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Articol - Baterie-Capacitor
Articol - Baterie-Capacitor
Articol - Baterie-Capacitor
vehicles
A B S T R A C T
Electric vehicles (EVs) have recently attracted considerable attention and so did the development of the battery
technologies. Although the battery technology has been significantly advanced, the available batteries do not
entirely meet the energy demands of the EV power consumption. One of the key issues is non-monotonic con-
sumption of energy accompanied by frequent changes during the battery discharging process. This is very
harmful to the electrochemical process of the battery. A practical solution is to couple the battery with a su-
percapacitor, which is basically an electrochemical cell with a similar architecture, but with a higher rate
capability and better cyclability. In this design, the supercapacitor can provide the excess energy required while
the battery fails to do so. In addition to the battery and supercapacitor as the individual units, designing the
architecture of the corresponding hybrid system from an electrical engineering point of view is of utmost im-
portance. The present manuscript reviews the recent works devoted to the application of various battery/su-
percapacitor hybrid systems in EVs.
1. Introduction Although significant advancements have been made during the past
decades to improve the battery performance, the main problem comes
The use of electric vehicles (EVs) was first prompted by the from the peak usage. Even in small electronic devices such as mobile
California Air Resources Board (CARB), as a strong signal was sent out phones and laptops, the battery damage occurs upon sudden usage of
to reduce pollution from automobile users. The preliminary works the battery's energy. This situation is constant in EVs, as different fac-
suggested that the obstacles against the wide adaption of the EVs can be tors such as driving style, road, etc., cause rapid changes in the power
overcome and the fuel economy requirements can be met if the battery consumption. A battery performs well when it is discharged mono-
designers are directly worked with the development team of the vehicle tonically because the corresponding electrochemical reaction can pro-
electrical system to improve the power and energy density, as well as ceed monotonically. However, when EV requires the sudden power
cycle life of the batteries [1,2]. The batteries lose their performances consumption during its acceleration, the battery pack cannot be dis-
over time for several reasons associated with the properties of the charged quickly enough to satisfy this requirement. The same applies to
electroactive materials, conductivity and chemical stability of the cur- a high current storage into the batteries that generated during the
rent collectors, selection of the electrolytes compatible with the mor- braking of the EV. These fluctuating flows of a high electric current into
phology of the electrodes, redox activities of the additives in electrodes and from the battery could have a detrimental effect on the electrolytes.
or in electrolytes, as well as overcharging, internal and external en- When this acceleration/braking is repetitive (city driving for example),
vironment and the application specifications. this can shorten the life of the batteries.
Nomenclature Li-ion Lithium-Ion
LiFePO4 Lithium Iron Phosphate (LFP)
ADVISOR Advanced Vehicle Simulator LV Low Voltage
BMS Battery Management System MCS Mobile Charging Stations
BE Braking Energy NEDC New European Driving Cycle
BPR Buffer-Power Ratio Ni-MH Nickel-Metal Hydride
BD-DC/DC-C Bidirectional DC/DC converter OCV Open Circuit Voltage
CBDC China Bus Driving Cycle OPM Optimal Power Management
CP Constant Power PbA Lead Acid
DC Duty Cycle PSAT Powertrain System Analysis Toolkit
DP Dynamic Programming PU Power Unit
DM Dynamic model RB Regenerative Breaking
ECE-15 Economic Commission for Europe-urban driving cycle RBE Regenerative Breaking Energy
EDLC Electric (or Electrochemical) Double-Layer Capacitor RE Regenerative Energy
EIS Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy SC Supercapacitor
EMS Energy Management System SOC State of Charge
EP Each Pulse SOD State of Discharge
ESS Energy Storage Systems SOH State of Health
EUDC Extra-Urban Driving Cycle UDC Urban Driving Cycle or ECE-15
EV Electric Vehicle UDDS Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule
Ch/Dch Charge/discharge VRLA Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid
GPS Global Positioning System VTB Virtual Test Bed
HESS Hybrid Energy Storage System V2G Vehicle-to-grid
HEV Hybrid Electric Vehicle ZEBRA Zero Emission Battery Research Activity
HV High Voltage ZVS Zero-Voltage Switching
LEV Law Emission Vehicle CARB - California Air Resources ZVT Zero-Voltage Transition
Board
Various types of batteries have been utilised in EVs [3–6], but the [9–14] that SC's can effectively operate longer than any other energy
most promising one is the lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery, which is now the storage systems (ESS).
most common type of energy storage in portable electronic devices such The combination of the battery-SC is known as a hybrid energy
as mobile phones and laptops. Scaling up the Li-ion batteries for EVs is storage system (HESS), which complements advantageous properties of
not straightforward due to the different pathway of energy consump- each modules. In this arrangement, the detrimental effect of the current
tion in the EVs as compared with the small electronic devices. There- fluctuation on the battery is reduced and its operational time is pro-
fore, novel Li-ion batteries should be designed for the EV applications. longed. This is an essential aspect for the HESS use. Fig. 1 illustrates
In modern Li-ion batteries, there is a demand for sacrificing the clas- new opportunities provided by the HESS.
sically high cell voltage in favour of improving other factors such as rate The use of the HESS has not limited only for the shielding the dis-
capability or cyclability [7], and the electrode materials should be tractive current spikes to the batteries but in addition, the HESS is an
chosen for specific applications. For example, as will be reviewed later, efficient storage system in the EVs. The HESS could increase the effi-
most of the Li-ion batteries employed for the EV applications are de- ciency of the EVs by storing the energy from brakes during the
signed for a sudden power consumption based on LiFePO4, which is not
the dominant cathode material in the small Li-ion batteries, but has
huge potentials for high rate capabilities and excellent cyclability in the
EV performance [8].
Supercapacitors (SCs) are similar electrochemical systems for the
energy storage, but the main difference is that they have high rate
capability for fast charging/discharging. They cannot be used as the
power source of EVs since they have low energy density as compared
with the batteries. Nevertheless, they are good options to compensate
the high peak of usage during short periods of time when the battery
power is not sufficient. In this scenario, the responsibility of the coupled
SC is similar to that on the classic capacitors in electronic devices to
supply electricity instantaneously.
The electrical response of SCs is an analogous to that of the classic
capacitors, but as the prefix suggests, the specific capacitance is much
higher. The term “supercapacitor” was commercially utilised to de-
scribe the first generation of double-layer capacitors, but in the scien-
tific context, it was referred to the electrochemical systems working
based on capacitive or pseudo capacitive behaviours. The performance
of the so-called pseudo capacitors is based on the electrochemical redox Fig. 1. Specific power density-specific energy density plot of typical commercialized
system rather than double layer charging. This provides an opportunity batteries (grey region), an asymmetric capacitor system with an aqueous electrolyte (blue
region), an asymmetric capacitor system with an organic electrolyte (green region), and
for delivering a significantly higher specific capacitance, though, the
the BatCap system (red region) using various electrode materials. Reproduced with per-
cyclability is much worse. However, many of the available SCs utilize
mission from Ref. [15]. Copyright 2014, Elsevier. (For interpretation of the references to
both mechanisms. It has been highlighted in many published literature colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)
deceleration of the EVs.
When the HESS is incorporated into the design of the EVs, the
braking energy (BE) is stored in both the SCs and the batteries. From the
SCs it can be used back to accelerate a vehicle and the energy stored in
the batteries can then be used for the other applications, for example
heating a cabin, air conditioning or some electronics in the car.
Therefore, a well-designed HESS with high energy density, long cycle
life [16] with a considerable lightweight than the battery bank alone
with the high power density, can have a major impact on the EVs'
overall performances and thus help their penetration in the market. The
use of the HESS is most economically prevalent for the regenerative
braking energy (RBE) recovery in municipal transportation vehicles
such as city transit buses [17,18].
SCs in EVs was first introduced in the late 1990s when the SC unit
consisting of 40 × 2 SCs (Panasonic, 2.3 V, 1800 F) had been installed
in the Mazda Bongo Friendee to investigate the performance for ac-
cepting rapid RE throughout braking and downhill while providing
sudden energy for acceleration [19]. In the same time, the hybridiza-
tion of the SCs with the EV batteries [20,21], such as valve-regulated
lead-acid (VRLA) [19,21–23], nickel-metal hydride (Ni-MH), lithium-
ion (Li-Ion) [19] and PbA batteries [22] was proposed. Shukla et al.
[23] stated that since energy density is less important than power
density for the acceleration of a car, SC would appear to be a preferred
alternative to any of the present storage battery options. However, the
final use of the HESS for this application would depend on the devel-
opment of this system as well as on consumer demand. It was also noted
that a successful HESS must achieve some combination of (i) increased
vehicle performance by supplying more power, (ii) longer operating life
of the ESS, (iii) stable performance at sub-zero temperatures, (iv)
Fig. 2. HESS (a): Passive configuration; (b) Semi-passive configuration; (c) HESS-fully-
lighter system with smaller dimensions. active configuration. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [32] Copyright 2014.
The requirement of achieving a high efficient ESS for the EV ap-
plication has been emphasized more and more lately and therefore,
rechargeable batteries and SCs hybridization has been extensively ex- second controls SC;
plored. Motivated by the amplification of the EV battery-SC/HESS re- (iv) In parallel connection of two BD-DC/DC-C;
search, and applications, the main objectives of this paper are to pro- (v)Multiple-input zero-voltage switching (ZVS) BD-DC/DC-C.
vide an overview of recent advances in the battery-SC/HESS design,
performance, modelling and simulation, and energy management Three types of HESS can be categorised based on the systems re-
system (EMS) for EV application. The configurations, design, and per- ported in the literature: passive, semi-active, and fully active. In the
formance of the HESS are discussed in Section 2. Sections 3 and 4 first design the battery and SC packs are connected in parallel and di-
present an overview of energy management and the thermal effects on rectly coupled to the DC bus [22,25–31] (Fig. 2a) This design is more
HESS performance, respectively. The effect of driving cycle on the HESS affordable but the SCs performance in its full potential cannot be used.
performance is discussed in Section 5. The modelling and simulation of It also, does not involve any control algorithm. The best control can be
these hybrid systems for EVs is provided in Section 6. Their applications implemented in a fully active HESS (Fig. 2c) that involves two BD-DC/
are briefly given in Section 7. Finally, the conclusions are given in DC-C and an additional control circuit [18,23,32–34]. However, in this
Section 8. design the size of the components of the HESS, their cost and efficiency
are compromised. In addition, the design is not as simple as a passive
2. Configurations, design, and performance of HESS design. The semi-active HESS involves only one BD-DC/DC-C (Fig. 2b)
and presents a good compromise between the performance and the
Configuration of the HESS has a significant impact on its perfor- system cost. Given these advantages, semi-active HESS is favoured to be
mance. To increase an efficiency of the HESS, each component in its the most intensively used topology [16,27,33,35,36].
design should be combined in a way that the strength of each compo- There are some comparative studies examining the performances of
nent will be exploited and the weakness will be avoided. For this, high- different configurations [28,34,37]. For example, Pay et al. [34] in-
energy storage capability of the batteries and high power densities of vestigated smoothing the repeat power variations in and out of the
the SCs should be considered. For both devices, the state of charge battery in two cases: when the SC bank is connected directly in shunt
(SOC) defines the usable power capability of the devices, the voltage with the battery or through a DC/DC-C. The performances of the HESS
range, and the charge/discharge (Ch/Dch) current limit. The duration in both cases were studied through the computer simulation during
of the pulse should be identified as well. Tie et al. [24] summarized the vehicle acceleration and deceleration. In both cases, the SCs unit
HESS configurations presented in the literature in detail and identified benefited overall energy storage, but when the power controller was
the following five different configurations: involved, the full potential of the SC bank was used. Karden et al. [37]
investigated the integration of a DC/DC-C that shifts energy between
(i) There is no converter in the design; the two energy storage devices (and voltage levels). Holland et al. [28]
(ii) One bidirectional DC/DC converter (BD-DC/DC-C) in series, which proposed the benefit of controlling the efficiency of the HESS. The
can be placed after the battery or SC; when it is placed after the SC authors investigated a hybridization of the Li-ion batteries with the SCs
it is called fixed DC link arrangement; in this case, the size of the and their ability to meet the power demands of pulsed loads. These two
SC is minimised; devices were connected in parallel and each delivered a share of the
(iii) In series connection of two BD-DC/DC-C; first controls battery, power to the load during the active pulse. After the battery recharged
the capacitor during the pulse “off” time. The study showed that SCs in of the hybrid SC/Li-ion system was much higher due to the lower
the hybrid system only marginally increased the capacity and the cur- Warburg impedance value for this system with regards of the im-
rent but showed no benefit because the hybrid system produced only pedance of the VRLA systems. The authors also highlighted the im-
one-third of the available specific energy and power compared to the portance of the battery management system (BMS) in this study. BMS is
battery alone. The authors suggested the possible improvement of the important when the energy storage in the hybrid system is required
hybrid system by adding power electronics that could use a big part of from regenerative braking (RB) or for current levelling.
the energy stored in the capacitor on each pulse. In 2014, Song et al. [33] proposed a novel semi-active HESS that
A necessity of a high efficient interface circuit in the hybrid system uses a converter with the lowest rating among the semi-active HESS.
for its efficient use was also proposed by Farzanehfard et al. [38]. This The main objectives were to minimize the dimensions of the battery-SC
interface needs to control the low SC's voltage (LV) and the batteries system to reduce its cost and to minimize a capacity loss of the batteries
high voltage (HV), which will be matched in the hybrid system. A due to its thermal degradation. The effectiveness of this HESS design
proper topology for power flow from LV to HV is a boost type converter was evaluated based on its performance in the typical China City Bus
while power flow from HV to LV requires a buck type converter. To Driving Cycle (CBDC). The authors compared the results with the HESS
attain bidirectional capability, the buck and boost converter are com- and battery-only configuration for the CBDC by utilising a modified
bined. The authors presented a zero voltage transition (ZVT) buck-and- semi-active HESS model adapted from the work of the Cao et al. [41]. In
boost converter with the soft switches for SCs' interface. The switching the original work, the presented design uses a small DC/DC-C for
losses are reduced and the efficiency of the converter is high. This was monitoring energy flow into the battery that it will ensure that the SC's
achieved by introducing the snubber capacitor across the switch. The voltage is higher than the batteries for the city driving conditions. In
switch cell is designed and it is incorporated into the combined buck this case the battery will only deliver power directly when the SC
and boost converter. For the schematics for the buck-and-boost circuits voltage falls below the battery voltage. Consequently, a comparatively
as well as important waveforms and corresponding equivalent circuits constant load profile is created for the battery. In addition, the battery
for each operating intervals, the reader is referred to Ref. [38]. Later in is not used to directly harvest energy from the RB; therefore, the battery
the work of Mirzaei et al. [39], the control circuit interface was sim- is not affected by the current spikes and the life of the battery is ex-
plified, and the BD-DC/DC-C became more efficient and had a fast tended. The simulation results proved the effectiveness of the proposed
dynamic response. In this design, the ZVT acts as a buck to charge SC or HESS configured with the LiFePO4 battery and SC. This HESS had a
battery and acts as a ZVT boost to discharge SC or battery. The con- higher voltage, exceptionally higher capacity and longer cycle life in
verter was simulated using PSIM Software. comparison with NiMe-H, nickel-Cd, and PbA; but did not perform
The efficiency of the HESS also depends on the battery modules. better at low temperatures. Two modes of driving and braking were
Ferg et al. [40], for example, investigated HESS with two different considered in which the possibilities were divided to USC > UBat or
configurations. In one scenario 2F SC is connected with the Li-ion USC ≤ UBat. If the SC is not fully charged all RE will be stored in the SC,
battery and in another with the VRLA (both with 1Ah capacity). In both and when it is fully charged, then all RE will be stored in the battery. In
cases they were connected in parallel. This study showed that the HESS the case of USC > UBat the energy is fully provided by the SC to the
can have a very different characteristics and capacity performances at electric motor (prevented from the battery energy flow by diode), while
various SOC (Fig. 2). Depending on the battery chemistry, the SC in the case of USC ≤ UBat, the battery and SC become directly parallel
connected with this battery can accept a different energy. Fig. 3a shows through the diode included in the circle and therefore both supply the
the discharge performance of a Li-ion and hybrid SC/Li-ion system, energy to the electric motor. Later, the dynamic programming (DP)
while Fig. 3b VRLA batteries and SC/VRLA hybrid system. It can be approach was introduced in this configuration [36]. The results from
seen that the coupling of the VRLA battery with the SC has a con- this study is in favour of increased numbers of the SCs in the HESS. The
siderable advantage at the 40% and 60% SOC during discharging. authors proposed the optimisation of the battery size and the config-
However, the benefit of the SC in the hybrid SC/Li-ion system uration of the SC pack in the HESS based on the requirements regarding
during its discharge was not really shown. While the charge acceptance the city bus minimal mileage.
Fig. 3. The discharge comparisons between (a) the Li-ion and (b) VRLA batteries with and without the SCs at different SOCs. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [40]. Copyright 2013,
Elsevier.
A high efficient novel multimode HESS with the energy manage- previous section [42] also employs the rule-based control strategy for
ment strategy for EVs was proposed by Wang et al. [42]. In this design the model selection while for the power distribution between the bat-
(Fig. 4), the HESS has multiple operating modes controlling the P- teries and SCs utilises the power-balancing strategy. The proposed
mosfet, the N-mosfet, and the DC/DC-C. For the energy management configuration of the novel multimode HESS and its energy management
strategy, two control strategies: the rule-based and the power-balancing were validated.
strategies were developed. In case of the hybrid system use, the energy Jung et al. [46] proposed a control design method and constructed
from the batteries to the SCs was monitored by DC/DC-C and the bat- an experimental system to validate their method. According to the
teries were protected from the direct recharging from the RB. The au- proposed method, instead of choosing the battery current and the SC
thors simulated the proposed multimode HESS and validated its per- current for the HESS design, they chose the battery current and the load
formance experimentally. The higher efficiency of this design with voltage. Here, they relied on the SC's ability to supply or absorb almost
regards of the conventional HESS design has been approved. any current as needed. The authors addressed some control design
The overall system efficiency has been improved for the Urban problems for a power system driven by battery-SC HESS devices. The
Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) and the New European Driving currents in the battery and the SC were actively controlled by two bi-
Cycle (NEDC) by 0.28% and 1.85%, respectively. directional buck-boost converters. Two control objectives were ad-
The optimised design of the HESS for the HEV was investigated by dressed in their work: (a) the first one was to have a good record on two
Wei et al. [43]. Their research was based on the desired performance of reference variables, the battery current, and the load voltage; (b) the
the vehicle that could be achieved by reducing the original battery pack second one was to achieve a smooth transition of these variables during
in the HESS. The HESS was operated at a high voltage, and it was load switch. Based on the state-space averaged model, the control de-
connected to the inverter without DC/DC converter to eliminate the sign problems were converted into numerically efficient optimisation
energy loss. SCs were modelled as an ideal capacitor with a series in- problems with linear matrix inequality constraints. The value of the
ternal resistance and the batteries as an ideal open circuit voltage control design methods was first verified by simulation and then vali-
(OCV) supply with the series of the internal resistance as well. The dated experimentally.
battery current, as well as SC current, are a quadratic function of the
internal resistance, OCV and power request. The main challenge in this
work was to find a balance between technically feasible and financially 4. Thermal effects on HESS performance
attractive solutions and that the energy storage unit must be able to
satisfy the anticipated power requests of the vehicle while operating the Song et al. [51] studied the thermal analysis of the HESS and its
devices within the capacity. The authors presented the Pareto optimal performance in the EVs at sub-zero temperatures. In sub-zero tem-
solutions to the designer who can then evaluate which trade-offs are perature situations, EVs suffer a deep driving range loss due to the
acceptable. Their results showed that the batteries are discharged less energy and power capacity drop of batteries. They investigated the
rapidly because, with the presence of the SCs, the batteries can be used performance of a LiFePO4 battery, which was subject to severe de-
to provide a steady base power while the SCs can be used to provide gradation due to Li plating. A new degradation model of the LiFePO4
high peaking currents when necessary. The authors noted that during batteries, which can precisely evaluate the battery fade in a wide
the implementation of this system, a more sophisticated energy man- temperature range was suggested. An optimised EMS of the HESS for
agement control scheme is necessary. Furthermore, it was shown that on-line usage was developed with the implemented degradation model
the Li-ion batteries are a better candidate for an HEV energy storage using DP approach. The semi-active HESS design, which was previously
system. The ZEBRA (Zero Emission Battery Research Activity) batteries presented by the same group [33], was evaluated. This system consisted
performances were also investigated in the HESS by Capasso and Veneri of the SC linked to the bidirectional DC/DC converter to the Battery/DC
[35,44]. bus, and their voltages are equal as they are directly connected. In the
system, the resistor for the heat generation and the fan for the heat
3. Energy management system (EMS) of HESS transfer were included. The SC was presented by Rint-Capacitor model
and the battery by the Rint model. The voltage of the SC was controlled
To maximise the benefits of the HESS in the EVs/HEVs, it is very to keep it above half of its maximal voltage.
important to properly manage the energy derived from and into the The authors adapted the dynamic battery degradation model from
system. The significance of the EMS and its design has been described in Forgez et al. [50]. They verified it for the wide range of batteries
the literature [5,6,33,42,45–54]. The design, most of the times, con-
siders the following inputs: batteries SOC and outputs, vehicle's speed
and acceleration, the current demand, the load voltage, state of health
(SOH) of the battery [46], SOC of the SCs [35,49], the battery de-
gradation under sub-zero temperatures [50,55,56]. In some studies, the
power and energy controlled flow into the HESS [46] and the batteries
Ch/Dch rates have also been investigated [47].
Armenta et al. [49], proposed a rule-based EMS that allows a high
consumption of the RB energy and a high acceleration at any time. They
proposed three flowcharts for controlling the power supply based on
different modes (Fig. 5). Based on the analysis, when the EMS im-
plemented, it could increase the efficiency of the EV in the range of
8%–25% by using an RE. The proposed EMS controls the SC based
discharge in a way that the minimal power is delivered to the load due
to the possibilities to obtain an enough and necessary space to absorb
the energy from RB. In this case, the acceleration for a new cycle is
supported. A simulation test protocol was developed to demonstrate the
benefits of the proposed EMS algorithm, considering an EV of 1550 kg.
The energy delivered from the SC bank to the DC bus is performed,
utilising BD-DC/DC-C while the battery bank is directly connected to Fig. 4. Circuit structure of the proposed multimode HESS. Reproduced with permission
from Ref. [42]. Copyright 2015, Elsevier.
the same bus. The EMS with the novel multimode HESS presented in the
Fig. 5. Flowcharts for (a) energy management systems, (b) acceleration strategy, (c) constant speed strategy, and (d) breaking strategy. Reproduced with permission from Ref. [49].
Copyright 2015, Elsevier.
temperatures (from −20 to 10 °C) and the discharge rate (from 0.5 to battery and the benefits gotten by the battery heating mode cannot be
3). The operation cost over a typical CBDC counting the electricity and created in short period of driving time. Consequently, the pre-heating
the battery fade costs was reduced by the DP technique. For this a method is not endorsed when the bus runs simply for a short time at
convective heating method, with about 75% heating efficiency is used. sub-zero temperatures.
The heating load of the hybrid energy system at sub-zero ambient air The thermal stability of the SCs in the HESS was also investigated by
temperatures as a function of CBDC including the operation cost of the the Korea Automotive Technology Institute. The HESS utilised
storage systems were examined. The driving range, battery price, NESSCAP 2.7V/3500F SCs and 36/20Ah VRLA batteries in their 42-V
heating efficiency, and ambient air temperature are the most influential automotive electrical system [57]. Fig. 6 presents the surface tem-
parameters that have a significant impact on the heating load. Simu- perature distribution of the corresponding cell. To guarantee the safety
lation outcomes disclosed that the heating mode becomes gradually and durability of this system the thermal stability of the SCs were in-
more essential with increased three above-mentioned parameters and vestigated during the Ch/Dch. To model the thermal performance of the
decreased ambient air temperature. Generally, for short-range driving SC under the harshest environments, the whole electrical load was
scenarios the total cost will rise when the battery heating power (Pheat) presumed to be supported by the SC bank. This approach replaced the
is above zero. A large Pheat is favourable to decrease the operation ex- option for the load distribution between SC bank and the battery during
pense for medium-range driving scenarios, and the total expense can be power cycling according to the balancing algorithm of the electrical
constantly and considerably decreased by increasing Pheat for long- EMS of the vehicle. A three-dimensional modelling method has been
range driving scenarios. This is because the Pheat is drawn from the employed to investigate the effects of the operating and ambient
arrangement with a 600 V-battery module appeared to be best suitable power unit (comprised of an engine and a generator) and the ESS were
for a great quantity of small braking events and deceleration times at scaled according to the buffer power ratio (BPR). The authors empha-
high current. In race cars with restricted envelope, the recovery of BE is sized on the power capabilities of the storage devices more than the
necessary to limit the weight rise by the batteries. The results disclosed energy capabilities as the power capability has more impact on fuel
that for this application, the HESS is better compared to a stand-alone savings of these vehicles, as the recuperation of the BE depends on the
battery system. power of the HESS. They claimed that for the given vehicle and mea-
Jung et al. [79] developed the SCs modules and investigated their surement data, the use of a serial hybrid powertrain is only reasonable
performances in the simulated 42-V automotive electrical system. In for BPRs above 20% for urban driving, and 30% for mixed driving,
this test, 6-kW power boosting/regenerative braking was efficiently respectively. For BPRs above 40%, SCs are the preferred choice due to
handled by the SC modules. Due to the limited production at the time their poorer internal resistance and weight. Their outcomes showed
(when the paper was published in 2003), the authors mentioned that that the maximum fuel saving potential compared to a traditional ve-
the SCs price is high and estimated that it would dramatically decrease hicle is about 16% for urban driving and 8% for mixed driving.
in the future and that for the high power 42-V system the SCs would be
excellent storage devices. 8. Summary and outlook
The use of the HESS in HEV against the sulfation of the VRLA bat-
teries was investigated by Lam and Louey [22] and Stienecker et al. Both the environmental issues and the market demand have caused
[80]. The authors presented the configuration of the HESS and showed the popularity of the EVs, but the electrochemical energy storage sys-
that the hybrid system would increase the battery life. In the hybrid tems are still far behind the expectations to compete with the fuel-based
system the number and size of the current pulses supplied by the bat- vehicles. Although recent advancements in the battery technologies
teries are decreased as well as the sulfation in the PbA batteries. have provided excellent opportunities to produce EVs, which can fairly
The performance of the HESS in a serial hybrid electric bus was compete in the market, the limitations in both the thermodynamics and
presented by Elbert et al. [81]. The performance of the HESS in this EV kinetics of the electrochemical reactions involved in a battery do not
was compared with the conventional diesel engine powered bus. The fully meet the requirements of irregular energy consumption of ve-
Ni-MH battery cells and the 63F SCs modules in the hybrid system were hicles. In this direction, employing a SC along with the battery system
designed for 125 V and 41.5 kW power. The power-to-weight ratio was can satisfy the need. In this hybrid design, the SC can quickly (for a
presented as a good measure of the vehicle performance. Therefore, short period, few seconds), provide the energy when the battery system
only vehicles with equal power-to-weight ratio are compared. The fails to do so. After that, the steady energy flow is supplied by the
battery pack.
However, the battery/SC system is not as simple as coupling two
electrochemical power sources. In addition to the individual cell ar-
chitectures, the entire electrical system should be subtly matched to
build an integer power source. It is of important to decide when and
how each electrochemical cell should be charged or discharged. This is
accompanied by a complex usage procedure, which is different from
regular testing of the electrochemical cells. Therefore, designing the
future cells should be based on a close collaboration between the re-
searchers working on the electrochemistry part of the power source and
those who are designing the electrical system of the whole power source
in the EV. There is still a huge gap between these two areas of research.
Many of the hybrid systems tested for the EVs are based on commercial
batteries and SCs, which have not been fabricated for this purpose.
Instead, it is vital to design the batteries and SCs based on the re-
quirements for the hybrid energy systems of the EVs. The critical im-
portant of this point lines in the availability of various electrode ma-
terials for both batteries and SCs, which might not be useful for the
popular applications, but they provide new opportunities for the EV
applications. A simple comparison between the size and performance of
a laptop battery and the power source required for an EV reveals that
entirely new types of electrochemical cells are required for the future
EVs. However, most of the common candidates for the EV power
sources are practically based on the scaled-up version of the same old
battery systems.
The present manuscript merely aimed to attract the attention of
researchers working on different sides of this field to specifically focus
on the opportunities for designing native battery/supercapacitor sys-
tems for the EVs. In this direction, the crucial differences between the
performances of these electrochemical cells in a hybrid power source of
EVs with the standard energy storage tests should be taken into ac-
count. Here, we attempted to provide an overview of the possible
performance of the battery/supercapacitors systems in the EVs.
L. Kouchachvili et al. Journal of Power Sources 374 (2018) 237–248
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