 +f
γ 2g 2g D 2g
2
p1 L V2
= f
γ D 2g
ks 0.05
= = 0.005
D 10
VD 50 ft/ s × 10 ft
Re = = 2 = 3.2 × 106
v −4
1.58 × 10 ft / s
Resistance coefficient (from Moody diagram)
f = 0.030
69
L V22
p1 = γf
D 2g
µ ¶Ã !
2500 ft
3 (50 ft/ s)2
= (0.0764 lbf/ ft )(0.03)
10 64.4 ft/ s2
p1 = 22.24 psfg
Energy equation (from outside entrance to rear of train)
p3 V2 p4 V2 X
+ α3 3 + z3 = + α4 4 + z4 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
p4 V42 L V2
0+0+0 = + + 0 + Ke + f
γ 2g D 2g
µ 2¶µ ¶
p4 V L
= − 1.5 + f
γ 2g D
µ µ ¶¶
(50 ft/ s)2 2500 ft
= − 1.5 + 0.03
2g 10 ft
p4 = −γ(349.4 ft) = −26.69 psf
∆p = p1 − p4
= 22.24 − (−26.69) = 48.93 psf
∆p = 48.9 psf
Power equation
P = FV
= (∆pA)(50 ft/ s)
= (48.93 psf × π/4 × (10 ft)2 )(50 ft/ s)
= 192, 158 ft-lbf/s = 349 hp
P = 349 hp
EGL
HGL
Train
EGL
HGL
70
Situation:
Water is pumped from a reservoir to a tank.
D = 4 in, L = 300 ft.
Q = 1 ft3 / s, η = 0.9.
pB = 10 psig, pA = 0 psig.
Sketch:
Find:
Power to operate the pump.
Assumptions:
Assume the entrance is smooth.
Properties:
Water (60 ◦ F) Table A.5: ν = 1.22 × 10−5 ft2 /s.
Pipe roughness, Table 10.4 (EFM9e), ks = 0.002 in = 1. 67 × 10−5 ft.
Loss Coefficients, Table 10.5 (EFM9e), Ke = 0.03, KE = 1.
SOLUTION Flow rate equation
Q 1.0 ft3 / s
V = =
A (π/4)D2
1.0 ft3 / s
=
(π/4)(0.333 ft)2
= 11.46 ft/s
Then
11.46 ft/ s × (1/3) ft
Re = = 3.13 × 105
1.22 × 10−5 ft2 / s
ks
= 4.5 × 10−4
D
f = 0.0165
Then
71
L 300 ft
f = 0.0165 = 14.86
D (1/3) ft
Energy equation (from water surface A to water surface B)
pA V2 p2 V2 X
+ αA A + zA + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
µ ¶
10 psig × 144 in2 / ft2 L V2
0 + 0 + 0 + hp = + 0 + Ke + KE + f
62.4 ft/ s2 D 2g
Thus
(11.46 ft/ s)2

hp = 23.08 ft + (0.03 + 1 + 14.86) ft
64.4 ft/ s2
= 55.48 ft
Power equation
Qγhp
P =
η
1.0 ft3 / s × 62.4 ft/ s2 × 55.48 ft
=
0.9
= 3847 ft · lbf/s
= P = 6.99 horsepower
72
Problem 10.50
Classify problems as case 1, 2, or 3.
a. Problem 10.49.
• Classification: Case 1.
• Rationale for classification: Flow rate is specified. Solution path involves finding
head loss and then finding pump power.
b. Problem 10.52
• Rationale for classification: Hose diameter is the goal. Flow rate is specified.
c. Problem 10.55
• Rationale for classification: Pipe diameter is the goal. Flow rate is specified
and head loss can be easily related to the specified pressure drop.
73
Situation:
Water is flowing out a plastic siphon hose.
D = 0.012 m, H = 3 m.
h = 1.0 m, L = 5.5 m.
ks = 0.
Find:
Velocity (assume the Bernoulli equation applies).
Velocity (include the head loss in the hose).
Assumptions:
Steady flow.
Neglect all head loss (part 1 of problem).
Neglect component head loss (part 2 of problem).
Turbulent flow. Also, α2 = 1.0.
Properties:
Water (15 ◦ C), Table A.5: ν = 1.14 × 10−6 m2 / s.
PLAN
1. Use the Bernoulli equation to find velocity
Classify this problem as case 2 (V is unknown), then
2. Write the energy eqn., the Darcy-Weisbach eqn., etc. to produce a set of 4
equations with 4 unknowns.
3. Solve the set of equations using a computer program (we used TK Solver).
SOLUTION
1. Bernoulli equation (point 1 on tank surface; point 2 on exit plane of hose):
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ z1 + = + z2 +
γ 2g γ 2g
2
V
0 + (H + h) + 0 = 0 + 0 + 2
2g
p p
V = 2g (H + h) = 2 (9.81 m/ s2 ) (3 m + 1 m)
V = 8.86 m/ s
74
2. Equations for finding velocity:
• Energy equation:
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
2
V
0 + 0 + (H + h) + 0 = 0 + 2 + 0 + hf (1)
2g
• Darcy-Weisbach:
L V2
hf = f (2)
D 2g
• Swamee-Jain:
0.25
f=£ ¡ ks ¢¤2 (3)
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re0.9
• Reynolds number:
VD
Re = (4)
ν
3. Solution of Eqs. (1) to (4):
hf = 3.66 m
Re = 26930
f = 0.024
V = 2.56 m/ s
REVIEW
1. Notice that the turbulent flow assumption is valid because Re > 2300.
2. An easy way to solve case 2 and case 3 problems is to acquire a computer program
that can solve coupled, non-linear equations.
75
Situation:
Water is flowing out a plastic siphon hose.
Q = 0.0015 m3 / s, H = 5 m.
h = 0.5 m, L = 7 m, ks = 0.
Sketch:
Find:
Diameter of hose (meters).
Assumptions:
Steady flow.
Component head loss is zero.
Properties:
PLAN Classify this problem as case 3 (D is unknown), then

SOLUTION
1. Governing equations:
• Flow rate equation: µ ¶

πD2
Q=V (1)
4
• Energy equation (section 1 on water surface, section 2 at exit plane)
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
2
V
0 + 0 + (H + h) + 0 = 0 + 2 + 0 + hf (2)
2g
76
• Darcy-Weisbach:
L V2
hf = f (3)
D 2g
• Swamee-Jain:
0.25
f=£ ¡ ks ¢¤2 (4)
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re0.9
VD
Re = (5)
ν
hf = 4.715 m
Re = 75900
f = 0.0189
V = 3.92 m/ s
D = 0.022 m
REVIEW
• Notice that the turbulent flow assumption is valid because Re > 2300.
• An easy way to solve case 2 and case 3 problems is to acquire a computer

program that can solve coupled, non-linear equations.
• Notice that most of the elevation head (5.5 m) is converted to head loss (4.72 m) .
77
Situation:
Water is draining out of a tank through a galvanized iron pipe.
ks = 0.006 in = 5 × 10−4 ft, L = 10 ft, H = 4 ft.
The pipe is 1-in schedule 40 NPS, D = 1.049 in = 0.08742 ft.
Find:
Velocity in the pipe (ft/s).
Flow rate (cfs)
Assumptions:
Steady flow.
Properties:
Water (70 ◦ F), Table A.5, ρ = 1.94 slug/ ft3 , γ = 62.3 lbf/ ft3 , ν = 1.06 × 10−5 ft2 / s.
PLAN Classify this problem as case 2 (V is unknown), then

3. Find the flow rate with Q = V A.
SOLUTION
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V22
0 + 0 + (H + L) + 0 = 0 + + 0 + hf (1)
2g
• Darcy-Weisbach:
L V2
hf = f (2)
D 2g
78
• Swamee-Jain:
0.25
f=£ ¡ ks ¢¤2 (3)
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re0.9
VD
Re = (4)
ν
hf = 11.04 ft
Re = 113800
f = 0.0326
V = 13.8 ft/ s
πD2
Q = V
Ã4 !
π (0.08742 ft)2
= (13.8 ft/ s) = 8. 283 1 × 10−2 ft3 / s
4
Q = 0.0828 cfs
REVIEW
• Notice that the turbulent flow assumption is valid because Re > 2300.
• An easy way to solve case 2 and case 3 problems is to acquire a computer

program that can solve coupled, non-linear equations.
• Notice that most of the elevation head (14 ft) is converted to head loss (11 ft) .
79
Situation:
Water is draining out of a tank through a galvanized iron pipe.
L = 2 m, H = 1 m, ks = 0.15 × 10−3 m
The pipe is 0.5-in schedule 40 NPS, D = 0.622 in = 0.0158 m.
Find:
Velocity in the pipe (ft/s).
Assumptions:
Steady flow.
Turbulent flow, so α2 = 1.0.
Properties:
PLAN
Classify this problem as case 2 (V is unknown), then
SOLUTION

p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
2
V
0 + 0 + (H + L) + 0 = 0 + 2 + 0 + hf (1)
2g
• Darcy-Weisbach:
L V2
hf = f (2)
D 2g
80
• Swamee-Jain:
0.25
f=£ ¡ ks ¢¤2 (3)
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re0.9
VD
Re = (4)
ν
hf = 2.50 m
Re = 43600
f = 0.039
V = 3.15 m/ s
REVIEW
1. Notice that the turbulent flow assumption is valid because Re > 2300.
2. An easy way to solve case 2 and case 3 problems is to acquire a computer program
that can solve coupled, non-linear equations.
81
Situation:
Air is flowing in a horizontal copper tube.
L = 150 m, Q = 0.1 m3 / s, ks = 1.5 × 10−6 m.
Pressure drop in the tube cannot exceed ∆p = 6 in-H20 = 1493 Pa.
Find:
Tube diameter (meters).
Assumptions:
Steady flow. Fully developed flow.
Turbulent flow.
Properties:
Air (40 ◦ C, 1 atm), Table A.5, γ = 11.1 N/ m3 , ν = 1.69 × 10−5 m2 / s.
PLAN
Classify this problem as case 3 (D is unknown), then
SOLUTION
• Flow rate equation: µ ¶

πD2
Q=V (1)
4
• Energy equation (section 1 is located 150 m upstream from section 2).
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
— Since the flow is fully developed, the KE terms cancel out.
— let p1 − p2 = ∆p
— z1 = z2 = hp = ht = 0
∆p = γhf (2)
• Darcy-Weisbach:
L V2
hf = f (3)
D 2g
• Swamee-Jain:
0.25
f=£ ¡ ks ¢¤2 (4)
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re0.9
82
VD
Re = (5)
ν
hf = 134.5 m
Re = 67000
f = 0.0195
V = 10.1 m/ s
D > 0.112 m
REVIEW . The turbulent flow assumption is valid because Re > 2300.
83
Situation:
A fluid flows through a galvanized iron pipe.
D = 8 cm.
Pipe slope is 1 Horizontal to 10 Vertical.
Sketch:
Find:
Flow rate.
Properties:
From Table 10.4 ks = 0.15 mm.
ρ = 800 kg/ m3 , ν = 10−6 m2 / s.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 = + α2 2 + z2 + hf
γ 2g γ 2g
150000 Pa V12 120000 Pa V22
+ +0 = + + 3 m + hf
800 kg/ m3 × 9.81 m/ s2 2g 800 kg/ m3 × 9.81 m/ s2 2g
hf = 0.823 m
3/2 1/2
((D )/(ν)) × (2ghf /L) = ((0.08)3/2 /10−6 ) × (2 × 9.81 × 0.823/30.14)1/2
= 1.66 × 104
Relative roughness
ks 1.5 × 10−4
= = 1.9 × 10−3
D 0.08
Resistance coefficient. From Fig. 10-8 f = 0.025. Then
L V2
hf = f
D 2g
Solving for V
84
sµ ¶µ ¶
hf D
V = 2g
f L
sµ ¶µ ¶
0.823 m 0.08 m
= × 2 × 9.81 m/ s2 = 1.312 m/s
0.025 30.14 m
Q = VA
= 1.312 m/ s × (π/4) × (0.08 m)2 = 6.59 × 10−3 m3 / s
Q = 6.59 × 10−3 m3 / s
85
Situation:
Commercial steel pipe will convey water.
hL = 1 ft per 1000 ft of pipe length.
Q = 300 ft3 / s.
Find:
Pipe diameter to produce specified head loss.
Assumptions:
The pipes are available in even inch sizes (e.g. 10 in., 12 in., 14 in., etc.)
Properties:
From Table 10.4: ks = 0.002 in = 1. 7 × 10−4 ft.
SOLUTION
L V2
hf = f
D 2g
L Q2
= f
D 2gA2
8LQ2
= f 2 5
gπ D
Solve for diameter µ ¶1/5
8LQ2
D= f 2
gπ hf
Assume f = 0.015
Ã ¡ ¢2 !1/5
8 (1000 ft) 300 ft3 / s
D = 0.015
32.2 ft/ s2 × π 2 × 1 ft
= 8.06 ft
Now get a better estimate of f:
4Q
Re = = 3.9 × 106
πDν
0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re 0.9
0.25
= h ³ í2
0.002/12 5.74
log10 3.7×8.06 + (3.9×106 )0.9
= 0.0104
86
Compute D again:
Ã ¡ ¢2 !1/5
8 (1000 ft) 300 ft3 / s
D = 0.0104
32.2 ft/ s2 × π 2 × 1 m
= 7.49 ft
Thus, specify a pipe with D = 90 in
87
Situation:
A steel pipe will carry crude oil.
Q = 0.1 m3 / s.
hL = 50 m per km of pipe length.
Find:
(a) Diameter of pipe for a head loss of 50 m.
(b) Pump power.
Assumptions:
Available pipe diameters are D = 20, 22, and 24 cm.
Properties:
From Table 10.4: ks = 0.046 mm.
S = 0.93, ν = 10−5 m2 / s.
SOLUTION
L V2
hf = f
D 2g
L Q2
= f
D 2gA2
8LQ2
= f 2 5
gπ D
Solve for diameter µ ¶1/5
8LQ2
D= f 2
gπ hf
Assume f = 0.015
Ã 2
!1/5
8 (1000 m) (0.1 m3 / s)
D = 0.015
9.81 m/ s2 × π 2 × 50 m
= 0.19 m
88
Calculate a more accurate value of f
4Q
Re =
πDν
4 × 0.1 m3 / s
=
π × 0.19 m × 10−5 m2 / s
= 6.7 × 104
0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re 0.9
0.25
= £ ¡ 0.046 ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7×190 + 67000 0.9
= 0.021
Recalculate diameter using new value of f
µ¶1/5
0.021
D = × 0.19
0.015
= 0.203 m = 20.3 cm
Use the next larger size of pipe; D = 22 cm
Power equation (assume the head loss is remains at hL ≈ 50 m/1,000 m)
P = Qγhf
= 0.1 × (0.93 × 9810) × 50 = 45.6 kW
P = 45.6 kW for each kilometer of pipe length
89
Situation:
An electrostatic air filter is being tested.
Pressure drop is ∆p =3 in.-H2 0. Air speed is V = 10 m/ s.
Find: The minor loss coefficient (K) for the filter.

Properties:
Air (20 ◦ C) Table A.3: ν = 15.1 × 10−6 m2 / s.
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 , γ = 11.8 N/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the energy equation to relate the pressure drop to head loss. Then, find the
minor loss coefficient using hL = KV 2 /2g.
SOLUTION
Energy equation (select a control volume surrounding the filter)
µ ¶ µ ¶
p p
= + hL
γ 1 γ 2
Thus
∆p
hL =
γ air
³ ´
Pa
(3 in.-H2 O) 249.2 in.-H2 O
=
11.8 N/ m3
= 63.36 m
90
Head loss
KV 2
hL =
2g
2ghL
K = (1)
V2
2 (9.81 m/ s2 ) (63.36 m)
=
(10 m/ s)2
= 12.43
K = 12.4 (2)
REVIEW
1.) This minor loss coefficient is larger than the coefficient for any components listed
in Table 10.5.
2.) Combining Eqs. (1) and (2) gives K = ∆p/(ρV 2 /2). Thus, the pressure drop for
the filter is about 12 times larger that the pressure change that results when the flow
is brought to rest.
91
Situation:
Water is pumped between reservoirs through a steel pipe.
Q = 0.1 m3 / s, D = 15 cm.
Sketch:
Find:
Power that is supplied to the system by the pump.
Properties:
Water (10 ◦ C), Table A.5: v = 1.3 × 10−6 m2 / s, γ = 9810 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
0.1 m3 / s
=
(π/4) × (0.15 m)2
= 5.66 m/s
V2
= 1.63 m
2g
ks 0.0046
= = 0.0003
D 15
Reynolds number
VD 5.66 m/ s × 0.15 m
Re = =
v 1.3 × 10−6 m2 / s
= 6.4 × 105
Resistance coefficient (from the Moody diagram, Fig. 10.8)
f = 0.016
92
Energy equation (between the reservoir surfaces)
p1 V2 p2 V2 X
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V2 L
hp = z2 − z1 + (Ke + f + KE )
2g D
80 m
= 13 m − 10 m + 1.63 m × (0.1 + 0.016 × + 1)
0.15 m
= 3 + 15.7 = 18.7 m
Power equation
P = Qγhp
= 0.10 m3 / s × 9810 N/ m3 × 18.7 m
= 18, 345 W
P = 18.3 kW
93
Situation:
A siphon tube is used to drain water from a jug into a graduated cylinder.
Dtube = 3/16 in. = 0.01562 ft.
Ltube = 50 in, V = 500 ml.
Sketch:
Find:
Time to fill cylinder.
Assumptions:
T ' 60o F with ν = 1.2 × 10−5 ft2 /s.
Neglect head loss associated with any bend in the Tygon tube.
SOLUTION
Energy equation (from the surface of the water in the jug to the surface in the
graduated cylinder)
p1 V2 p2 V2 X
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + hL (1)
γ 2g γ 2g
Assume that the entrance loss coefficient is equal to 0.5. It could be larger than 0.5,
but this should yield a reasonable approximation. Therefore
X L V2
hL = (0.5 + f + KE )
D 2g
The exit loss coefficient, KE , is equal to 1.0. Therefore, Eq. 1 becomes
µ 2¶µ ¶
V2 L
∆z = zj − zc = 1.5 + f
2g D
s
2g∆z
or V = L
(1)
1.5 + f D
s
2g∆z
=
1.5 + f × 267
94
Assume f = 0.03 and let ∆z = (21 − 2.5)/12 = 1.54 ft. Then
r
2g × 1.54 ft
V =
1.5 + 10.7
= 2. 85 ft/s
VD
Re =
ν
2.85 ft/ s × .01562 ft
=
1.2 × 10−5 ft2 / s
= 3710
Resistance coefficient (recalculate)

0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re 0.9
0.25
= £ ¡ ¢¤2
5.74
log10 0 + 3710 0.9
= 0.040
Repeat calculations with a new value of friction factor.
r
2g × 1.54
V =
1.5 + 10.68
= 2.85 ft/s
VD
Re =
ν
= 3710
dh
Fig. A
Use f = 0.040 for final solution. As a simplifying assumption assume that as the
cylinder fills the level of water in the jug has negligible change. As the cylinder is
being filled one can visualize (see figure) that in time dt a volume of water equal to
Qdt will enter the cylinder and that volume in the cylinder can be expressed as Ac dh,
that is
Qdt = Ac dh
Ac
dt = dh
Q
95
But
Q = Vt At (3)
so
Ac /At
dt = dh
V
Substitute V of Eq. (1) into Eq. (2):
Ac /At
dt = dh
(2g∆z/(1.5 + 267f ))1/2
Vc = 0.500 liter = 0.01766 ft3
or
µ ¶
3 11.5
0.01766 ft = Ac × ft
12
Ac = 0.01842 ft2
µ ¶2
3/16
Atube = (π/4) ft = 0.0001917 ft2
12
Ac
= 96.1
At
The differential equation becomes
96.1
dt = dh
(2g∆z/(1.5 + 10.9))1/2
Let h be measured from the level where the cylinder is 2 in full. Then
21 in − 2.5 in
∆z = −h
12
∆z = 1.542 − h
Now we have
96.1
dt = dh
(2g(1.54 − h)/12.2)1/2
42.2
dt = dh
(1.54 − h)1/2
42.2
dt = − (−dh)
(1.54 − h)1/2
96
Integrate:
42.2(1.54 − h)1/2 h
t = − |0
1/2
= −84.4(1.54 − h)1/2 |0.75
0
= −84.4[(0.79) − (1.54)1/2 ]
1/2
= −84.4(0.889 − 1.241)
t = 29.7 s
REVIEW
Possible problems with this solution: The Reynolds number is very close to the point
where turbulent flow will occur and this would be an unstable condition. The flow
might alternate between turbulent and laminar flow.
97
Situation:
Water exits a tank through a short galvanize iron pipe.
Dtank = 2 m, Dpipe = 26 mm.
Lpipe = 2.6 m, z1 = 10 m.
Fully open angle valve: Kv = 5.0.
Sketch:
Find:
Time required for the water level in tank to drop from 10 m to 2 m.
Assumptions:
The pipe entrance is smooth: Ke ≈ 0
The kinetic energy correction factor in the pipe is α2 = 1.0
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the top of the tank (location 1) to the exit of the
angle valve (location 2).
SOLUTION
Energy equation
V2 V2 L
h = α2 + (Ke + Kv + f )
2g 2g D
α2 = 1.0
Ke ≈ 0, Kv = 5.0
L/D = 2.6/0.026 = 100.0
Combine equation and express V in terms of h

s
2gh
V =
6 + 100 × f
98
ks 0.15
= = 5.8 × 10−3
D 26
Reynolds number
V × 0.026
Re = = 2.6 × 104 V
10−6
Rate of decrease of height
dh Q 0.000531
=− =− V = −0.000169V
dt A 3.14
A program was written to first find V iteratively for a given h using the Swamee-Jain
equation for the friction factor. Then a new h was found by
hn = hn−1 − 0.000169V ∆t
where ∆t is the time step. The result was 1424 s or 23.7 minutes.
t = 23.7 min
REVIEW
1. When valves are tested to evaluate Kvalve the pressure taps are usually connected
to pipes both upstream and downstream of the valve. Therefore, the head loss
in this problem may not actually be 5V 2 /2g.
2. The velocity exiting the valve will probably be highly non-uniform; therefore,
this solution should be considered as an approximation only.
99
Situation:
Water drains from a tank, passes through a pipe and then jets upward.
D = 1.5 cm, L = 10 m, ∆z = 5 m.
Two 90 ◦ elbows in pipe.
Find:
(a) Exit velocity of water ( m/ s).
(b) Height of water jet ( cm).
Assumptions:
The pipe is galvanized iron.
The water temperature is 20o C so ν = 10−6 m2 /s.
Relative roughness ks /D = .015/1.5 = 0.01. Start iteration at f = 0.035.
Properties:
From Table 10.4 ks = 0.15 mm = 0.015 cm.
From Table 10.5 Kb = 0.9 and Ke = 0.5.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the water surface in the tank to the pipe outlet.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V2 p2 V2 X
+ α1 1 + z1 = + α2 2 + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V2 L V2
0 + 0 + 5 = 0 + α2 2 + 0 + (Ke + 2Kb + f ) 2
2g D 2g
µ 2¶µ ¶
V2 10 m
5 = 1 + 0.5 + 2 × 0.9 + .035 ×
2g 0.015 m
µ 2
¶
V2
5 = (26.6)
2 × 9.81
V2 = 1.920 m/s
100
Reynolds number
Re = V D/ν
= 1.92 × 0.015/10−6
= 2.88 × 104 .
Resistance coefficient (new value)

0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re 0.9
0.25
= £ ¡ 0.01 ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7 + 28800 0.9
= 0.040
Recalculate V2 with this new value of f
V2 = 1.81 m/s
Energy equation (from the pipe outlet to the top of the water jet)
V2
h =
2g
(1.81 m/ s)2
=
2 × 9.81 m/ s2
= 0.1670 m
= h = 16.7cm
101
Situation:
A pump operates between a reservoir and a tank.
hp = ho (1 − Q2 /Q2max ), ho = 50 m.
Qmax = 2 m3 / s, f = 0.18.
D = 90 cm, Atan k = 100 m2 .
Find:
Time to fill tank to 40 meters.
Properties:
From Table 10.5: Ke = 0.5 and KE = 1.0.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the reservoir water surface to the tank water surface.
The head losses will be due to entrance, pipe resistance, and exit.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22 X
+ + z1 + hp = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
L V2
0 + 0 + z1 + hp = 0 + 0 + z2 + (Ke + f + KE )
D 2g
µ µ ¶ ¶ 2
30 V
hp = (z2 − z1 ) + 0.5 + 0.018 × + 1.0
0.9 2g
2
V
hp = h + (2.1)
2g
But the head supplied by the pump is ho (1 − (Q2 /Q2max )) so
µ ¶
Q2 V2
ho 1 − 2 = h + 1.05
Qmax g
µ 2
¶
Q Q2
50 1 − = h + 1.05 2
4 gA
Q2
50 − 12.5Q2 = h + 1.05 2
gA
102
Area
A = (π/4)D2 = (π/4)(0.92 ) = 0.63 m2
So
50 − 12.5Q2 = h + 0.270Q2
50 − h = 127.77Q2
√
50 − h = 3.57Q
The discharge into the tank and the rate of water level increase is related by
dh
Q = Atank
dt
so
√ dh
50 − h = 3.57Atank
dt
or
dt = 3.57Atank (50 − h)−1/2 dh

Integrating
t = 2 × 3.57Atank (50 − h)1/2 + C

when t = 0, h = 0 and Atank = 100 m2 so
t = 714(7.071 − (50 − h)1/2 )

When h = 40 m
t = 2791 s
t = 46.5 min
103
Situation:
Water flows out of reservoir, through a steel pipe and a turbine.
Q = 5 ft3 / s, η = 0.8, ∆z = 100 ft.
D = 12 in, L = 1000 ft.
Sketch:
Find:
Power delivered by turbine.
Assumptions:
Turbulent flow, so α2 ≈ 1.
Properties:
Water (70o F), Table A.5: ν = 1.06 × 10−5 ft2 /s
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the reservoir water surface to the jet at the end of
the pipe.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22 X
+ α1 + z1 = + α2 + z2 + hT + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
µ ¶
V22 L V2
0 + 0 + z1 = 0 + α2 + z2 + hT + Ke + f
2g D 2g
2
L V
z1 − z2 = hT + (1 + 0.5 + f )
D 2g
µ ¶ 2
L V
100 ft = hT + 1.5 + f
D 2g
104
But
Q 5 ft3 / s
V = = = 6.37 ft/s
A (π/4) (1 ft)2
V2
= 0.6293 ft
2g
VD
Re = = 6.0 × 105
v
From Fig. 10.8 f = 0.015 for ks /D = 0.000167. Then
µ ¶
1000 ft
100 ft = hT + 1.5 + 0.0150 × (0.6293 ft)
1 ft
hT = (100 − 10.35) ft = 89.65 ft
Power equation
P = QγhT η
¡ ¢¡ ¢
= 5 ft3 / s 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (89.6 ft) (0.80)
= 22, 364 ft · lbf/s
P = 40.7 horsepower
105
Situation:
Oil is pumped from a lower reservoir to an upper reservoir through a steel pipe.
D = 30 cm, Q = 0.20 m3 / s.
z1 = 100 m, z2 = 112 m, L = 150 m.
Sketch:
Find:
(a) Pump power.
(b) Sketch an EGL and HGL.
Properties:
ρ = 940 kg/ m3 , v = 10−5 m2 / s.
From Table 10.4 ks = 0.046 mm
PLAN
Apply the energy equation between reservoir surfaces .
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V2 p2 V2 X
+ α1 1 + z1 + hp = + α2 2 + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V2 L
100 + hp = 112 + (Ke + f + KE )
2g D
µ 2¶µ ¶
V L
hp = 12 + 0.03 + f + 1
2g D
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
0.2 m3 / s
=
(π/4) × (0.30 m)2
= 2.83 m/s
V2
= 0.408 m
2g
106
Reynolds number
VD
Re =
v
2.83 m/ s × 0.30 m
=
10−5 m2 / s
= 8.5 × 104
ks 4.6 × 10−5 m
=
D 0.3 m
= 1.5 × 10−4
Resistance coefficient (from the Moody diagram, Fig. 10.8)
f = 0.019
Then
150 m
hp = 12 m + 0.408 m(0.03 + (0.019 × ) + 1.0)
0.3 m
= 16.3 m
Power equation
P = Qγhp
= 0.20 m3 / s × (940 kg/ m3 × 9.81 m/ s2 ) × 16.3 m = 30100 W
P = 30.1 kW
HGL
EGL
107
Situation:
A cast iron pipe joins two reservoirs.
D = 1.0 ft, L = 200 ft.
z1 = 100 ft, z2 = 40 ft.
zpipe1 = 70 ft, zpipe2 = 30 ft.
Find:
(a) Calculate the discharge in the pipe.
(b) Sketch the EGL and HGL.
Properties:
From Table 10.4: ks = 0.01 in
Water (60o F), Table A.5:
ν = 1.22 × 10−5 ft2 /s, μ = 2.36 × 10−5 N · s/ m2 , ρ = 1.94 slug/ m3 .
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the water surface in the upper reservoir to the water
surface in the lower reservoir.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V2 p2 V2 X
+ α1 1 + z1 = + α2 2 + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
µ ¶
L V2
0 + 0 + 100 = 0 + 0 + 40 + Ke + 2Kv + +KE + f
D 2g
µ ¶
200 ft V 2
100 ft = 40 ft + 0.5 + 2 × 0.2 + 1.0 + f ×
1 ft 2g
The equation for V becomes
V2 60
= (1)
2g 1.9 + 200f
Relative roughness
ks 0.01 ft
=
D 12 ft
= 8. 3 × 10−4
Reynolds number
VD
Re =
ν
V × 1.0 ft
=
1.22 × 10−5 ft2 / s
¡ ¢
= 8.20 × 104 × V (2)
108
Friction factor (Swamee-Jain correlation—Eq. 10.26)
0.25
f=h ³ í2 (3)
−4
log10 8. 3×10
3.7
+ 5.74
(8.20×104 ×V )0.9
Solve Eqs. (1) to (3) simultaneously (we applied a computer program, TK Solver)
V = 26.0 m/ s
Re = 2, 130, 000
f = 0.019
Flow rate equation
Q = VA
= 26.0 ft/ s(π/4 × (1 ft)2 )
= Q = 20.4 cfs
109
Situation:
A small stream fills a reservoir—water from this reservoir is used to create electrical
power.
Q = 2 cfs, H = 34 ft.
hf =3 ft, L = 87 ft.
Sketch:
Find:
Find the minimum diameter for the penstock pipe.
Assumptions:
Neglect minor losses associated with flow through the penstock.
Assume that pipes are available in even sizes—that is, 2 in., 4 in., 6 in., etc.
Assume a smooth, plastic pipe— ks = 0.
Assume turbulent flow (check this after the calculation is done).
Properties:
Water (40 ◦ F), Table A.5: ν = 1.66 × 10−5 ft2 / s.
PLAN
Apply the Darcy-Weisbach equation to relate head loss (hf ) to pipe diameter. Apply
the Swamee-Jain correlation to relate friction factor (f ) to flow velocity. Also, write
equations for the Reynolds number and the flow rate. Solve these four equations
simultaneously to give values of D, V, f, and Re.
SOLUTION
L V2
hf = f (1)
D 2g
Resistance coefficient (Swamee-Jain correlation; turbulent flow)
0.25
f=£ ¡ 5.74 ¢¤2 (2)
log10 Re 0.9
110
Reynolds number
VD
Re = (3)
ν
Flow rate equation
πD2
Q=V (4)
4
Solve Eqs. (1) to (4) simultaneously. The computer program TKSolver was used for
our solution.
f = 0.01448
V = 9.026 ft/ s
D = 6.374 in
Re = 289, 000
Recommendation
Select a pipe with D = 8 in.
REVIEW
With an 8-inch-diameter pipe, the head loss associated with flow in the pipe will be
less than 10% of the total available head (34 ft). If an engineer selects a pipe that is
larger that 8 inches, then cost goes up.
111
Situation:
A pipe runs from a reservoir to an open drain.
zreservoir = 120 ft, zpipe1 = 100 ft, zpipe2 = 70 ft.
D = 6 in, L = 100 ft, p1 = p2 = 0 psi.
Find: ¡ ¢
Discharge ft3 / s .
Properties:
From Table 10.4: ks = 4 × 10−4 ft.
From Table 10.5: Ke = 0.5.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from water surface in reservoir to the outlet.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V2 L V2
0 + 0 + 120 ft = 0 + + 70 ft + (Ke + +KE + f )
2g D 2g
2
µ ¶
V L
1.5 + f = 50 ft
2g D
V2 50 ft
= (1)
2g 1.5 + 200f
ks 4 × 10−4 ft
= = 0.0008
D 0.5 ft
Reynolds number
Re = 3.54 × 104 × V (2)

Solve a set of three simultaneous equations: Eq. (1) Eq. (2), and the Swamee-Jain
correction. The result is
V = 24.6 ft/s
Flow rate equation
Q = VA
= 24.6(π/4)(0.52 )
112
Q = 4.83 cfs
EGL
HGL
113
Situation:
A shell and tube heat exchanger is used in a geothermal power system
Clean fluid inside the tubes; brine outside of the tubes.
100 tubes total. Galvanized iron.
D = 2 cm, L = 5 m, ṁ = 50 kg/ s.
After continued used, 2 mm of build up, ks = .5 mm.
Find:
Power required to operate heat exchanger with:
(a) clean tubes.
(b) scaled tubes.
Properties:
Pipe roughness (galvanized iron), Table 10.4 (EFM9e), ks = 0.15 mm.
Given fluid properties (T = 200 ◦ C) ρ = 860 kg/ m3 , μ = 1.35 × 10−4 N s/ m2 .
SOLUTION
ṁ/tube = 0.50 kg/s
0.50 kg/ s
Q/tube = 3
= 5.8139 × 10−4 m3 /s
860 kg/ m
Q 5.8139×10−4 m3 / s
V = = = 1.851 m/s
A (π/4) × (0.02 m)2
V Dρ 1.851 m/ s × 0.02 m × 860 kg/ m3
Re = = = 2.35 × 105
μ 1.35 × 10−4 N s/ m2
ks 0.15 m
= ≈ 0.007
D 20 m
From the Moody diagram, f = 0.034. Then
LV2 5m (1.851 m/ s)2

hf = f = 0.034 × × = 1.48 m
D 2g 0.02 m 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
a) P = Qγhf = 5.8139 × 10−4 m3 / s × 860 kg/ m3 × 9.81 m/ s2 × 1.48 m × 100 = 726 W
P = 726 W (clean tubes)
114
Part (b)
ks 0.5
=
D 16
= 0.031
From the Moody diagram, f = 0.058

µ ¶4
0.058 20
P = 726 W × × = 3.03 kW
0.034 16
P = 3.03 kW (scaled tubes)
115
Situation:
Water flows through a heat exchanger.
L = 20 m, D = 2 cm, Q = 3.4 × 10−4 m3 / s.
T1 = 20 ◦ C, T2 = 80 ◦ C, ∆z = 0.8 m, p1 = p2 .
Sketch:
Find:
Pump power required.
Assumptions:
K =2 x K for smooth bends of 90◦ , r/d ≈ 1, Kb ≈ 2 ∗ 0.35 = 0.7
Properties can be found at the average temperature in the heat exchanger.
Smooth tubes (ks = 0.0 m)
Properties:
Water (50 ◦ C), Table A.5: ν = 5.53 × 10−7 m2 /s, ρ = 998 kg/ m3 , γ = 9693 N/ m3 .
SOLUTION
Energy equation (section 1 at inlet, section 2 at exit)
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 + hp = + + z2 + ht + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
Since V1 = V2 and p1 = p2
hp = hL + (z2 − z1 )
Velocity
Q 3 × 10−4 m3 / s
V = = = 0.955 m/s
A π/4 × (0.02 m)2
Reynolds number and resistance coefficient
VD 0.955 m/ s × (0.02 m)
Re = = = 34539
v 5.53 × 10−7 m2 / s
f = 0.022
116
Head loss
µ ¶ 2 µ ¶
L V 20 m (0.955 m/ s)2
hL = f + 19Kb = 0.022 + 19 × 0.7
D 2g 0.02 m 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
= 1.64 m
Final calculations
hp = z2 − z1 + hL = 0.8 + 1.64 = 2.44 m

P = γhp Q = 9693 N/ m3 × 2.44 m × 3 × 10−4
P = 7.10 W
117
Situation:
A heat exchanger is described in the problem statement.
V = 10 m/ s, D = 2 cm.
η = 0.8, L = 10 m.
14 - 180 ◦ elbows, KL = 2.2.
Sketch:
Find:
Power required to operate pump.
Properties:
Water (40 ◦ C), Table A.5: ν = 6.58 × 10−7 m2 /s, γ = 9732 N/ m3
SOLUTION
Reynolds number
0.02 × 10
Re = −7
= 3.04 × 105
6.58 × 10
Flow rate equation
π
Q= × (0.02 m)2 × 10 m/ s = 0.00314 m3 /s
4
Relative roughness (copper tubing)
ks 1.5 × 10−3 mm
= = 7.5 × 10−5
D 20 mm
f = 0.0155
Energy equation
V2 L X
hp = (f + KL )
2g D
(10 m/ s)2 10 m
= 2
(0.0155 × + 14 × 2.2) = 196 m
2 × 9.81 m/ s 0.02 m
118
Power equation
γQhp
P =
η
9732 N/ m3 × 0.00314 m3 / s × 196 m
=
0.8
= 7487 W
P = 7.49 kW
119
Situation:
A heat exchanger is described in the problem statement.
L = 15 m, D = 15 mm.
Qmax = 10−3 m3 / s.
hp = hp0 [1 − (Q/Qmax )3 ] .
14 - 180 ◦ elbows, KL = 2.2.
Find:
System operating points for hp0 of 2 m, 10 m and 20 m.
Properties:
From Table 10.4: ks = 1.5 × 10−3 mm.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
V2 X L
hp = ( KL + f )
2g D
Substitute in the values for loss coefficients, L/D and the equation for hp
" µ ¶3 #
Q V2
hp0 1 − = (14 × 2.2 + f × 1000)
Qmax 2g
Flow rate equation
Q = VA
= 1.767 × 10−4 V
Combine equations
" µ ¶3 #
Q
hp0 1 − = 1.632 × 106 Q2 (30.8 + f × 1000) (1)
Qmax
Relative roughness
ks 1.5 × 10−3
= = 10−4
D 15
120
Reynolds number
VD
Re =
ν
V × 0.015
= −7
= 2.28 × 104 V = 1.29 × 108 Q
6.58 × 10
Eq. (1) becomes
" µ ¶3 #
Q
F (Q) = hp0 1 − − 1.632 × 106 Q2 (30.8 + f × 1000)
Qmax
A program was written to evaluate F (Q) by inputting a value for Q and trying
different Q’s until F (Q) = 0. The results are
hp0 (m) Q (m3 /s)

2 0.000356
10 0.000629
20 0.000755
121
Situation:
Gasoline being pumped from a gas tank.
Pressure in the tank = 14.7 psia, pressure in the carburetor = 14.0 psia.
Dtube = 0.25 in = 0.0208 ft, Djet = 1/32 in = 0.00260 ft.
L = 10 ft,
η = 0.80, Q = 0.12 gpm = 2.68 × 10−4 cfs
Sketch:
Find:
Pump power.
Properties:
Gasoline Fig. A.2: S = 0.68, ν = 5.5 × 10−6 ft2 /s, γ = 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 0.68 = 42.4
lbf/ft3
Loss coefficient, Table 10.5 (EFM9e), 90 ◦ smooth bends, r/d = 6, Kb = 0.21.
SOLUTION
Velocity values
¡ ¢
4Q 4 2.68 × 10−4 ft3 /s
Vtube = = = 0.789 ft/ s
2
πDtube π (0.0208 ft)2
µ ¶2 µ ¶2
.25 in .25 in
Vjet = Vtube = (0.789 ft/ s) = 50.5 ft/ s
1/32 in 1/32 in
2
Vtube
= 0.00959 ft
2g
2
Vjet
= 39.3 ft
2g
122
Reynolds number (fuel line)
VD
Re =
v
0.789 ft/ s × 0.0208 ft
=
5.5 × 10−6 ft2 / s
= 2972
From Moody diagram

f ≈ 0.040
Energy equations
µ ¶ 2
L V1
hL = f + 5Kb
D 2g
µ ¶
10 ft
= 0.040 × + 5 × 0.21 0.00959 ft = 0.194 ft
0.0208 ft
p2 − p1 V2
hp = + z2 − z1 + 2 + hL
γ 2g
(14.0 psia − 14.7 psia) 144 in2 / ft2
= + 2 + 39.3 + 0.194 = 39.1 ft
42.4 lbf/ ft3
Power equation
γhp Q 42.4 lbf/ ft3 (39.1 ft)0.000268 ft3 / s

P = = = 10.1 × 10−4 hp
550η 550 × 0.8
P = 10.1 × 10−4 hp
123
Situation:
A partially-closed valve on a steel pipeline between two reservoirs.
D = 10 cm, ∆z = 2 m, L = 14 m.
Sketch:
Find:
Loss coefficient for valve, Kv .
Properties:
From Table 10.4: ks = 0.046 mm
Water (10 ◦ C), Table A.5: v = 1.31 × 10−6 m2 / s.
PLAN
First find Q for valve wide open. Assume valve is a gate valve.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22 X
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V2 L
2 = 0+0+0+ (0.5 + 0.9 + 0.2 + 0.9 + 1 + f )
2g D
4g
V2 = L
3.5 + f D
124
Assume f = 0.015. Then
µ ¶1/2
4 × 9.81 m/ s2
V = = 2.65 m/s
3.5 + 0.015 × 14 m/0.1 m
ks
' 0.0005
D
2.65 m/ s × 0.10 m
Re = = 2.0 × 105
1.3 × 10−6 m2 / s
From the Moody diagram, f = 0.019. Then

µ ¶1/2
4 × 9.81 m/ s2
V = = 2.52 m/s
3.5 + 0.019 × 14 m/0.1 m
2.52
Re = 2.0 × 105 × = 1.9 × 105 ; O.K.
2.65
This is close to 2.0×105 so no further iterations are necessary. For one-half the
discharge
V = 1.26 m/s
Re = 9.5 × 104
and from the Moody diagram f = 0.021. So
2 4 × 9.81 m/ s2
V = 1.588 =
3.3 + Kv + 0.021 × 14 m/0.1 m
3.3 + Kv + 2.94 = 24.7
Kv = 18.5
125
Situation:
A galvanized steel pipe connects a water main to a factory.
p1 = 300 kPa, Q = 0.025 m3 / s.
L = 160 m, z2 = 10 m, p2 = 60 kPa.
Find:
The pipe size.
Properties:
Water (10 ◦ C), Table A.5: γ = 9810 N/ m3 , ν = 1.31 × 10−6 m2 / s.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hf
γ 2g γ 2g
300000 Pa 60000 Pa
+0 = + 10 + hf
9810 N/ m3 9810 N/ m3
hf = 14.46 m
L Q /A2
2
f = 14.46
D 2g
L Q2
f = 14.46
D (π/4 × D2 )2 /2g
42 f LQ2 /π2
= 14.46
2gD5
∙ ¸1/5
(8/14.46)f LQ2
D =
π2g
Assume f = 0.020. Then

∙ ¸1/5
(8 m/14.46 m) × 0.02 × 140 m × (0.025 m3 / s)2
D =
π 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
= 0.1027 m
Relative roughness
ks 0.15
=
D 103
= 0.00146
126
Reynolds number
4Q
Re =
πDν
4 × (0.025 m3 / s)
=
π × (0.1027 m) × (1.31 × 10−6 m2 / s)
= 2.266 × 105
Friction factor (f) (Swamee-Jain correlation)
0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re 0.9
0.25
= h ³ í2
log10 .00146
3.7
+ 5.74
(2.266×105 )0.9
= 2. 271 7 × 10−2
Recalculate pipe diameter

µ ¶1/5
0.0227
D = 0.1027 × = 0.105 m
0.020
Specify a 12-cm pipe
127
Situation:
A steel pipe discharges into the atmosphere.
D = 10 cm, L = 1000 m, z1 = 12 m.
Sketch:
Find:
Discharge ( m3 / s).
Pressure at point A.
Assumptions:
Water temperature is 10 ◦ C.
Properties:
From Table 10.5: Kv = 10, Kb = 0.9, Ke = 0.5.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22 X
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V2 L
0 + 12 + 0 = 0 + 0 + 2 (1 + Ke + Kv + 4Kb + f × )
2g D
Using a pipe diameter of 10 cm and assuming f = 0.025
1000 m
24g = V 2 (1 + 0.5 + 10 + 4(0.9) + 0.025 × )
0.1 m
V 2 = 24g/265.1 = 0.888 m2 /s2
V = 0.942 m/s
Q = VA
= 0.942 m/ s × π/4 × (0.10 m)2
Q = 0.0074m3 /s
Re = 0.942 × 0.1/1.31 × 10−6 = 7 × 104
128
From Fig. 10.8 f ≈ 0.025
pA V 2 pB V 2 X
+ + zA = + + zB + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
pA V2 L
+ 15 = (2Kb + f × )
γ 2g D
2 2
pA 0.888 m / s 500 m
= (2 × 0.9 + 0.025 × ) − 15 m = −9.26 m
γ 2g 0.1 m
pA = 9810 N/ m3 × (−9.26 m)
= pA = −90.8 kPa
Note that this is not a good installation because the pressure at A is near cavitation
level.
129
Situation:
Water is pumped from one reservoir to another reservoir.
D = 1.5 m, Q = 25 m3 / s.
L = 300 m, z2 = 140 m, z1 = 100 m.
Sketch:
Find:
Pump power.
Properties:
Water (10 ◦ C), Table A.5 ν = 1.31 × 10−6 mm.
SOLUTION Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22 X
+ + z1 + hp = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
µ ¶
V22 V22 L
0 + 0 + 100 + hp = 0 + + 140 + 0.03 + f
2g 2g D
Flow rate
Q
V2 =
Ap
25 m3 / s
=
(π/4) × (1.5 m)2
= 14.15 m/s
Reynolds number
VD
Re =
ν
14.15 m/ s × 1.5 m
=
1.31 × 10−6 m2 / s
= 1.620 × 107
ks 0.046
=
D 1500
= 0.00003
130
Friction factor (Moody Diagram) or the Swamee-Jain correlation:
0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re0.9
0.25
= h ³ í2
0.00003 5.74
log10 3.7
+ (1.620×107 )0.9
= 0.009995
≈ 0.01
Then
µ ¶
V22 300 m
hp = 140 m − 100 m + 1.03 + 0.010 ×
2g 1.5 m
2 µ ¶
(14.15 m/ s) 300 m
= 140 m − 100 m + 1.03 + 0.010 ×
2 × 9.81 m/ s2 1.5 m
hp = 70.92 m
Power equation
P = Qγhp
¡ ¢ ¡ ¢
= 25 m3 / s × 9810 N/ m3 × (70.92 m) = 17.4 MW
P = 17.4 MW
131
Situation:
A system with two pipe sizes connects two reservoirs.
ks = 0.1 mm, Q = 0.1 m3 / s.
D1 = 15 cm, L1 = 50 m.
D2 = 30 cm, L2 = 160 m.
Sketch:
Find:
Difference in water surface between two reservoirs.
Properties:
Water (20o C), Table A.5: ν = 10−6 m2 / s.
SOLUTION
ks 0.1
= = 0.00067
D15 150
ks 0.1
= = 0.00033
D30 300
Q 0.1 m3 / s
V15 = = = 5.659 m/s
A15 π/4 × (0.15 m)2
V30 = 1.415 m/s
VD 5.659 m/ s × 0.15 m
Re15 = = = 8.49 × 105
v 10−6 m2 / s
1.415 m/ s × 0.3 m
Re30 = = 4.24 × 105
10−6 m2 / s
Resistance Coefficient (from the Moody diagram, Fig. 10-8)
f15 = 0.0185
f30 = 0.0165
Energy equation
X
z1 − z2 = hL
132
V152 50
z1 − z2 = (0.5 + 0.0185 × )
2g 0.15
µ ¶
V302 160 m (V15 − V30 )2
+ 1 + 0.0165 × +
2g 0.3 m 2g
Ã !
(5.659 m/ s)2
z1 − z2 = (6.67)
2 × 9.81 m/ s2
Ã !
(1.415 m/ s)2 (5.659 m/ s − 1.415 m/ s)2
+ (9.80) +
2 × 9.81 m/ s2 2 × 9.81
z1 − z2 = 1.632 m(6.67) + 1.00 m + 0.918 m
z1 − z2 = 12.80 m
133
Situation:
A tank discharges to atmosphere through a piping system.
Sketch:
Find:
Sketch the EGL and HGL.
Identify where cavitation might occur.
SOLUTION
E.G.L.
H.G.L.
Answer ==> Cavitation could occur in the venturi throat section or just down-
stream of the abrupt contraction (where there will be a contraction of the flow area).
134
Situation:
A steel pipe carries water from a main pipe to a reservoir.
z1 = 20 ft, z2 = 90 ft.
Q = 50 gpm, D = 2 in, L = 240 ft.
Sketch:
Find:
Pressure at point A.
Properties:
From Table 10.5: Kb = 0.9, Kv = 10.
From Table 10.4: ks = 5 × 10−4 ft.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
pA VA2 p2 V22 X
+ + zA = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
pA V2 L
+ 20 ft + 0 = 0 + 90 ft + 0 + (0.5 + 2Kb + Kv + f + 1)
γ 2g D
Q 50/449
V = = ¡ ¢2 = 5.1 ft/ s
A π/4 × 2 ft 12
2 2
V (5.1 ft/ s)
= = 0.404 ft
2g 64.4 ft/ s2
2
5.1 ft/ s × 12 ft
Re = −5 2 = 6 × 104
1.41 × 10 ft / s
ks 5 × 10−4 × 12
= = 0.003
D 2
135
f = 0.028
Energy equation becomes

∙ µ µ ¶ ¶¸
240
pA = γ 70 ft + 0.404 ft 0.5 + 2 × 0.9 + 10 + 0.028 × + 1.0
2/12
= 62.4 lbf/ ft3 × 91.7 ft = 5722 psfg
pA = 39.7 psig
136
Situation:
Two reservoirs are connected by a cast-iron pipe of varying diameter.
z2 = 110 m, Q = 0.3 m3 / s.
D1 = 20 cm, L1 = 100 m.
D2 = 15 cm, L2 = 150 m.
Sketch:
Find:
Water surface elevation in reservoir A.
Properties:
SOLUTION
ks 0.26
= = 0.0013
D20 200
ks
= 0.0017
D15
Q 0.03 m3 / s
V20 = = = 0.955 m/s
A20 π/4 × (0.20 m)2
Q
= 1.697 m/s
A15
VD 0.955 m/ s × 0.2 m
Re20 = = −6 2
= 1.5 × 105
v 1.3 × 10 m / s
1.697 m/ s × 0.15 m
Re15 = −6 2
= 1.9 × 105
1.3 × 10 m / s
137
‫‪From Fig. 10-14: f20 = 0.022; f15 = 0.024‬‬
‫‪X‬‬
‫‪z1 = z2 +‬‬ ‫‪hL‬‬
‫‪V202‬‬ ‫‪100 m‬‬
‫‪z1‬‬ ‫‪= 110 +‬‬ ‫× ‪(0.5 + 0.022‬‬ ‫)‪+ 0.19‬‬
‫‪2g‬‬ ‫‪0.2 m‬‬
‫∙‬ ‫¸‬
‫‪V152‬‬ ‫‪150 m‬‬
‫‪+‬‬ ‫× ‪(0.024‬‬ ‫)‪) + 1.0 + 0.19‬‬
‫‪2g‬‬ ‫‪0.15 m‬‬
‫)‪= 110 m + 0.0465 m(11.7) + 0.1468 m(25.19‬‬
‫‪= 110 + 0.535 + 3.70 = 114.2 m‬‬
‫‪z1 = 114 m‬‬
‫‪138‬‬
Situation:
Air flowing through an equilateral triangle shaped horizontal duct.
L = 100 ft, V = 12 ft/ s.
ks = 0.0005 ft, Triangle side = 6 in.
Find:
Pressure drop over 100 ft length.
Properties:
Air (60 ◦ F), Table A.3: ν = 1.58 × 10−4 ft2 /s and ρ = 0.00237 slug/ft3 .
SOLUTION
h = (6 in)(cos 30◦ ) = 5.20 in

A = (6 in)(5.20 in)/2 = 15.6 in2 = 0.108 ft2
A 15.6 in2
Rh = = = 0.867 in.
P 3 × 6 in
4Rh = 3.47 in. = 0.289 ft.
ks 0.0005
= = 0.00173
4Rh 0.289
(V )(4Rh ) (12 ft/ s)(0.289 ft)
Re = = 2 = 2.2 × 104
v −4
1.58 × 10 ft / s
From the Moody diagram, f = 0.030 so the pressure drop is
µ ¶
L ρV 2
∆pf = f
4Rh 2
µ ¶Ã !
100 ft 0.00237 × (12 ft/ s)2
∆pf = 0.030
0.289 ft 2
∆pf = 1.77 lbf/ft2
139
Situation:
Air moves through a galvanized iron cold-air duct.
b = 100 cm, A = 100 cm × 15 cm.
Q = 6 m3 / s.
Find:
Power loss in duct.
Assumptions:
ks = .15 mm= 1.5 × 10−4 m.
Properties:
Air (15 ◦ C) , Table A.3: ν = 1.46 × 10−5 m2 / s.
From Table A.2: ρ = 1.22 kg/m3 .
SOLUTION
Hydraulic radius
A = 0.15 m2
P = 2.30 m
A
R = = 0.0652 m
P
4R = 0.261 m
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
6 m3 / s
=
0.15 m2
= 40 m/s
Reynolds number
4R
Re = V ×
v
40 m/ s × 0.261 m
=
1.46 × 10−5 m2 / s
= 7.15 × 105
Friction factor (f) (turbulent flow: Swamee-Jain equation)
0.25
f = £ ¡ ks ¢¤2
5.74
log10 3.7D + Re0.9
0.25
= h ³ í2
1.5×10−4 5.74
log10 3.7×0.261 + (7.15×105 )0.9
= 0.01797 ≈ 0.018
140
L V2
hf = f
D 2g
µ ¶Ã !
100 m (40 m/ s)2
= 0.018 ×
0.261 m 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
= 562.4 m
Power equation
Ploss = Qγhf
= 6 m3 / s × 1.22 kg/ m3 × 9.81 m/ s2 × 562.4 m = 40400 W
Ploss = 40.4 kW
141
Situation:
Air flows through a horizontal, rectangular, air-conditioning duct.
L = 20 m, Section area is 4 by 10 inches.
V =10 m/s, ks = 0.004 mm.
Find:
(a) The pressure drop in inches of water.
(b) The power in watts needed to overcome head loss.
Assumptions:
Neglect all head loss associated with minor losses.
α1 = α2
Properties:
Air at 20 ◦ C from Table A.3: = 15.1 × 10−6 m2 / s.
ρ = 1.2 kg/ m3 , γ = 11.8 N/ m3 .
PLAN
To account for the rectangular section, use hydraulic diameter. Calculate Reynolds
number and then choose a suitable correlation for the friction factor (f ) . Apply the
Darcy-Weisbach equation to find the head loss (hf ). Apply the energy equation to
find the pressure drop, and calculate power using P = ṁghf .
SOLUTION
Hydraulic diameter (DH ) (four times the hydraulic radius)
4A
DH =
P
4 (0.102 m) (0.254 m)
=
(0.102 m + 0.102 m + 0.254 m + 0.254 m)
= 0.1456 m
Reynolds number
V DH
Re =
ν
(10 m/ s) (0.1456 m)
=
(15.1 × 10−6 m2 / s)
= 96, 390
Friction factor (f ) (Swamee-Jain correlation)
0.25
f = h ³ í2
ks 5.74
log10 3.7D H
+ Re0.9
0.25
= h ³ í2
4×10−6 m 5.74
log10 3.7×(0.1456 m)
+ 96,3900.9
= 0.0182
142
L V2
hf = f
D 2g
µ ¶µ ¶
20 m 102 m2 / s2
= 0.0182
0.1456 m 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
= 12.72 m
Energy equation (section 1 and 2 are the inlet and exit of the duct)
µ ¶ µ ¶
p p
= + hL
γ 1 γ 2
Thus
∆p = γ air hf
¡ ¢
= 11.8 N/ m3 (12.72 m)
= 150 Pa µ ¶
1.0 in.-H2 O
= 150 Pa
248.8 Pa
∆p = 0.6 in.-H2 O
Power equation
P = γQhf
= ∆pAV
= (150 Pa) (0.102 m × 0.254 m) (10 m/ s)
P = 38.9 W
REVIEW
The power to overcome head loss is small (39 W)–this is equivalent to the power
required to light a small light bulb.
143
Situation:
A rectangular duct (initial state).
A trapezoidal duct (after being run over by a truck).
Rectangular area is 1 by 2 feet. Trapezoidal area is 0.7 by 2 feet.
Sketch:
Find:
Ratio of velocity in trapezoidal to rectangular duct.
SOLUTION
∆hrect = ∆htrap
∴ hf,rect = hf,trap
µ ¶ µ ¶
fb L Vb2 fa L Va2
=
4Rb 2g 4Ra 2g
2
Ab 2 ft
Rb = = = 0.333 ft
Pb 6 ft
Aa 1.4 ft2
Ra = = = 0.233 ft
Pa 6 ft
Va2 Ra
2
= = 0.70
Vb Rb
Vtrap
= 0.84
Vrect
144
Situation:
Water is pumped through a steel pipe from one tank to another.
D = 300 mm, L = 140 m, Q = 0.314 m3 / s.
z1 = 200 m, z2 = 235 m, Elbow radius is 300 mm.
Find:
The pump power.
Assumptions:
Pipe entrance is well-rounded: r/D > 0.2.
Properties:
From Table 10.5: Ke = 0.03; Kb = 0.35; KE = 1.0.
Water (20 ◦ C), Table A.5: ν = 10−6 m2 /s.
PLAN
Apply the energy equation from the water surface in the lower reservoir to the water
surface in the upper reservoir.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22 X
+ + z1 + hp = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V2 L
0 + 0 + 200 m + hp = 0 + 0 + 235 m + 2 (Ke + Kb + KE + f )
2g D
Flow rate equation
Q
V =
A
0.314 m3 / s
=
(π/4) × (0.3 m)2
= 4.44 m/s
V2
= 1.01 m
2g
145
Reynolds number
VD
Re =
v
4.44 m/ s × 0.3 m
=
10−6 m2 / s
= 1.33 × 106
ks
≈ 0.00015
D
Resistance coefficient (from the Moody diagram)
f = 0.014
So
L 140 m
f = 0.014 × = 6.53
D 0.3 m
hp = 235 m − 200 m + 1.01 m(0.03 + 0.35 + 1 + 6.53)
= 43.0 m
Power equation
P = Qγhp
= 0.314 m3 / s × 9, 790 N/ m3 × 43.0 m
P = 132 kW
146
Situation:
Water is pumped through the system sketched below.
D = 300 mm, L = 140 m.
z1 = 200 m, z2 = 235 m.
Elbow radius is 300 mm.
The pump curve is shown on the figure below.
Find:
Discharge.
PLAN
For the system curve, follow the solution for problem 10.87 in EFM9e. Then plot the
system curve on the above diagram to find the operating point.
SOLUTION
The solution to Prob. 10.87 in EFM9e, gives the system curve
V22 L
0 + 0 + 200 m + hp = 0 + 0 + 235 m + (Ke + Kb + KE + f )
2g D
147
V2
hp = 35 m + (0.03 + 0.35 + 1 + 6.53)
2g
V2
hp = 35 m + 7.91
2g
∙ ¸
Q2 /((π/4) × 0.32 )2
hp = 35 m + 7.91 = 35 + 85.6Q2
2g
System data computed and shown below:
Q(m3 s) → 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 .30

hp (m) → 35.2 35.8 36.9 38.4 42.7
Then, plotting the system curve on the pump performance curve of Fig.10.19b in
EFM9e yields the operating point
Q = 0.25 m3 /s
148
Situation:
Water is pumped from one tank to another.
r/d = 1, D1 = 10 in, L1 = 50 ft.
f2 = 0.020, z1 = 10 ft.
D2 = 10 in, L2 = 950 ft, f2 = 0.020.
z2 = 20 ft, T = 60 ◦ F.
Sketch:
Find: ¡ ¢
Discharge ft3 / s .
Properties:
From Table 10.5: Ke = 0.03; Kb = 0.35; KE = 1.0.
SOLUTION
Energy equation
p1 V12 p2 V22 X
+ + z1 + hp = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
V2 L
0 + 0 + 10 + hp = 0 + 0 + 20 + 2 (Ke + f + Kb + KE )
2g D
2
Q 1000 ft
hp = 10 + (0.03 + 0.02 × 10 + 0.35 + 1)
2gA2 12
ft
µ ¶2
10
A = (π/4) × ft = 0.545 ft2
12
149
hp = 10 + 1.31Q2cfs
1 cfs = 449 gpm
1.31Q2gpm
hp = 10 +
(449)2
hp = 10 + 6.51 × 10−6 Q2gpm
Q → 1,000 2,000 3,000

h → 16.5 36.0 68.6
Plotting this on pump curve figure yields Q ≈ 2, 950 gpm
150
Situation:
A liquid is pumped through a pipe from one tank to another.
r/d = 1, D1 = 10 in, L1 = 50 ft.
f2 = 0.020, z1 = 10 ft.
D2 = 10 in, L2 = 950 ft.
f2 = 0.020, z2 = 20 ft.
Sketch:
Find:
Pumping rate (gpm).
Assumptions:
No head loss for this liquid.
SOLUTION h = 20 ft - 10 ft = 10 ft
p
Then from the pump curve for problem 10.89 one finds Q = 4700 gpm.
151
Situation:
Two pipes are connected in parallel.
KvA = 0.2, KvB = 10, 2 × AA = AB .
Sketch:
Find:
Ratio of discharge in line B to that in line A.
Assumptions:
Head loss due to valves overshadows losses due to junctions, elbows and friction.
SOLUTION
hLA = hLB
V2 V2
0.2 A = 10 B (1)
2g 2g
√
VA = 50VB
QB VB AB
=
QA VA AA
VB AB
= (2)
VA × 12 AB
QB 2VB
=
QA VA
Solve Eqs. (1) and (2) for QB /QA :

QB 2 × VB
= √
QA 50VB
QB
= 0.283
QA
152
Situation:
Line A has a half open gate valve, line B a fully open globe valve.
Sketch:
Find:
Ratio of velocity in line A to B.
Assumptions:
Head loss due to friction is negligible.
Properties:
From Table 10.5: KvA = 5.6, KvB = 10, Kb = 0.9.
SOLUTION
X X
hLB = hLA
hL,globe + 2hL,elbow = hL,gate + 2hL,elbow
µ ¶ µ ¶
VB2 VB2 VA2 VA2
10 + 2 0.9 = 5.6 + 2 0.9
2g 2g 2g 2g
2 2
V V
11.8 B = 7.4 A
2g 2g
VA
= 1.26
VB
153
Situation:
L1 = 1000 m, D1 = 50 cm, L2 = 1500 m.
D2 = 40 cm, Q = 1.2 m3 / s.
Sketch:
Find:
Division of flow of water.
Assumptions:
Friction factor, f , is equal in both lines.
SOLUTION
∙µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶¸1/2
V1 f2 L2 D1
=
V2 f1 L1 D2
Initially assume f1 = f2
Then
∙µ ¶µ ¶¸1/2
V1 1500 m 0.5 m
=
V2 1000 m 0.4 m
= 1.369
V1 = 1.37V2
1.2 = V1 A1 + V2 A2
1.2 = 1.37V2 × (π/4) × (0.5 m)2 + V2 × (π/4) × (0.4 m)2
V2 = 3.04 m/s
Then V1 = 1.37 × 3.04
V1 = 4.16 m/s
Q1 = V1 A1
= 4.16 m/ s × (π/4) × (0.5 m)2
Q1 = 0.816 m3 /s
Q2 = 0.382 m3 /s
154
Situation:
L2 = 4L1 , D1 = D2 , Q2 = 1 ft3 / s.
Sketch:
Find:
Discharge in pipe 1.
Assumptions:
Friction factor, f , is equal in both lines.
SOLUTION
hf,1 = hf,2
µ ¶ µ ¶ 2
L V12 4L V2
f = f
D 2g D 2g
2 2
V1 = 4V2
V1 = 2V2
Thus
Q1 = 2Q2
Q1 = 2 cfs
155
Situation:
Three pipes are connected in parallel
LA = 6000 ft, DA = 18 in, fA = 0.012.
LB = 2000 ft, DB = 6 in, fB = 0.020.
LC = 5000 ft, DC = 12 in, fC = 0.015.
Sketch:
Find:
The pipe having the greatest velocity.
SOLUTION
hp,A = hf,B = hf,C

µ 2
¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
L V L V2 L V2
f = f =f
D 2g A D 2g B D 2g C
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
6000 ft 2000 ft 5000 ft
0.012 VA2 = 0.02 2
VB = 0.015 VC2
1.5 ft 0.5 ft 1 ft
48VA2 = 80VB2 = 75VC2
Therefore, VA will have the greatest velocity. Correct choice is (a)
156
Situation:
L1 = 3L2 , D1 = 2D2 .
f1 = 0.010, f2 = 0.014.
Find:
Ratio of discharges in two pipes.
SOLUTION
∙µ ¶µ ¶µ ¶¸1/2
V1 f2 L2 D1
=
V2 f1 L1 D2
Let pipe 1 be large pipe and pipe 2 be smaller pipe. Then
∙µ ¶µ ¶µ
¶¸1/2
V1 0.014 2D
L
= = 0.966
V2 0.01 D3L
µ ¶2
Q1 V1 A1 2D
= = 0.966 × = 3.86
Q2 V2 A2 D
(Qlarge /Qsmall ) = 3.86
157
Situation:
Q = 14 ft3 / s, L1 = 6000 ft.
D1 = 18 in, f1 = 0.018.
L1 = 2000 ft, D1 = 12 in, f1 = 0.018.
Sketch:
Find:
Division of flow (cfs).
Head loss ( ft).
SOLUTION
Q18 + Q12 = 14 cfs

hL18 = hL12
L18 V182 L12 V122
f18 = f12
D18 2g D12 2g
f18 = 0.018 = f12
so
L18 Q218 L12 Q212
5
= 5
D18 D12
µ ¶5 µ ¶
2 D18 L12
Q18 = Q212
D12 L18
µ ¶5 µ ¶
18 ft 2000
= Q212
12 ft 6000
2
= 2.53Q12
Q18 = 1.59Q12
1.59Q12 + Q12 = 14
2.59Q12 = 14
Q12 = 5.4 cfs
158
Q18 = 1.59Q12
= 1.59(5.4)
Q18 = 8.6 cfs
5.4 ft3 / s
V12 = = 6.88 ft/ s
π/4 × (1 ft)2
8.6 ft3 / s
V18 = = 4.87 ft/ s
π/4 × (1.5 ft)2
µ ¶
2, 000 ft (6.88 ft/ s)2
hL12 = 0.018 = 26.5 ft
1 ft 64.4 ft/ s2
µ ¶
6, 000 ft (4.87 ft/ s)2
hL18 = 0.018 = 26.5 ft
1.5 ft 64.4 ft/ s2
Thus, hLA−B =26.5 ft
159
Situation:
A concrete piping system is described in the problem statement.
Q = 25 ft3 / s, f = 0.030, L24 = 2000 ft, D24 = 24 in.
L30 = 3000 ft, D30 = 30 in, L14 = 3000 ft, D14 = 14 in.
L12 = 2000 ft, D12 = 12 in, L16 = 3000 ft, D16 = 16 in.
Find:
Division of flow.
Head loss.
SOLUTION
Sketch:
Q = Q14 + Q12 + Q16

µ ¶2 µ ¶2
14 2 16
25 = V14 × (π/4) × ft + V12 × (π/4) × (1 ft) + V16 × (π/4) × ft (1)
;
12 12
Also, hf14 = hf12 = hf16 and assuming f = 0.03 for all pipes
µ ¶ µ ¶ µ ¶
3000 ft 2 2000 ft 2 3000 ft
V14 = V12 = V162 (2)
14 in 12 in 16 in
V142 = 0.778V122 = 0.875V162

From Eq.(1)
25 = 1.069V14 + 0.890V14 + 1.49V14

V14 = 7.25 ft/s
and V12 = 8.22, V14 = 7.25 ft/s; V16 = 7.25 ft/s. Calculate flow rate using Q = V A
Q (12 inch pipe) = 6.46 cfs

160
Q 25
V24 = = = 7.96 ft/s;
A24 π/4 × (2 ft)2
V30 = 5.09 ft/s
µ ¶ µ ¶
0.03 2000 ft 2 2000 ft
hLAB = [ (7.96 ft/ s) + × (8.21 ft/ s)2
64.4 ft/ s2 2 ft 1 ft
µ ¶
3000 ft
+ × (5.09 ft/ s)2 ]
2.5 ft
hLA B = 107 ft
161
Situation:
Two pipes are connected in parallel with the pump from figure 10.16 on line C.
L1 = 2000 m, D1 = 0.50 m, L2 = 6000 m.
D2 = 0.50 m, Q = 0.60 m3 / s.
Sketch:
Find:
Division of flow between pipes ( m3 / s).
Head loss ( m).
Properties:
SOLUTION
Call pipe A-B pipe and pipe ACB pipe 2. Then
hf,1 + hp = hf,2
ks 0.046
= ' 0.0001
D 500
Assume f1 = f2 = 0.013 (guess from Fig. 10-8)
L1 V12 L2 V22
f + hp = f
D1 2g D2 2g
µ ¶ 2 µ ¶
2000 m V1 6000 m V22
0.013 + hp = 0.013
0.5 m 2g 0.5 m 2g
2 2
2.65V1 + hp = 7.951V2 (1)
(V1 + V2 )A = 0.60 m3 /s
0.6 m3 / s 0.6 m3 / s
V1 + V2 = = = 3.0558
A π/4 × (0.5 m)2
V1 = 3.0558 − V2 (2)
162
By iteration (Eqs. (1), (2) and pump curve) one can solve for the division of flow:
Q1 = 0.27 m3 /s
Q2 = 0.33 m3 /s
Head loss determined along pipe 1
L V12
hL = f
D 2g
Q1 0.27
V1 = = = 1.38 m/s
A π/4 × (0.5 m)2
µ ¶
2000 m (1.38 m/ s)2
hl = 0.013
0.5 m 2 × 9.81 m/ s2
hl = 5.05 m
163
Situation:
A piping network with sources and loads is specified.
f = 0.012, pA = 60 psi, QA = 15 ft3 / s.
QC = 10 ft3 / s, QE = 5 ft3 / s.
Find:
Load distribution and pressure at load points.
Properties:
SOLUTION
An assumption is made for the discharge in all pipes making certain that the conti-
nuity equation is satisfied at each junction. The following figure shows the network
with assumed flows.
10 cfs B 10 cfs C
15 cfs 10 cfs
A k=0.00944 k=0.3021
k=0.7516
k=2.294
0 cfs
0 cfs
5
cf
k=
s
1.
05
9
5 cfs
5 cfs
D k=0.3021 E
µ¶µ 2¶
L V
hf = f
D 2g
µ ¶
fL
= 8 Q2
gD5 π 2
= kQ2 .
³ ´
where k = 8 gDf5Lπ2 . The loss coefficient, k, for each pipe is computed and shown
in Fig. A. Next, the flow corrections for each loop are calculated as shown in the
164
accompanying table. Since n = 2 (exponent on Q), nkQn−1 = 2kQ. When the
correction obtained in the table are applied to the two loops, we get the pipe discharges
shown in Fig. B. Then with additional iterations, we get the final distribution of
flow as shown in Fig. C. Finally, the pressures at the load points are calculated.
Loop ABC
Pipe hf = kQ2 2kQ
AB +0.944 0.189
AD -26.475 10.590
P 2 P 2 0
BD 0
P
kQc − kQcc -25.53 2KQ = 10.78
∆Q=-22.66/9.062=2.50 cfs
Loop BCDE
Pipe hf 2kQ
BC +30.21 6.042
BD 0 0
CE 0 0
DE -7.55 3.02
+22.66 9.062
∆Q=-25.53/10.78=-2.40 cfs
15 cfs 12.4 cfs B 7.5 cfs C
10 cfs
A
2.5 cfs
4.9 c fs
2.
6
cf
s
7.5 cfs
5 c fs
D E
15 cfs
11.4 cfs B 9.0 cfs C
10 cfs
A
2.40 cfs
1.0 cfs
3.
60
cf
s
6.0 cfs
5 c fs
D E
165
pC = pA − γ(kAB Q2AB + kBC Q2BC )
= 60 psi × 144 psf/psi − 62.4 lbf/ ft3 (0.00944 × 11.42 + 0.3021 × 9.02 )
= 8640 psf − 1603 psf
= 7037 psf
pC = 48.9 psi
pE = 8640 − γ(kAD Q2AD + kDE Q2DE )
= 8640 − 62.4(1.059 × 3.52 + 0.3021 × 62 )
= 7105 psf
pE = 49.3 psi
166
Situation:
Two pipes are in parallel. One has a bypass valve and the other a pump.
hp = 100 − 100Qp , Qp = Qv + 0.2 m3 / s.
Dv = 10 cm, Kv = 0.2.
Find:
Discharge through pump and bypass line.
SOLUTION
Valve
Pump
1 2
Qp = Qv + 0.2
p2 − p1
= hp
γ
A = π/4 × (0.1 m)2
= 0.00785 m2
2
Kv Vv Kv Q2v
= = hp
2g 2gA2
hp = 100 − 100(Qv + 0.2)
(0.2)Q2v
= 100 − 100Qv − 20
2 × 9.81 m/ s2 × 0.00785 m2
165Q2v + 100Qv − 80 = 0
Solve by quadratic formula
Qv = 0.456m3 /s
Qp = 0.456 + 0.2
Qv = 0.656 m3 /s
167

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2.

Local pressure = 27.3 in.-Hg = 92.45 kPa.

ρ = 1.09 kg/m3 (local conditions)

ρ = 1.22 kg/m3 (table value)

4. Volume and gas temperature are constant, so

pabs. = 500 psia × 144 psf/psi = 72, 000 psf

3. Weight of filled tank

Woxygen = 2.80 lbf/ft3 × 10 ft3

800, 000 mN2

3. Density and mass for case 2

600, 000 mN2

4. Mass released from tank

M = 3.49 × 108 slugs

Tire pressure, kPa

Ideal gas law

C6 H12 O6 → 2(CH3 CH2 OH) + 2(CO2 )

μ70 = 4.04 × 10−4 N·s/m2

∆vair,10→70 = (1.99 − 1.41) × 10−5

Oil (SAE 10W-30) kerosene water

μair 1.81 × 10−5 N · s/ m2

ν air 1.51 × 10−5 m2 / s

μ = 2.15 × 10−5 N·s/m2

ν = 1.252 × 1.59 × 10−5 m2 /s

μ = 4.30 × 10−7 lbf-s/ft2

ν = 1.66 × 10−3 ft2 / s

Take the logarithm and solve for b.

Take the logarithm and solve for b

Lower plate is at rest.

ν air = 10.1 × 10−6 m2 / s

ν water = 6.58 × 10−7 m2 /s

Rate of strain (at y = 1 mm)

Maximum shear stress occur at y = H .

(b) Speed of oil

(c) Shear stress at surface

dTone side = r[τ (2πrdr)]

1. Let h = 4.0 in. = 0.333 ft

The relationship between μ, rs , ω, h, and W is now developed.

where T = applied torque

V f inal = 1998 cm3

SOLUTION Modulus of elasticity equation

For the second temperature, that mass takes up a larger volume:

Therefore, the percentage change in volume is

b. If the tank has D = 3 m, then V = πr2 h = 7.68h.Therefore:

And water level rise is 0.054 − 0.52 m = 0.002 m = 2 mm.

Energy force · distance

Surface tension force

Formula for pressure diﬀerence

4 × 7.3 × 10−2 N/m

Surface tension force

4σ 4 × 0.005 lbf/ ft 3.21 × 10−4

Solve for capillary rise (h)

Force due to pressure = Force due to surface tension

Solve for pressure

4∆σ 4 × 0.0167 N/ m 6.8 × 10−6

Weight of droplet = Force due to surface tension

SOLUTION 1. Force equilibrium

(Upward force) = (Weight of fluid) + (Force due to surface tension)

2. Solve for surface tension

Boiling Temperature (3000 m) = 89.7 ◦ C