PROTECTION, SUPPORT

AND MOVEMENT
a. Protection: the integumentary
system of invertebrates and
vertebrates
 INTEGUMENT
 External covering of an animal.
 Protects the animal from mechanical, chemical injury and invasion
by microorganisms.
 Diverse functions.
 Regulation of body temperature; excretion of waste materials;
vitamin D3 formation by the action of ultraviolet radiation from
sunlight on a cholesterol derivative in the skin; reception of
environmental stimuli, such as pain, temperature, and pressure;
locomotion; and movement of nutrients and gases.
 Integumentary System
 Unicellular protists
 Multicellular invertebrates
 Platyhelminthes
 Annelids & Nematodes
 Arthropods
 Echinoderms
 Fishes
 Amphibians
 Reptiles
 Birds
 Mammals
 Integumentary System of Invertebrates
Plasma membrane (unicellular):
 Some single-celled protozoa have only a plasma membrane for an external
covering.
 Large surface area---gas exchange and the removal of soluble wastes occur
by simple diffusion.
 Uptake of dissolved nutrients
Pellicle:
 A thick protein coat outside the plasma
membrane such as Paramecium.
 Environmental protection
 A semi rigid structure that transmits the
force of cilia or flagella to the entire body
as it moves.
 Integumentary System of
Invertebrates
Epidermis:
 single layer of columnar epithelial cells called the epidermis.
 Basement membrane (a thin & flat sheet of ECM proteins) lies beneath the
epidermis & separates the epidermis from underlying connective tissue
 possess cilia and glandular cells.
 secrete an overlying, noncellular material that encases part or most of
the animal (glandular cells).
 Integumentary System of
Invertebrates
Cuticles:
 A non-cellular structure secreted outside of the epidermis
 Highly variable in structure. Thin and elastic (rotifers)
 Thick and rigid and support the body (crustaceans, arachnids, insects). Consist
of chitin and proteins in rigid plates that a flexible membrane links together.
 Disadvantage is that animals have difficulty
growing within them thus
periodically shed the old,
outgrown cuticle in a process
called molting or ecdysis
(arthropods)
 Integumentary System of Invertebrates
In Arthropods:
Most complex form of integument.
Exoskeleton ectodermal in origin.
Provide support, shape and strength to body
Protection from injuries.
Structure:
3 layers are:
i) Cuticle: a) Epicuticle
b) Procuticle (exocuticle and endocuticle)
i) Epidermis/ Hypodermis (living cells)
ii) Inner basement membrane (composed of proteins, glycosaminoglycans)
Sclerotization: Process of hardening of exoskeleton. It provides armor like
protection.
Ecdysis: shedding or molting of exoskeleton
 Integumentary System of
Invertebrates
Tegument:
 Outer covering and complex multinucleate syncytium .
 Present in parasitic flukes & tapeworms
 Nutrient ingestion
 Protection against digestion by host
enzymes.
 Integumentary System of
Invertebrates
In cnidarians, such as Hydra, the epidermis is only one cell layer thick.
Other such as Corals have mucous glands that secrete a calcium carbonate
(CaCO3) shell.
Nematodes and annelids have an epidermis that is one cell thick and secretes a
cuticle that has many layers.
Integument of echinoderms consists of a thin, usually ciliated epidermis and an
underlying connective-tissue dermis containing CaCO3.
 Integumentary System of
Vertebrates
Skin is the vertebrate integument.
Largest organ (with respect to surface area) grows with the animal.
Skin has two main layers.
Epidermis: is the outermost layer of epithelial tissue and is one to several cells
thick.
Dermis: is the connective tissue meshwork of collagenous, reticular, and elastic
fibers beneath the epidermis.
Hypodermis: consisting of loose connective tissue, adipose tissue, and nerve
endings, separates the skin from deeper tissues.
 Integumentary System of
Vertebrates
Skin of Jawless Fishes (lampreys and hagfishes):
o Relatively thick skin .
o Epidermal glandular cells secrete protective mucous.
o Hagfish skin, valued as “eelskin,” or “slime eel” also produce large amounts
of mucous slime by slime glands that covers the body surface.
o This slime protects animals
from external parasites and
predators.
 Integumentary System of
Vertebrates
Skin of Cartilaginous Fishes (e.g., sharks):
o Multilayered and contains mucous and sensory cells.
o Dermis contains bone in the form of small placoid scales called denticles.
o Contain blood vessels and nerves and are similar to vertebrate teeth.
o Grow throughout life, the skin area also increases.
o New denticles are produced to maintain enough of these protective structures
at the skin surface.
o Like teeth, once denticles reach maturity, they do not grow; thus, they
continually wear down and are lost.
o Because denticles project above the surface of the skin, they give
cartilaginous fishes a sandpaper texture.
Skin of Cartilaginous Fishes:
 Integumentary System of
Vertebrates
Skin of bony fishes (teleosts):
o Scales composed of dermal bone.
o A thin layer of dermal tissue overlaid by the superficial epidermis
normally covers scales.
o Because scales are not shed, they grow at the margins and over the
lower surface.
o In many bony fishes, growth lines, which are useful in determining
the age of a fish, can often be detected.
o Skin is permeable and functions in gas exchange, particularly in the
smaller fishes.
o Dermis is richly supplied with capillary beds.
o Epidermis also contains many mucous glands.
o Mucus production helps prevent bacterial and fungal infections, and it reduces
friction as the fish swims.
o Granular glands that secrete an irritating or poisonous— alkaloid.
o Deep aquatic habitats teleosts have photophores that facilitate species recognition
or act like lures and warning signals.
 Integumentary System of Vertebrates
Skin of Amphibians:
o A stratified epidermis and a dermis containing mucous and serous glands plus
pigmentation cells.
o transitional between aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates. earliest were covered
by dermal bone scales like fish ancestors.
o Terrestrial environment problems (desiccation, damaging effect of UV light
and abrasion).
o During amphibian evolution, keratin production increased in the outer layer of
skin cells to reduce terrestrial environment problems.
o Keratin is a tough, impermeable protein that protects the skin in the physically
abrasive, rigorous terrestrial environment.
o The increased keratin in the skin also protects the cells, especially their
nuclear material, from ultraviolet light.

.
o The mucus that mucous glands produce:
 helps prevent desiccation,
 facilitates gas exchange when the skin is used as a respiratory organ
 and makes the body slimy, which facilitates desiccation.
o Within the dermis of some amphibians are poison glands that produce an
unpleasant-tasting or toxic fluid that acts as a predator deterrent.
o Sensory nerves penetrate the epidermis as free nerve endings.
o Interestingly, the “warts’’ of toads seem to be specialized sensory structures,
since they contain many sensory cells
 Integumentary System of Vertebrates
Skin of Reptiles:
• The skin of reptiles reflects their greater commitment to a terrestrial
existence.
• The outer layer of the epidermis (stratum corneum) is thick, lacks glands,
and is modified into keratinized scales,
• Scutes (thick scales) in snakes and turtles, beaks in turtles, rattles on
snakes, and claws, plaques, and spiny crests on most other reptiles.
• This thick, keratinized layer resists abrasion, inhibits dehydration, and protects
like a suit of armor.
• During shedding or molting of the skin of many reptiles (e.g., snakes and
lizards), the old outer layer separates from newly formed epidermis.
• Diffusion of fluid between the layers aids this separation.
 Integumentary System of Vertebrates
Skin of Birds:
• The skin of birds shows many typically reptilian features with no epidermal
glands (the only epidermal gland of birds is the uropygial or preen gland).
• Over most of the bird’s body, the epidermis is usually thin and only two or
three cell layers thick.
• The outer keratinized layer is often quite soft. The most prominent parts of
the epidermis are the feathers. Feathers are derived from the scales of reptilian
ancestors and are the most complex of all the derivatives of the vertebrate
stratum corneum.
• The dermis of birds is similar in structure to that of reptiles and contains
blood and lymphatic vessels, nerves, and epidermally derived sensory
bodies.
• Air spaces that are part of the avian respiratory system extend into the
dermis. These air spaces are involved in thermal regulation.
o Associated with the feathers and their normal functioning is an incredibly
complicated array of dermal smooth-muscle fibers that control the position of
the feathers.
o Feather position is important in thermal regulation, flying, and behavior.
o Aquatic birds may also have fat deposits in the hypodermal layer that store
energy and help insulate the body.
 Integumentary System of Vertebrates
Skin of Mammals:
o Mammalian skin features
o Hairs
o Gland diversity
o Highly stratified, cornified epidermis (stratified squamous epithelium)
o A thick dermis
Rapid cell division of deeper layers
Cornified upper layers
Stratum corneum outer thin keratinized layer, prevents dehydration
 Dermis is thickest & contains
 Blood vessels
 Lymphatic vessels
 Muscles
 Glands
 Nerves
 Hair follicles
 Hypodermis beneath dermis
 Loose connective tissue
 Adipose tissue
 Skeletal muscle
 Blood vessels threads from
Hypodermis to dermis
Protective & other Roles
o Thermoregulation by sweat glands regulation
o Screening UV-rays
o Vitamin D synthesis
o Sensory reception for heat, cold, touch, pressure & pain
Glands
o Sudoriferous : Sweat glands for Perspiration. May produce pheromone
o Sebaceous(oil): connected to hair follicle in dermis, produce Sebum, a
permeability barrier, emollient & protective against microorganisms.
o May act as pheromone
Skin Color:
o Pigments or other anatomical structures that absorb light.
o Chromatophores (epidermal layer or hair) are skin cells containing melanin
o Bright skin colors deter predators in animals
o Help in camouflage
o Help in communication
Hairs:
o Hair are keratin filled structures secreted by the epidermal cells
o Shaft protrudes out of the skin
o Root remains inside
o Arrector pilli muscle binds with the connective tissue surrounding the bulb of
hair
o Contraction of arrector pilli leads to the erection of hair shaft, referred as
goose bump
o Warm air is trapped in the fur of erected hairs
Nails:
o Modification of the epidermis
o Horney plates on the dorsal surface of distal digits
o Claws, hooves, Horns and Baleen plates are also keratinized derivatives