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General Biology 2
General Biology 2
General Biology 2
Grading System
Components %
Written Work (WW) 25 %
TOTAL 100 %
MOLECULAR
STRUCTURE OF DNA,
RNA, AND PROTEINS
Objectives:
At the end of the lesson, the learners will be able to:
describe the building blocks of DNA, RNA and proteins;
identify the structural and functional differences between DNA
and RNA;
discuss the different levels of protein structure (primary,
secondary, tertiary and quaternary), and
explain how protein structural features may influence their
functions.
5
DNA
•DNA is often called
the blueprint of life.
•In simple terms,
DNA contains the
instructions for making
proteins within the cell.
6
Watson & Crick’s Model
Why do we study DNA?
We study DNA for many
reasons, e.g.,
• Its central importance
to all life on earth,
• Medical benefits such as
cures for diseases,
• Better food crops.
8
Chromosomes and DNA
9
The Shape of the Molecule
10
The Double Helix Molecule
•The DNA double
helix has two
strands twisted
together.
11
One Strand of DNA
•The backbone of phosphate
the molecule is
alternating
phosphates and
deoxyribose sugar deoxyribose
•The teeth are
nitrogenous bases.
bases
12
O
O -P O
NUCLEOTIDES
O
One deoxyribose together with
O its phosphate and base make a
O -P O nucleotide.
O O
O -P O
O Nitrogenous
O base
Phosphate
C
C C
O Deoxyribose 13
One Strand of DNA
nucleotide
•One strand of DNA is
a polymer of
nucleotides.
•One strand of DNA
has many millions of
nucleotides.
14
Four nitrogenous bases
DNA has four different bases:
•Cytosine C
• Thymine T
• Adenine A
• Guanine G
15
Two Kinds of Bases in DNA
N
•Pyrimidines are N C
single ring bases. O C C
N C
16
Thymine and Cytosine are
pyrimidines
O
N
N C N C
O C C
O C C C
N C
N C
thymine cytosine
17
Adenine and Guanine are purines
•Adenine and Guanine each have two rings
of carbon and nitrogen atoms.
N O
N C N C
C C N C C
N N
N C N C
C
Adenine
N C Guanine
N
18
Purines Pyrimidines
NH2 O O
Thymine Uracil
Adenine CH3 (DNA) (RNA)
N N NH NH
N N N O N O
O
NH2
Guanine
N Cytosine
NH
N
N N NH2 N O
Base Pairing
Guanine And Cytosine
-
+
+ -
+ -
Base Pairing
Adenine And Thymine
+ -
Adenine Thymine
-
+
Base Pairing
Adenine And Cytosine
-
Base Pairing
Guanine And Thymine
+
Two Stranded DNA
•Remember, DNA
has two strands
that fit together
something like a
zipper.
•The teeth are the
nitrogenous bases
but why do they
stick together?
24
Hydrogen Bonds
• The bases attract each other
N
because of hydrogen bonds.
C
• Hydrogen bonds are weak but
N
there are millions and millions
of them in a single molecule of
C
dna.
C
C
O
N
• The bonds between cytosine
and guanine are shown here
C
with dotted lines N
C N
C C O
25
C N
Hydrogen Bonds, cont.
O
• When making N C
hydrogen bonds,
cytosine always O C C C
pairs up with
guanine
N C
• Adenine always
pairs up with
thymine
• Adenine is bonded
to thymine here
26
5’Phosphate group
OH
3’Hydroxyl group
NH2 H OH
HO P O
N
O N
N N
CH2 O
D
O CH2
O
H O P HO
O
O H OH
H2O
N
HO P O
N
O NH
N N NH2
CH2 O
O CH2
O
A HO
O
O
O
H
NH2
N
H
O
P
O
H
HO
H2O
N O
5’Phosphate
O
CH2
O CH2
group
O
3’Hydroxyl group
O HO
OH H P
HO
-
The Watson - Crick - A T
-
Model Of DNA - C G -
- G C -
- T A - 3.4 nm
Minor -
- 1 nm
groove - -
G C
- T A -
- C G -
-
A T -
Major -
-
groove
A T
- -
- C G -
- G C -
- T A -
0.34 nm
-
CHARGAFF’S RULE:
• Adenine and Thymine always
join together
A T
• Cytosine and Guanine always
join together
C G
29
DNA by the Numbers
• Each cell has about 2 m of
DNA.
• The average human has 75
trillion cells.
• The average human has
enough DNA to go from the
earth to the sun more than
400 times. The earth is 150 billion m
• DNA has a diameter of only or 93 million miles from
0.000000002 m. the sun.
31
Types of Nucleic Acids
• Phosphate
• Most importantly---
• Contains the code for ALL the proteins in the body
RNA
• Ribonucleic acid
(RNA)
• Sugar + phosphate backbone
• Differs from DNA
• Single stranded
• Ribose sugar
• Base pairs A-U, G-C
• Are there T’s in RNA?
• A, U no T’s in rna
• RNA assists DNA in manufacturing
needed proteins
There are 4 types of RNA, each encoded by its own type of gene.
The genomic DNA contains all the information for the structure and
function of an organism. In any cell, only some of the genes are
expressed, that is, transcribed into RNA.
Experiment:
10. DNA Ligase then links the two Okazaki fragments together.
Proofreading and Repairing DNA
J U N A L Y N G A L E D . T A P AY A , L P T
GENERAL Biology 2
The CENTRAL DOGMA
Gene
Expression:
From Gene to
Protein
TRANSCRIPTION & TRANSLATION
5'-3' direction
the enzyme adds nucleotides o
Elongation of the 3' end
the RNA Strand newly synthesized RNA
molecule peels away
DNA double helix re-forms
rate of 40 nucleotides/sec in
eukaryotes
polyadenylation signal
sequence
AAUAAA
acts as signal
Termination of
Transcription
10-35 nucleotides from signal
proteins cut the RNA transcript
free
pre-mRNA undergoes
processing
RNA Processing
Enzymes in the eukaryotic nucleus modify pre-mRNA in specific ways
before the genetic message is dispatched to the cytoplasm. Both
ends of the primary transcript are altered.
J U N A L Y N G A L E D . T A P AY A , L P T
GENERAL Biology 2
Biology 2
GENETIC
ENGINEERING
Biology 2
The artificial manipulation,
modification, and recombination of
Defining Genetic Engineering
History
The company isolated the genes for
human insulin into E. coli bacteria,
which allowed the bacteria to produce
Recombinant DNA human insulin.
technology was first
After approval by the Food and Drug
developed in the early Administration (FDA), Genentech
1970s, and the first produced the first recombinant DNA
genetic engineering drug, human insulin, in 1982.
hepatitis B.
Since the 1980s, genetic
engineering has been used to
produce everything from a more
environmentally friendly
lithium-ion battery to infection- These organisms made by
resistant crops such as the genetic engineering, called
HoneySweet Plum. genetically modified
organisms (GMOs), can be
bred to be less susceptible to
diseases or to withstand
specific environmental
History
conditions.
Recombinant DNA
Molecules of DNA from two
different species that are
inserted into a host organism
to produce new genetic
combinations that are of
value to science, medicine,
agriculture, and industry.
Biology 2
Gene Cloning
or DNA cloning produces multiple copies of
a gene (or DNA segment) that can be used
to manipulate and analyze DNA and to
produce useful new products or organisms
with beneficial traits. In genetic engineering,
bacterial restriction enzymes are used to cut
DNA molecules within short, specific
nucleotide sequences (restriction sites),
yielding a set of double-stranded restriction
fragments with single-stranded sticky ends.
Biolistic Electroporation
Microinjection
is a technique of delivering foreign
DNA into a living cell (a cell, egg,
oocyte, embryos of animals)
through a glass micropipette. The
holding pipette holds a target cell
at the tip when gently sucked. The
tip of the micropipette is injected
through the membrane of the cell.
Biolistic
• Microscopic gold beads are
coated with the gene of
interest and shot into the
plant cell with a pulse of
helium.
• Once inside the cell, the
gene comes off the bead
and integrates into the
cell's genome. The gene gun can be used to shoot
callus..
Heat Shock Treatment
• The target cells are pre-treated before
the procedure to increase the pore sizes
of their plasma membranes.
• Make the cells “competent” for
accepting the plasmid DNA.
• Plasmid is cold treated and then applied
with "Heat Shock", then cold treatment
again
• The cells that took up the plasmids
acquire new traits and are said to be
“transformed”.
4°C for 30min. Heat shock with 42°C for 1 minute then back to 4°C for 2 minutes.
Electroporation
• Plant cells could be
"electroporated" or mixed
with a gene and "shocked"
with a pulse of electricity,
causing holes to form in the
cell through which the DNA
could flow. a microbiology technique in which an electrical
• Commonly used for insertion field is applied to cells in order to increase the
permeability of the cell membrane, allowing
of genes into mammalian chemicals, drugs, or DNA to be introduced into the
cells. cell
Protoplast Fusion
• Protoplasts are capable of fusing;
forms somatic hybrids of even
genetically incompatible plants.
• Hybrid protoplasts are then
regenerated by tissue culture into
whole hybrid plants .
Application of Recombinant DNA
MODIFIED TRAIT GENE MODIFICATION RECIPIENT APPLICATION (FIELD)
ORGANISM
Insulin Production Insertion of Human Bacteria (Medicine) Production of Human
Insulin Gene Insulin in Bacteria
Pest Resistance Insertion of Bt-toxin Corn / Maize (Agriculture) Production of corn plants
gene with increased resistance to corn boxer
Delayed Ripening Disruption of a gene (Agriculture) Production of plants with
for a ripening enzyme (anti- Tomato plant fruits that have delayed ripening fruits.
sense/gene silencing) These fruits will survive longer transport
(e.g., polygalacturonase) time, allowing their delivery to further
locations (i.e., export deliveries)
Chymosin Insertion of a gene for Bacteria (Industry) Enhance large scale production
Production chymosin of chymosin. This enzyme serves as a
substitute for rennet in the coagulation of
milk. Rennet has to be harvested from
calves. The large-scale production of this
enzyme in bacteria provides an abundant
supply of this important component for
the cheese production industry.
DNA Template
Polymerase
Chain Reaction Primers
Biology 2
Denaturation Annealing Extension
This occurs with an increase Here the primers bind to the The polymerase add dNTP’s
of temperature where the separated complement in the 5’ to 3’ direction. The
weak hydrogen bonds are strands due to lowering of primers are extended by
broken and the double temperature to allow the addition of complementary
strand DNA separates into DNA to recombine. The bases (A, T, C, G) read from
two single strands. primers are added in excess the 3’ to 5’ direction. (72
Temperature may vary to ensure that the primer degrees).
according to enzyme and binds and not the original
desired result (usually above DNA (54 degrees)
90 degrees)
Crime Investigations
Uses of PCR
Genetic Research
Molecular Biology
Biology 2
Thank You
for Watching!
Genetic Engineering
Junalyn Gale D. Tapaya
General Biology 2