JASHORE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY (JUST)

IPE- 2203: Engineering Materials II (3 credit hours)

Dr. Md Mahfuzur Rahman

Assistant Professor, Dept. of IPE
2nd Nov, 2020
Intended Learning Outcomes (ILOs)
 Review of previous class
 Yielding in Crystal & Strengthening Mechanisms

– ILO 1: Describe different Strengthening strategies.

– ILO 2: Describe the Grain strengthening

– ILO 3: Solid solution strengthening
– ILO 4: Work hardening
– ILO 5: Precipitation hardening
Yielding in Crystals
Strength of a Perfect Crystal
Stress at which bond rupture takes place at the end of elastic deformation is called
the ideal strength.
 Estimated value of ideal strength  E/15.
 A material cannot be stronger than this.
 Glasses and some ceramics and polymers have strength values close to their
respective ideal strengths values.
 All metals, however, have yield strengths far below than their ideal strengths – as
much as a factor of 105 lower.
Why ?

 Crystals are not perfect.

They have defects, which limit the strength of crystal and the material.
 The presence and motion of large number of dislocations allow materials
to deform plastically at stress levels much smaller than ideal strength.

 If dislocations cannot move, plastic deformation doesn’t happen !!

Dislocations: A Review
 Dislocations are linear imperfections in a crystal structure for which a row of atoms
has a local structure that differs from the surrounding crystal.

 Generally caused by:

 Mechanical stress and deformation
 Imperfections during crystal growth

 Two types of dislocations:

 Edge dislocations: The edge dislocation consists of an extra half plane of

atoms in the crystal.

 Screw dislocations: The screw dislocation is so named because of the spiral

surface formed by the atomic planes around the screw-dislocation line.
Characteristics of Dislocations
Lattice Strain  Edge dislocations introduce compressive, tensile,
and shear lattice strains.
 Screw dislocations introduce shear strain only.
 Dislocations have strain fields arising from
distortions at their cores.
 Strain drops radially with distance from dislocation
core
The strain fields around dislocations cause them to
interact with each other
Interactions Between Dislocations
When the strain fields around dislocations are in the same plane, they repel each other if they have
the same sign (direction of the Burgers vector) and attract /annihilate if they have opposite
signs.

The number of dislocations increases dramatically during plastic

deformation. Dislocations spawn from existing dislocations, grain
boundaries, internal defects and surface irregularities
Dislocation Motion & Material Class
Metals: Easier dislocation motion

Covalent Ceramics: (Si, Diamond)

Ionic Ceramics: (NaCl)

Slip
 Slip is the movement of large numbers of dislocations to produce macroscopic
plastic deformation.
 Slip allows deformation without breaking ductility
 Though individual bonds must be broken for dislocation to move, new bonds are
formed throughout the slip process
 Analogy — caterpillars, carpets, worms

 During fracture of material, all bonds are broken instantaneously, which requires
much larger force.
 During propagation of dislocation, only a small fraction of bonds are broken along
a particular plane at any given time, requiring much lesser force.
 The crystallographic plane along which dislocation moves is called the slip plane.
The Slip System

 Dislocations do not move with the same degree of ease on all

crystallographic planes and in all crystallographic directions.

 In single crystals there are preferred planes where dislocations move (slip
planes). Within the slip planes there exist some preferred crystallographic
directions for dislocation movement (slip directions).
 The set of slip planes and directions constitutes the slip system.

 The slip planes and directions are those of highest packing density.

 The distance between atoms along the slip plane is shorter than the average;
the distance perpendicular to the plane has to be longer than average.
 Being relatively far apart, the planes can slip more easily relatively to each
other.
General strengthening Strategy
 Engineering alloys are designed to have maximum strength with some
ductility and toughness.
 The chemical composition of the alloy provides an alloy with a base
mechanical properties, which can be improved if necessary.
 Plastic deformation depends on the ability of dislocations to move.
 All strengthening methods rely on impeding the motion of dislocations.
 To strengthen a material, the general strategy is:
make it harder for dislocations to move

 There are 4 mechanisms by which the general strengthening strategy can be

achieved:

① Grain strengthening
② Solid solution strengthening
③ Work/strain hardening
④ Precipitation hardening

The price for enhancement of strength and hardness is in the reduction of ductility !!
#1: Grain Strengthening
Obstacle: Grain boundary
Creates slip plane discontinues – causing difficulty in dislocation motion

Grain boundaries impede the motion of dislocations

• grain boundaries act as discontinuity in the

lattice
• the slip plane in a grain does not continue
in the same direction beyond the boundary
• dislocation needs to change direction on
moving from grain A to B, which requires
more energy
FIGURE 7.14 ( Callister) The motion
So, dislocations are stopped by a grain of a dislocation as it encounters a grain
boundary and pile up against it. boundary, illustrating how the boundary
acts as a barrier to continued slip.
#1: Grain Strengthening
Misorientation
Degree of obstacle increases with misorientation
Small angle grain boundaries not very effective
High-angle grain boundaries block slip and increase strength of the material

High angle grain boundaries

cause greater mismatch along
the grain boundary and offer
greater resistance to
dislocation motion
Grain Size

Small grain size generates high grain boundary surface area

 more barrier to impede dislocation motion and slip
 high yield strength (sy ) and toughness

Variation of yield strength of a material with its grain size according to Hall-Petch
relation:
s0 = Yield strength at infinite
grain size (i.e., single crystal)
ky= Hall-Petch constant
d = Average grain diameter

The finer the grains, the larger the strength

#2: Solid Solution Strengthening
Obstacle: Impurity atoms
offers obstruction in dislocation motion
 Just like dislocations, alloying elements impose localized lattice strain in the host lattice due
to the difference in size.

Stresses around an Stresses around

edge dislocation an impurity atom

 Impurity atoms diffuse to positions where they reduce strain in lattice.

 Smaller solute atoms sit at base of edge dislocations
 Larger solute atoms sit at top of edge dislocations

Larger impurity atoms with their compressive strains

tend to congregate in the tensile area below the slip
Smaller impurity atoms with their tensile strains tend to plane
congregate in the compressive area above the slip plane
#2: Solid Solution Strengthening
 This results partial cancellation of impurity-dislocation lattice strains, and and increase the
stress required to move dislocations
• Resistance to slip is increased
 As before, opposite stress around the impurity atom attracts the stress around dislocation and
like stresses repeal each other.
Principle of Alloying

 Alloying (i.e., making pure metal impure !) makes metals stronger and harder
(almost always).

 Interstitial or substitutional impurities in a solution cause lattice strain.

As a result, these impurities interact with dislocation strain fields and hinder dislocation
motion.

 Impurities tend to diffuse and segregate around the dislocation core to find
atomic sites more suited to their radii. This reduces the overall strain energy but “anchor”
the dislocation. The resistance to slip will be greater because the overall lattice strain
must now increase if a dislocation is torn away from them.

 Thus, a greater applied stress is necessary to: (1) torn away a dislocation from
impurity pinning and initiate plastic deformation, and then (2) continue
plastic deformation for solid solution alloys.
#3: Strain Hardening
Obstacle: Already existing dislocations
offers obstruction in motion of other dislocations

 Also known as strain hardening, work hardening, or cold working.

 Ductile metals become stronger when they are deformed plastically at

temperatures well below the melting point.

 The reason for strain hardening is the increase of dislocation density

with plastic deformation due to dislocation multiplication and formation of
new ones

 The average distance between dislocations decreases and the

dislocations start blocking the motion of each other.
Cold working
Cold working – room temperature deformation
#4: Precipitation Hardening

 Obstacle: Hard second phase particles

offers obstruction in motion of dislocations
Example: Ceramics in metals (e.g., SiC in Iron or
Aluminum) rsHard precipitates are difficult to shear!!
Homework
References:
1. Callister. Materials Science and Engineering: An Introduction
2. Askeland. The Science and Engineering of Materials