Introduction to Transportation

&
Traffic Engineering
Dr. Hozayen Ahmed Hozayen

Hozayena@yahoo.com
0020106044758

Course Notes

Course Outline
1. System Components:
1.1 Road Users Characteristics
1.2 Vehicle Characteristics
1.3 Highway Characteristics

2. Traffic Demand Studies:

2.1 Speed Studies
2.2 Sight Distance Studies
2.3 Volume Studies
2.4 Parking Studies

3. Traffic Behavior and Supply Characteristics:

3.1 Traffic Flow Theory and Models
3.2 Highway Capacity and Level of Service
3.3 Capacity of Freeways

1
 Course Outline (Cont.)

4. Intersection Capacity and Analysis:

4.1 Capacity of interrupted flow
4.2 Intersection Control and Analysis
4.3 Design of Traffic Signals

5. Traffic Operation and Control

5.1 Traffic Control Devices
5.2 Traffic Signs and Marking
5.3 Introduction to Traffic Impact Studies
5.4 Introduction to Advanced Traffic Management

INTRODUCTION

Traffic Demand Transport Supply

Trip Generation . Freeways .
Volume, speed, delay Driver Intersections .
studies. Vehicle Terminals .
Pedestrians

Traffic Operation
and Control

Analytical Flow
Process Queuing

Traffic
Performance

2
What is it?
Traffic Engineering : It is that phase of Engineering which
deals with the safe and efficient
movement of people and goods.

Traffic engineer duties:

1- Interaction with the public and public safety .
2- Executing a systematic data collection program
( Volumes - Speed - accidents - ….. ).
3- Establishing an inventory program
( signs - signals - marking - …. ) .
4- Carry out traffic management schemes .

Key References and Terminology:

1- Manual for Uniform Traffic Control Devices ( MUTCD ).

It describes details on signs , signals ,
marking, lighting , regulations.
2- Highway Capacity Manual ( HCM ) .
3- AASHTO green book.
(Geometric design details).

General References:

“ Traffic Engineering “ by McShane and Roess .

“ Traffic Flow Fundamentals “ by May .
“ Traffic and Highway Engineering “ by Garber .

3
1. System Components

1.1 Road Users Characteristics

1.2 Vehicle Characteristics
1.3 Highway Characteristics

4
Components of Traffic System
System components:
1- Road users ( Drivers - Pedestrians).
2- Vehicles .
3- Roadways .
4- Controls ( signs - signals - marking ).

Traffic System 5 Es Rule

1- Engineering
2- Education
3- Enforcement
4- Environment
5- Economy

Road Users ( RU )
definition:
Drivers , Passengers , Pedestrians , Bicyclists , Motorcyclists .
The most complex component ( i.e , difficult to characterize or to
predict behavior)
RU characteristics:
Quantitative : ( Can be measured )
Perception and Reaction time.
Visual Acuity
Qualitative : ( difficult to measure )
Physical or psychological Strength.

5
Pedestrian Versus Vehicle Studies:

Vehicle Pedestrian
Stream Stream

FLOW Vehicle per Person per

hour per lane minute per
foot of width
SPEED Kph or mph Feet/min.
DENSITY Vehicle per Person per
mile per lane square foot.

Vehicle Characteristics
1- Dimensions :
Height : Clearance , Sight distance , Multistory Garages .
Length : Turning Radii , Passing sight distance .
Width : Lane width , Parking width .
Weight ( Horse power ): Slope, Length of Grade.

2- Vehicle Type ( Design Vehicle ) :

Passenger car . Climbing lane V<Vmin
Single Unit Truck .
Pickup .
Single unit Bus .
Semi-Trailer .
Full-Trailer .
Fire Fighting , Ambulance . WB – 40
Wheel Base 50
60 .

6
†Stopping sight distance is composed
of two distances, what are they?

„ Distance traveled during

perception/reaction time (PRD)
„ Distance required to physically brake
vehicle (BD)

Perception-Reaction Process
†Perception
†Identification

†Emotion
†Reaction (volition)

PIEV
Used for Signal Design and Braking Distance

7
Perception-Reaction Process

† Perception
„ Sees or hears situation (sees deer)
† Identification
„ Identify situation (realizes deer is in road)
† Emotion
„ Decides on course of action (swerve, stop,
change lanes, etc)
† Reaction (Volition)
„ Acts (time to start events in motion but not
actually do action)
†Foot begins to hit brake, not actual
deceleration

Typical Perception-Reaction
time range is:
0.5 to 4 seconds
Affected by a number of factors.
What are they?

8
 Studies on
Perception/Reaction Time
† drivers expected to use brakes
„ Median: 0.66 sec
„ 90th percentile: >= 1.5 sec
† Unexpected, response time increased by ~ 1
sec
† Some drivers took over 3.5 seconds to
respond even under simple test condition

Average PIEV Time Value = 2.5 sec.

Sight Distance

1-Stopping Sight Distance

V = 0.0 kph
V = kph
Perception and Braking
Reaction Distance Distance

0.278 V.t V2
255 ( f1 ± g )
V2
S.S.D = 0.278 V.t +
⎛ ⎞
Where 255 ⎜ f ± g ⎟
⎝ 1 ⎠

V = Speed kph (assumed speed)

t = Perception and reaction time (sec.)
= 2.5 sec (if not given)
Fl = Friction Coefficient (Longitudinal Direction)=0.3if not given .
g = Grade .
Factors affecting F1: Drying condition, Speed Skid resistance of
pavement, and Agg. Surface Texture (mix type).

9
 Minimum Stopping Sight distance (Level Grade)

Stopping Sight Distance

SSD = PRD + BD
V2
S . S . D = 0 . 278 V .t +
255 ( f 1 ± g )
Where :
SSD = Stopping sight distance (meter)
V = Speed (kph).
t = PIEV time (sec) . Average PIEV Time Value = 2.5 sec.
fl = Longitudinal Friction .
g = Grade .

10
Performance of the Driver, the pedestrian and the
Vehicle Impact the following design parameters

† Length of acceleration † Location of traffic

and deceleration lanes control devices
† Maximum highway
grades
† Speed limits
† Minimum turning radius † Traffic signal timing
† Sight passing distances † Stopping sight
† Lane widths distances
† Clearance heights † Roadside safety
features

Design Driver
†Wide range of system users
†What range of drivers use the system?
„ Ages: 16 year old to 80 year old
„ Different mental and physical states
„ Physical (sight, hearing, etc)
„ experience
†Design Driver: driver most expected
to use facility (familiar or unfamiliar?)

11
Age distribution of drivers
12
Percent of Driving Population

10

0
< 20

20-24

25-29

30-34

35-39

40-44

45-49

50-54

55-59

60-64

65-69

70-74

75-79

80-84

> 84
Age Groups

Human Characteristics
†Perception-Reaction Time
†Visual Reception
†Walking Speed
†Hearing Perception
†Actions taken by drivers depend on
their ability to receive, evaluate, and
respond to situations – dog darting
into roadway

12
 Visual Reception

†Glare Recovery: Ability to recover

from the effects of glare
†Dark to light : 3 seconds - - headlights in
the eye
†Light to dark: 6 seconds – turning lights
off
†Usually a concern for night driving

Need to provide light transitions

Aging’s impact of vision

† Older persons experience low light
level
„ Rules of thumb – after 50 the light you
can see halves with each 10 years
† Glare – overloading eye with light
„ Older drivers can take twice as long to
recover from glare
† Poor discrimination of color
† Poor contrast sensitivity

13
How are these factored into design

Design criteria must be

based on the capabilities
and limitations of most
drivers and pedestrians

Pedestrians
†Walking Speed varied between 3 to 8
ft/sec

†Design value is 4 ft/sec

Used to calculate safe pedestrians

crossing time

14
Design Vehicle
†Class of vehicle that sets design
criteria
†Characteristics of “design” vehicle are
used to determine criteria for design,
sight-distance requirements, etc.

Vehicle Characteristics
† Static: those characteristics that DO NOT
depend on the interaction with the
transportation facility

† Dynamic: those characteristics that DO

depend on the interaction with the
transportation facility
Important factor in determining the
design standards for the physical
components of the transportation facility

15
Static Characteristics
†Size:
†Design of lane widths, parking bays, etc…
†Vertical clearance
†Weight:
†Pavement design, bridge design, axle loads
†Maximum grade

†Radius of Curvature:
†Intersection design
†Interchange ramps

Minimum Turning Path for

Passenger Design Vehicle

16
Vehicle Regulation and
Dimensions
† Vehicle attribute regulated
„ Vehicle condition
„ Vehicle weight and weight distribution
†Bridge formula
†Axle loading
„ Vehicle dimensions
†Total length
†Length of trailers
†Number of trailers
†Height
†Width

Why do we regulate dimensions

†Safety
†Create uniformity
†Protect the infrastructure
†Establish standards for design

17
Vehicle types (triples are not
shown)

Dynamic Characteristics
†Hill Climbing Ability

†Cornering Dynamics

†Braking Distance

18
Hill Climbing Ability
†Force acting on a vehicle:
†Engine Power
†Air Resistance
†Grade Resistance
†Rolling Resistance
†Friction
†Weight

Sight distance

Distance a driver can see ahead at any specific time

Must allow sufficient distance for a driver to
perceive/react and stop, swerve etc when necessary

19
Stopping distance
Practical Stopping Distance

700
600
Stopping Distance

500
400
Series1
300
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80
Speed in MPH

Grade impacts on stopping

Varying Grade

600
Stopping Distance in Feet

500
400 2 percent grade
0 percent grade
300
-2 percent grade
200
100
0
0 20 40 60 80
Miles per Hour

20
Friction impact on stopping
Varying Friction

1800
Stopping Distance in Feet

1600
1400
1200 Friction = 0.5
1000
Friction = 0.25
800
600 Friction = 0.1
400
200
0
0 20 40 60 80
Miles per Hour

Impact of reaction time

Varying Reaction Time

800 2.5 second

Stopping
Distance

600 reaction time

1.5 second
400
reaction time
200 0.6 second
0 reaction time
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Miles per Hour

21
 Passing Sight Distance
• Minimum distance required to safely complete passing maneuver
on 2-lane two-way highway
• Allows time for driver to avoid collision with approaching vehicle
and not cut off passed vehicle when upon return to lane
• Assumes:
1. Vehicle that is passed travels at uniform speed
2. Speed of passing vehicle is reduced behind passed vehicle as it
reaches passing section
3. Time elapses as driver reaches decision to pass
4. Passing vehicle accelerates during the passing maneuver and
velocity of the passing vehicle is 10 mph greater than that of the
passed vehicle
5. Enough distance is allowed between passing and oncoming vehicle
when the passing vehicle returns to its lane

2-Passing Sight Distance (P.S.D.) (Sp)

Clearance Opposite Car

Distance traveling
Preliminary Left-lane Occupancy
Delay Distance Distance (d2) (d3) Distance(d4)
(d1)

Passing veh. Or
Overtaking veh.
Opposite veh. Or
V/ or (v-m) oncoming veh.

Overtaken veh. Or
Passed veh.

d1 = 0.278 t1* d1 = 0.278 v.t1 d3 = 30-90 d4 = (2/3)d2

v-m+(at1/2)

P.S.D. =d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 = m

22
Where:
v = passing vehicle speed kph
v\ = v-m = Passed vehicle speed kph
m = Difference in speed between passing and passed
vehicles.
t1 = Preliminary delay time. Sec.
t2 = Left-Lane occupancy Time. Sec.
a = Average acceleration rate.

Note:
The passing sight distance must be satisfied for two-
lane two-way
highway only where the passing or overtaking
maneuver occurs.

Minimum Passing Sight distance (Level Grade)

23
 (2) Traffic Demand Studies

2.1 Speed Studies

2.2 Sight Distance Studies
2.3 Volume Studies
2.4 Parking Studies

Spot Speed Studies :

Length (L)=l
Time (T)=l

Definition :

Spot Speed : is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle atspecific point on the road

Spot Speed = l/t

24
 SPEEDS

L=1 L=
T=t T=
Design Speed : Max. Safe speed that can be obtained on the road .
Spot Speed :It is the instantaneous speed of a vehicle at specific time ( l/t) .
Average Spot Speed :
Where N is the number of observed Vehicles . l
+
l
+ ......... +
l
t t t
overall speed : It is the total distance divided by the total time
= .
N
1 2 n

Running Speed (Operating Speed ) ( Traveling Speed ) :

It is the total distance divided by the running time .
L t1 + t2 + .......+ tn
Space Mean Speed : = Where:tav =
Example : t av
N
given :
Vehicle 1 ………. 12
Number
Time ( sec. ) 3.5 ………. 10 N=12 , L = 400 ft.

400 ⎛ 1 1 1 ⎞
⎜ + + ...... + ⎟
Average spot speed = 12 ⎝ 3 . 5 5 10 ⎠ = ….. ft/sec.
400 3 . 5 + 5 + .... + 10
Space mean speed = t av =
t av 12

Why , Where , When , How ( To measure spot Speed ? )

Why : (Purpose of speed studies )
1−Establishing Speed Zones .
2−Establishing Passing and No-passing Zones .
3-Analyzing Accident data .
4-Determining Speed trends ( Profile ) .
5 -Evaluating effect of Physical improvements ( Before and After studies ) .

25
 Where : (Locations of Spot Speed )

1-Mid-blocks of Urban Highways .

2 -Straight and Level Sections of Rural Highways .
3 -Geometric Improvement Locations .
4−( Problems - accidents - ..etc.)

When : Timing
−Off Peak . ( not during peak hour ) .
−The length of time ( Recording period ) Should allow
recording the minimum no. of Vehicles Required for the study
.
Min. one hour .
Min. sample size = 30 Vehicles ) .

How : Methods for Measuring spot speed :

Pulse Detector
1- Road Detectors ( Pneumatic tube ,
inductive loops )
2- Doppler Principle meter ( Ultrasonic t
meter , Remote sensing , Radar )
3- Aerio- Photo
4- Video Camera ( plus Computer ) .
Advantages : L
Less Human Error . Electrical Loop
Disadvantages :
Cost .
Affect Driver’s Response .
-5 Inductive Loop .
Buried wire loop or electrical field
Impulse Counter

26
Pneumatic Road Tubes

Road Tubes for Collection of Spot Speed

Recorder

27
 Doppler Principle .
Change in signal frequency is proportional to speed of
moving object . Δf = f - f
T R
Δf α speedof vehicle Moving Object

Reflected
Trasmitte
1 - Radar d Frequency
2 - Ultrasonic . Frequancy ( FR )
3- Infra-Red based meter . ( FT )
4- Remote Sensing Techniques .

Signal ( wave ) Source

Speed Measures

† Time Mean Speed

† Space Mean Speed
† 85th Percentile Speed

28
 Sample Calculation of TMS and SMS

A B
d = 2 miles

Run #1: t1 = 2 min, d/t1 = 60 miles/hour

Run #2: t2 = 2.5 min, d/t2 = 48 miles/hour
Run #3: t3 = 3 min, d/t3 = 40 miles/hour

Σ(d/ti) = 60+48+40 = 148 miles/hour

TMS = Σ(d/ti)/n = 148/3 = 49.33 miles/hour

Calculation of TMS and SMS

Σ(ti) = t1+t2+t3 = 2+2.5+3 = 7.5 min

Σ(ti/n) = 7.5/3 = 2.5 min
2 miles x 60 min/hour
SMS =
2.5 min
= 48 miles/hour

29
 Spot Speed Studies

Where to take the studies:

1. Trend locations
2. Problem locations for specific purposes
3. Representative locations for basic data surveys
4. Locations where before-and-after studies are
being conducted
5. The specific location for the speed study
should be selected to reduce the influence of
the observer and the measuring equipment as
much as possible

Time and Length of Study

• Peak Hour
• Morning Peak
• Afternoon Peak

• Off Peak Hour

30
How to Measure Speed

Two ways:
1. Using a stop watch and
measuring the time it takes to
travel over a specified distance

time1 time2

Speed = d/(time1 - time2)

Speed Study:
Ways to Measure Speed

2. Using a Radar Gun

31
Radar Gun

Operates on Doppler Principle that

the speed of a moving target is
proportional to the change in
frequency between the radio beam
transmitted to the target and the
reflected radio beam.

Time Mean Speed (TMS)

Average speed of all vehicles passing a

point on a highway over a specified time
period
Σ(d/ti)
TMS = n (ft/sec or
miles/hour)

where d = distance traversed (ft or mile)

ti = travel time of ith vehicle
(sec or hour)
n = number of travel times
observed

32
Space Mean Speed (SMS)
Speed corresponding to the average travel
time over a given distance
d
SMS = (ft/sec or
Σ(t )/n
miles/hour) i

where d = distance traversed (ft or mile)

ti = travel time of ith vehicle (sec or hour)
n = number of travel times observed

Relationship between TMS and SMS

σs = Σf(u - X)
2

n-1
Ut = Us σ s
2

+ Us

33
 Speed Data Measured
Using Radar Gun

Percentile Speed Calculations

Mean of
Speed the Frequency Cum.Freq Cum % V-x
F*V (V-x)2 F *( V-x)2
Group Group F ΣF Σ F/n x=(F*V)/F
V
11-15 12.5 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
16-20 17.5 6 6 2% 105 -21.22 450.3 2701
21-25 22.5 8 14 4% 180 -16.22 263.1 2105
26-30 27.5 29 43 14.4% 797.5 -11.22 125.9 3659
31-35 32.5 60 103 34.7% 1950 -6.22 38.7 2322
36-40 37.5 63 166 55.4% 2362.5 -1.22 1.5 95
41-45 42.5 74 240 80.1% 3145 3.78 14.3 1058
46-50 47.5 29 269 89.8% 1377.5 8.78 77.1 2236
51-55 52.5 19 288 96.1% 997.5 13.78 189.9 3608
56-60 57.5 10 298 99.4% 575 18.78 352.7 3527
61-65 62.5 2 300 100% 125 23.78 565.5 1131
n=300 Σ = 11615 Σ = 22442

x = Σx=(F*V)/Fn = 11615/300 = 38.72 mph

x =Time Mean Speed

34
Statistical Calculations

Standard Deviation, σs =
Σf(u - X)2 = 22442/299
n-1 = 8.66 mph
Variance, σs2 = 8.662 = 75.06 mph

Statistical Calculations

Median = L + (n/2 – fL)C/fm

where
L = Lower bound of the group in which
the median lies
n = Number of observations
fL = Cumulative number of observations upto the lower
bound of the group where the median lies
fm = Number of observations in the group in which
the median lies
C = Speed interval

35
Statistical Calculations

For the example, the median lies between 36-40 mph.

∴Median = 36 + (300/2 – 103) 5 / 63 = 39.73 mph

Mode is the area which occurs most frequently.

In the example, mode is 42.5 mph in 41-45 mph range.

Pace is the max. number of vehicles within a 10mph

speed range.

85th Percentile Speed

The speed below which 85% of all

traffic units travel, and above which
15% travel.

Speed limits are determined based

on 85th percentile speeds.

36
 Graph Showing Percentile Speeds

Plot of Cumulative Frequency

120%

100%
Frequency

80%
Frequency

60%
% Cumulative
% Cum.

40%

20%

0%

47.5
47.5 Mph mph
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Speed
Speed

DATA ANALYSIS FOR SPOT SPEED STUDY

Speed Group Frequency Cumulative Computations
(number
Lower Limit Mid- Upper Limit Observed) Fi Frequency Percent Col.2 * Col.4 Col.2 * Col.7
point F1.X1. Fi(Xi)2
Xi
13.6 15 16.5 1 1 1 15.0 225.00
16.6 18 19.5 2 3 3 36.0 648.00
19.6 21 22.5 6 9 9 126.0 2,645.00
22.6 24 25.5 12 21 21 288.0 6,912.00
25.6 27 28.5 13 34 34 351.0 9,477.00
28.6 30 31.5 20 54 54 600.0 18,000.0
31.6 33 34.5 18 72 72 594.0 19,602.00
34.6 36 37.5 17 89 89 612.0 22,032.00
37.6 39 40.5 4 93 93 156.0 6,084.00
40.6 42 43.5 5 98 98 210.0 8,820.00
43.6 45 46.5 1 99 99 45.0 2,025.00
46.6 48 49.5 1 100 100 48.0 2.304.00

Totals n =100 ∑= 3,081.0 98,775.00

X = ∑Fi Xi = 3,081 = 30.81 = 30.8 mph

n 100
S2 = ∑Fi (Xi)2 – 1/n (∑Fi Xi)2 = 98,775.00-1/100(3,081.0)2 =98,775.00 – 94,925.61
n-1 100-1 99
=3,849.39 = 38.88
99
S=√ S2 =√ 38.88 = 6.24
S 2 = S2/n = 38.88/100 = 0.3888
X

X=√ X2 = √0.3888= 0.624 = 0.6

S S
mph
74

37
 % of total observations
Max
10 mph
pace

Modal Speed
speed
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 5 60
5
33 43
100
Cumulative Frequancy

85
80
72% 70
60
50
40 Median Speed
35% 30
20
72-35=37 15
In pace 10

P15 37 P85 speed

Definitions :
Modal Speed : It is the most frequently occurring speed in the
distribution .
It is determined by the peak of the frequency
distribution curve to measure central tendency
.

The Pace : is defined as the 10-mph speed increment

within which the highest percentage of vehicles
travel .

Median Speed ( P50): Equally divides vehicles traveling with

respect to speed . ( i.e 50% faster than the
median speed and 50% slower than it . )

38
85th percentile speed ( P85) : is a measure of the upper limit of
speed for the prevailing traveling
conditions .

15th percentile speed ( P15) : is a measure of the lower limit of

speed for the prevailing traveling
conditions .

The difference between P85 and P15 reflects the degree of

dispersion in the distribution.

Standard Deviation σ
Estimate of Standard Deviation = Sest.
P85 − P15
σˆ =
2

s
S tudie
ed
Spe
speed

Speed profile Distance

Speed Profile applications:
•Freeway ramp metering.
•Routs evaluation.
•Delay studies.
78

39
Intersection Sight Distance
The approach triangle:

Vertical Curves
Stopping sight distance over a vertical
curve

40
Measuring at an Uncontrolled
Intersection

Assistant

Obstruction

en
Li
ght
Si

Decision
Observer
Point

Assistant

Movement of Assistant

Observer

41
 Assistant with Target Rod (4.25 ft)

Observer with Sighting Rod (3.5 ft)

Measuring Stopping Sight

Distance

42
Assistant with Target Rod (2ft object height)

Observer with Sighting

Rod (3.5 ft)

Traffic Volume Definitions

-number of vehicles, pedestrians, etc. passing a point
during a specific period of time
„ for vehicles, usually expressed as veh/hour (vph) or
veh/hour/lane (vphpl)

Traffic Volume: Number of vehicles that pass a certain

point on the road in a specified period of
time
X

X
Volume is the most often parameter used to quantify Traffic Demand.

43
Characteristics of Traffic Flow
†Highly variable
„ Time of day
„ Day of week
„ Season
„ Road characteristics
„ Direction

Traffic Typically Peaks twice per day,

depending on City and Country

7000

6000
Highway Capacity
Flow in vehicles per hour

5000
Highly Congested
4000

3000

2000

1000

0
2: AM
3: AM
4: AM
5: AM
6: AM
7: AM
8: AM
9: AM
10 AM

2 : PM
3 : PM
4 : PM
5 : PM
6 : PM
7 : PM
8 : PM
9 : PM
1 0 PM
1 : PM

1 1 PM
1 2 PM
1: M

11 AM

12 AM

M
0A

0A
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30

30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
30
0

0
0
0
0
:3

:3
:3
:3

:3
:3

:3
12

Time of Day

Source: www.ecn.purdue.edu/~darcy

44
Volume Studies
†AADT: Annual average daily traffic
(counted for 365 days)
†ADT: average daily traffic (counted
for > 1 day and < 365)
†PHV: peak hour volume
†Classification counts: fleet mix

Estimating AADT
†Annual Average Daily Traffic
†Use count station information
†Extrapolate to non-count locations
†Used to adjust ADT for
„ Seasons
„ Daily variation

45
AADT Data Helps to:
†Estimate highway revenues
†Establish overall volume trends
†Establish annual accident rates
†Analyze benefits of road
improvements

Counting Program
†To satisfy the traffic volume data
needs for all roads under a particular
jurisdiction, we establish a Counting
Program

A systematic pattern of counting

at different times and locations

46
 Traffic Counts Map

W e d n e s d a y 4 /3 0 /0 3
6 :0 0 - 9 :0 0 A M

Traffic Counts Plan

North

3 :0 0 - 6 :0 0 P M
U n iv e r s ity U n iv e r s it y
D r iv e 3 D r iv e
Red Bank Rd

T u e s d a y 4 /2 9 /0 3
6 :0 0 A M - 6 :0 0 P M *
* 9 :0 0 A M - 3 :0 0 P M c o u n ts w e re
L lo y d E x p w y . ( S R 6 2 )
d o n e o n W e d n e s d a y 4 /3 0 /0 3
2 1
T h u rs d a y 5 /1 /0 3
6 :0 0 A M - 6 :0 0 P M
Boehne Camp Rd

Red Bank Rd

W e d n e s d a y 6 /4 /0 3
7 :0 0 - 9 :0 0 A M
4 :0 0 - 6 :0 0 P M
P e a r l D r iv e W e d n e s d a y 4 /2 3 /0 3
STOP

T h u rs d a y 4 /2 4 /0 3 6 :0 0 A M - 6 :0 0 P M
6 :0 0 - 9 :0 0 A M 5 E 3 4
ST O P
Boehne Camp Rd

3 :0 0 - 6 :0 0 P M
STOP

H om e
D e p o t E n t.
Red Bank Rd

Red Bank Rd
North

C#2

C#3

C#4

C#5

P e a r l D r iv e
C #1

S a tu rd a y C o u n ts
STOP

L o c a t io n s o f M a g n e t ic C o u n te r s
D a te : (5 /3 /0 3 )

C la r e m o n t A v e
STOP

S a tu r d a y C o u n ts ( 1 2 :0 0 n o o n - 2 :0 0 p .m .) 6
T u e s d a y 4 /2 2 /0 3
L lo y d E x p w y . & R e d B a n k R d S a t. 5 /1 0 /0 3 6 :0 0 - 9 :0 0 A M
L lo y d E x p w y . & B o e h n e C a m p R d S a t. 5 /1 7 /0 3
3 :0 0 - 6 :0 0 P M
R e d B a n k R d & P e a rl D r. S a t. 5 /1 7 /0 3
R e d B a n k R d & C la re m o n t A v e . S a t. 5 /3 1 /0 3
B o e h n e C a m p R d & P e a rl D r. S a t. 5 /3 1 /0 3
R e d B a n k R d & U n iv e rs ity D r. S a t. 5 /3 1 /0 3
P e a rl D r. & H o m e D e p o t E n t. S a t. 6 /0 7 /0 3

47
 Traffic Volume Studies

Methods Types and placing B Planning and scheduling

of volume counts

Continuous Control Coverage

Counters Counters Counters
1
2

3 4 5

6
Objectives of Planning and scheduling of volume counters:
1- To identify traffic variations and patterns.
2- To estimate the AADT and traffic peak hour volume.
Different periodic count with counting period ranging from 1 hr to

Traffic volume pattern.

Volum
Hou e (Vph) Hourly
6-7r am 294 294/12350 = x1 Factor
7-8 426 426/12350 = x2
8-9 560 (HF)
560/12350 = x3
9-10 657
10-11 One hour volume for a specific
722 HF = hour Total day volume
11-12 noon 667
12-1 pm
739 2
1-2 Hourly Expansion Factor
832
2-3 Hourly Variation Factor
. 836 1
. .
. .
.. -The ratio of one hour volume to total day volume may be
12-1am assumed the same (constant) in a close station (with a similar
. 240
traffic pattern) in the network.
. . -Station (1) may be used to establish the HF values for the
. . different hours.
5-6 am . -Total day volume for station (2) may be estimated by counting
86 the volume for only one hour and dividing by the corresponding
Total day = 12350 HF.
volume Total day volume = Volume (of one hour) /HF (of that hour )
(for station (2))

48
 Day 24 hrs daily 24 hrs volume Daily
volume Factor
ave. of 7 days volume
Saturday 1332 1332/1429 = 0.932 0.932
Sunday 1275 1275/1429 = 0.892 0.892
Monday 1820 1820/1429 = 1.274 1.274
Tuesday 1588 1588/1429 = 1.111 1.111
Wednesday 1406 1406/1429 = 0.983 0.983
Thursday 1300 1300/1429 = 0.909 0.909
Friday 1289 1289/1429 = 0.902 0.902

Total 10,000
veh/week
7-day Ave. daily Traffic = 10000/7 = 1429 vpd
= Weekly Daily Traffic
= ADT(week)

24 hrs volume count 24 hrs volume (of specific day

Daily Factor (DF) = =
7 – day Ave. Traffic ADT

Daily
Volume (24 1820 (ADT)
hrs) 1429
1332
1275

Day
Sat Sun Mon Tues Wed Thur Friday
Weekly Cycle Traffic Pattern

For any count station with a similar pattern

(assuming that ratio of relative volumes is 1
similar), The week ADT can be estimated.
24 hrs Traffic count (of specific day)
ADT = 2
Daily Factor (of that day)

49
 Monthly Variation
Month Total traffic in a ADT for a month Monthly Factor
month (veh/month (vpd) MF
Jan. 19840 19840/31 = 640 640/797 =
Feb. 16660 16660/28 = 595 0.803
March 21235 21235/31 = 685 545/797 = 0.74
April 24300 24300/30 = 810 685/797 = 0.86
May 25885 25885/31 = 835 810/797 = 1.02
June 26280 26280/30 = 876 835/797 = 1.05
July 27652 27652/31 = 892 876/797 = 1.10
Aug. 30008 30008/31 = 968 892/797 = 1.12
Sep. 28620 28620/30 = 945 968/797 = 1.21
Oct. 26350 26350/31 = 850 945/797 = 1.20
Nov. 22290 22290/30 = 743 850/797 = 1.02
Dec. 21731 21731/31 = 701 743/797 = 0.95
201/797 = 0.88

Total 290851 veh

Total volume in a
year
290851 =797 vpd MF = ADT for a month
AADT =
365 12 month Average

Vpd (month)

797
AADT

Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun Jul. Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec.

Yearly Cycle Traffic Pattern

ADT for a specific month

Monthly Factor (MF) =
12 – month Average (AADT)

ADT (month)
AADT =
MF (of that month)

50
 Types of count stations

1 – Continuous Count Station: (AADT) (MF)

- Traffic volume is counted 24 hrs, 365days.

- The AADT can be directly obtained .
- Data are used to adjust traffic counts obtained from control or coverage
station.
- To establish monthly factor (MF).

2 –Control Station: (DF)

- Traffic volume is counted for one week (7 days every month).

- To establish Daily Factor.

3- Coverage Count Station: Hourly Factor (HF)

- Traffic Volume is counted for 24 hrs on a week.

- To establish Hourly Factor (HF).
- Every 4 years.

Volume Variability within the Hour

Example: Time Interval Volume in time Rate of Flow
interval
5:00 – 5:15 1000 1000 (60/15) = 4000
5:15 – 5:30 1100 1100/0.25 = 4400
5:30 – 5:45 1200 1200 / 0.25 = 4800
5:45 – 6:00 900 900/0.25 = 3600

Total = 4200 vph

= Hourly volume vph

Max. Rate of flow or (Service flow) = 4800 veh /hr (vph)

4200 Hourly volume
Peak Hour Factor = =
4800 Max. Rate of flow or (service volume)

HV HV
PHF = or SF =
SF PHF
PHF is a measure of variability (of peaking) that may occurs during one hour.
Note: The time interval could be 5 or 10 or 15 minutes or any other
time period.

51
 For time interval = 15 minutes:

If volume in each time interval is equal. No Variability PHF = 1

If entire hourly volume occurs in All variability PHF = 0.25
one time interval.

0.25 ≤ PHF ≤ 1

For time interval = 10 minutes

No variability (equal volume time interval ) PHF = ??

All variability (all volume in one interval ) PHF = ??

For time interval = 5 minutes

Equal volume time interval PHF = ??

All volume in one time interval PHF = ??

Note: The time interval does not affect the max. value of PHF

Traffic volume:
It is the no. of vehicles that could pass
through a certain point on the road in one hour
(vehicle per hour ,vph).

Design Hourly volume (DHV or 30th HV):

Is that traffic volume that is exceeded
in only 29 hours in the year (vph.)
DHV
Average Annual Daily Traffic (AADT):

Total no of vehicles in a year

AADT (vpd) =
365 30 hours
(highest hours class)
DHV
NOTE : AADT = Where K = 0.12 – 0.18
K
Future Traffic volume
: (DHV)future = (DHV)now * (1 + εf )
where εf = sum of the traffic increasing factors

Traffic Growth Factor, Generated Traffic Factor

52
 Parking Studies and Regulation
Types of Parking

w.r.t Location w.r.t Purpose

On Street Off Street

(Curb Parking)
Parking Lots Garages
•Multi-Story
•In/out Gates
•Up/Down Ramps
•Clearance
•Provide High
Parking Supply
A A
= 90,60,45,30
= 90,60,45,30 22 20
20 - 25 m2/veh
22 - 25 m2/veh

Parking Supply and Demand (Cont.)

Parking Demand:
No. of Vehicles (drivers) who wish to park.

Factors affecting parking demand:

- Car Ownership
- Existence of Public Transit
- Pedestrian distance
- Type of Land Use (Shopping,
Hospitals,…….)

53
 Definition of Parking Terms
1- Space Hour: It is a unit of parking that defines
the use of a single space for a period of one
hour.
Example: 200 Cars Park for 3 hrs.
150 Cars Park for 2 hrs.
SH = 200 * 3 + 150 * 2 = 900 Space hour
“N” cars Park for “h” hours SH = Σ N.h
i.e., “SH” represents the no. of space if all cars
Simultaneously use the parking lot for one hour
(all cars park for only one hour)
If Working hours = 1 hr 900 space
If working hours = 2 hr 900/2 = 450 space

Required No. of Spaces=[(Space Hours (SH))/(Working

Hours (T))]

2- Parking Accumulation:
It is the no. of parked vehicles at any specified time perio
in a day.
Capacity of Parking Lot = 800 space
800
700 19 % Vacancy Rate
600 650 = 81% Occupancy Rate
No. of Parked

800
500 (OR)
vehicles

400 Max.Accumulation
(OR) Lot Capacity
300
=
Area (A)

200
100
0
8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Time of day

54
Area (A) = No. of Cars parked for one hour.
= No. of space hours during a specific period of
time in
the day.

Space Hour
Required No. of Spaces =
T. OR. F.
Working Hours Efficiency <1
Occupancy Rate <1

Parking Load:
Is the total area under the accumulation curve
indicating
the the total No. of Space hours of the parking lot.

3- Parking Duration:
Is the length of time a vehicle is parked at a
parking bay (t).
Average Parking Duration Indicates how
frequently
a parking Space becomes
available.
Example: If (n) parking spaces have an every parking
duration
Every 2 hrs….. a parking spaces ……Every 8 hrs become
of (t) hrs.
becomes available 8/2 =4 spaces
Every 2 hrs….. 3 parking spaces ……Every 8 hrs become
becomes available (8*3)/2 =12 spaces
Every t hrs….. n parking spaces ……Every T
becomes available

55
 No. of Cars that could park in a period (T) = (T.n.f) / t

Where:
f= Efficiency (time required to park and remove a car.
f = 0.8 to 0.95
4- Parking Volume:
Is the total No. of vehicles using a parking area during
a specific period (usually one day).
5- Parking Turnover:
Is the rate of use of a parking space :
(How many vehicles Parked in the same space).

= veh/space
Total Parking Volume >1
Turnover = <1
No. of Spaces

(3A) Traffic Behavior And Supply

3A.1 Traffic Flow Theory and Models

3A.2 Highway Capacity and Level of Service

3A.3 Capacity of Freeways

56
Why is traffic flow theory important
† Analogy – to design a fresh water
pipe network you have to understand
the science of how water travels
through a pipe.
† Traffic flow theory is the science of
how traffic flows through a highway
network.
† What do you believe are differences
between water flow and traffic flow?

Applications of Traffic Flow Theory

† Determining turning lane lengths
† Average delay at intersections
† Average delay at freeway ramp merging areas
† Change in the levels of freeway performance
† Simulation (mathematical models (algorithms)
to study interrelationship among the different
elements of traffic

57
 Traffic Flow Theory and Models

•Types of Traffic Volume

-Continuous Flow (Uninterrupted)
-Interrupted Flow
•Types of Traffic Facilities:
1-Continuous Flow Facilities

1 2
1 Lane
1 Lane

2-Lane One Way (or 3

2-Lane 2- Way
or 4 Lanes)

Two-Lane Two Way

58
4-Lane Divided
Highway

Multi-Lane
Highway

59
 3 4-Lane 2- Way (or 6
Lanes or more) (Multi-
Lane)

Divided (with Island or Median)

Undivided (without Island or Median)
2- Interrupted Flow Facilities
1 4-Leg Intersection 2 3-Leg Intersection

3
Pedestrian Cross Walk

Traffic Maneuvers

Lane Change Passing Maneuver Weaving

Maneuver (Overtaking Maneuver) Maneuver

Gap Acceptance
Passing Sight Distance
Weaving Length

ƒ2-Lane One Way ƒ3or 4-Lanes

ƒ2-Lane 2- Way one Way
ƒ 3or 4-Lanes one Way
(Only) ƒ6 or more
ƒMulti-Lane Highway
Lanes,Two way
Highway

60
 Traffic Flow Characteristics

Traffic stream characteristics are measures of road ability to accommodate traffic and
to provide certain traffic operation conditions.
Traffic stream characteristics include:
Volume , Speed , Density
Density:

1 Lane
1 mile = 5280 ft

Density : Is the Number of vehicles occupying one mile in a lane width. (K)
Gap: Is the head-to-head distance between two successive vehicles.

Density
(k)
† Concentration
† Number of vehicles
traveling over a unit
length of highway at
an instant in time
† Usually veh/mile or
vpmpl
† Example:
„ 4 vehicles over 600 feet of
roadway
„ Over a mile
„ k = 4 veh. x 5280 feet = 35.2
veh/mi
600 ft mile

61
 Or spacing Gap (g)ft L gap
Speed = headway =
t speed
5280
Headway(h) sec K= Veh / mile / Lane
Av. gap

Traffic Flow (Q) Q=

3600 Veh /hr / Lane
Av. headway Vph /lane

Speed ,Flow , Density , Relationships

Length L Vehicle Veh.
Speed v = = Density K = =
Time t Length L

Veh. L Veh.
Flow Q =
Vehicle Veh.
Time
=
t
K.v.= ( L )(t ) = t
= Q = K.v.

F(Q) = [ Ø(K)]. [Ψ(v) ]

Flow (Q) (Capacity) Flow (Q)

(Q max) (Q max)

A B B A
Density (K)
K0 Kj V0 Speed (v)
Optimum density
Speed (v)
K0 = Optimum Density or
Free Speed Vf Critical Density

A Congested Flow
condition
V0 Jam Density
B Free Flow Conditions
Kj
K0 Density (K)

62
 Q

vf
Q1 -veUm Optimum
slop
eo
rn
e ga
tiv e sp
eed
Q2

K
Q
Slope = = Speed
K

From Q1 to Q2 -ve slope

or –ve speed
Decreasing speed

Mathematical models for Traffic Relationships

Speed v or u
U = f1 (K) , Q = f2 (K) , Q = f3 (u)
Several models (equations, forms )exist for f1,f2,f3
Greenshields Model (1934) For Light or Dense Density
For f1 u = a – bk
For f2 Q = ak-bk2 a ,b Constants
For f3 Q =au + bu2
Greenberg Model (1959) Approximate for high Density

U = u0 ln ( Kj ) Q = f2 (K) , Q = f3 (u)
K
Underwood Model (1961) Consider optimum or critical density

U = uf e –k/k0
Q = f2 (K) , Q = f3 (u)

63
 Speed L.O.S.
A
B

K = 0.0
C

K = 13

20
D

0
=3
K=
42 E

K
=
K

Q max = 2000
67
K=
F

(Q)Volume per lane

Q max = 2000 pcu / lane Passenger Car Unit Per Lane

Volume V
= 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.8 1.0
Capacity C

64
65
66
 Ideal Conditions:
Traffic Median
1- Lane Width = 12 ft.
Lanes Shoulder
2- Shoulder Width = 6 ft.
3- Only passenger Cars (no Trucks).
4- Design Speed 70 mph.
5- Level Terrain.
6- Divided Highway
(opposing traffic not influencing). L.w. >12 ft 6 ft min

Under ideal conditions, Qmax is considered as the capacity.

Capacity : is the maximum traffic volume that can pass

through a specific point on the road under prevailing conditions.

67
 Paved Shoulders

New Iowa DOT Policy:

4 Feet Paved Shoulders

(6 ft shoulders shown)

Service Flow Rate(SF)

Is the maximum rate of flow that can be
accommodated by the road without violating the
L.O.S. operating conditions. (SF)

Under ideal conditions

V
SFi.= ( Cj ) Cj N pcu / Direction
i
SFi. = Service flow rate under L.O.S. i
Cj = lane capacity under ideal conditions at speed j
N = No. of lanes per direction

( )V
Cj i
= Max. volume to capacity ratio for L.O.S i

Design Speed = 70 mph Cj = 2000 pcu/hr/lane

Design Speed = 50 mph Cj = 1900 pcu/hr/lane

68
 Design Speed = 70 mph
Design Speed = 70 mph
SFi.= 2000 (
V
Cj )i N
SFi.= 1900 (
V
)i
SFi. = MSFi * N Cj N
Max. service flow rate under SFi. = MSFi * N
ideal conditions Table 5 : for v = 70,60,50 mph
Under Non-Ideal Conditions
SFi. = MSFi * N * Fw *FH.V* FE * Fp = vph / dir.
Where:
i level of service L.O.S. (i).
(v /c) volume to capacity ratio from table (5).
MSF max. service flow rates from table (5).
N No. of lanes per direction.
Fw Adjustment factor for lane width and shoulder width table (6).
FHV Adjustment factor for heavy vehicles and type of terrain table (7)
FE Adjustment factor for type of highway (divided or undivided)
table (8).
Fp Adjustment factor for driver population (familiar or
non-familiar driver table (9).

1
FHV =
1+ PT (ET – 1 ) + PB (EB –1) +PR (ER –1)
Where:

PT Percent of Trucks (%).

ET Truck Equivalent.
PB Percent of Busses.
EB Bus Equivalent
PR Percent of Recreational vehicles.
ER Recreational vehicles equivalent.
ET , EB , ER From table (7).

69
 Level of Service (L.O.S.)
L.O.S.: is defined as a qualitative measure describing
traffic operation conditions and their perception by driver.
Speed , Travel time , Freedom to maneuver and safety and
Degree of congestion are factors assessed by (L.O.S.).

Density (k)
L.O.S. Average Speed(mph) V/C
( vpm)

A 0 – 12 ≥ 60 0.35

B 12 – 20 ≥ 57 0.54

C 20 –30 ≥ 54 0.77
qmax = Capacity
D 30 –42 ≥ 46 0.95

E 42 –67 ≥ 30 1.0

F >67 <30 <1

Describing (L.O.S.)
L.O.S. (A): Describes free flow condition.
(a vehicle is not influenced by the presence of
other vehicles ) I.e., no constrains
on maneuver.
L.O.S. (B): Describes free flow condition.
(vehicles are virtually affected by other vehicles)
- few constrains on maneuver.
L.O.S. (C): Describes stable flow condition.
(vehicles are significantly affected by other vehicles)
- some constrains on maneuver.
L.O.S. (D): Describes high density but stable flow condition.
- maneuver are restricted.
L.O.S. (E): Describes uniform flow , speeds are generally low.
- maneuvers extremely difficult.Operation is unstable
L.O.S. (F): Describes forced flow condition.
-arrival flow exceeds the service flow (stop- and- go)

70
 Capacity of Two-lane Tow-Way HWY
Directional traffic
affect each other. 1 Lane
Use of opposing lane
for passing 1 Lane
maneuvers.
Service flow is max. when
Service flow (both directions)
directional distribution is 50/50.
Capacity reduces as directional distribution deviated from
50/50 until it reaches 100/0. This equivalent to one lane capacity
(of multi-lane operation)which is 2000 pcph.
It is assumed that at 50/50 directional distribution
total capacity = 2800 pcph (both directions).
Under Ideal Conditions:
(Sfi = 2800 (v/c)i ) pcph (both directions)
From table (1)
Function of % No- passing
Service flow(both directions)
Zone or passing restriction

Ideal Conditions for Two-lanes Two-way HWY

1- Lane width = 12 ft. 2- Shoulder width = 6 ft.
3- Only passenger cars. 4- Design speed 60 mph.
5- Level terrain. 6- 50/50 directional distribution.
7- No passing restrictions (% No. passing zones = 0.0)
≥
(or % passing sight distance available = 100%)
Under Non-Ideal Conditions:
(SFi = 2800 (v/c)I *fd *fw * fH.V) = vph (both directions)
Where:
Sfi = service flow rate at LOS I (both directions).
(v/c)I = maximum permissible (v/c) ratio for LOS I (Table –1).
fd = Adjustment factor for directional distribution (Table – 2)
fw = Adjustment factor for lane and shoulder width (Table –3)
fH.V. = Adjustment factor for heavy vehicles (Table –4).
1
FHV =
1+ PT (ET – 1 ) + PB (EB –1) +PR (ER –1)

71
 Highway Capacity - Summary
70 mph

Speed (v)
•Lane capacity is assumed 2000 pcph for 70 or
60mph design speeds for multi- lane highway. 60 mph
•Lane capacity is assumed 1900 pcph
50 mph
for 50 mph design speed.
•For the same LOS , (v/c) ratio for design speed 70

mph are higher than those for design speed 60 mph

2000
1900
or ……
•For Multi –lane highways:
Volume
Sfi = 2000 (v/c)i N fw fHV fE fp For design speeds 60,70
Sfi = 1900 (v/c)i N fw fHV fE fp
For design speeds 50mph
•For Two-lane Two-way HWYs:

Sfi = 2800(v/c)i fd fw fHV Vph (both directions) and for

•For Two-lane One –way segments
Use equation for multi-lane Hwy
•For Three-lane One-way segments:
Use equation for multi-lane Hwy
design speeds >60 mph
{N = 2/direction , divided}
{N = 3 (per direction) , divided

(4) Intersection Capacity and Analysis

3B.1 Capacity of interrupted flow

3B.2 Intersection Control and Analysis

3B.3 Design of Traffic Signals

72
 Safety
 Points of Conflict and Types of Crashes
o Fewer conflict points

Traditional 4-Approach Intersection 4-Approach Roundabout

Diverging 8 Diverging 4
Merging 8 Merging 4
Crossing 16 Crossing 0
Total 32 Total 8
o Reduced speeds
o Changes the collision type

Safety
 Points of Conflict and Types of Crashes

Conflicts at a Signalized or Signed Intersection

Source: Roundabouts - Information Brief and Design Guide.

Alternate Street Design, Inc. Conflicts at a Single Lane Roundabout

73
Analysis of Interrupted Flow
Intersection

Approach
Uninterrupted Flow Interrupted Flow
Operation Characteristics Operation Characteristics are
are described by LOS anddescribed for each approach.
capacity of highway. Capacity and LOS per approach.
• K,U,q or v/c or
LOS (Delay).
K,U are not the most important charact.
LOS = f(v/c,…)
An approach may be divided into lane
groups according to signal operation.

Approach (Inters) capacity : is the max. rate of flow which may pass through the intersection
approach under prevailing traffic,roadway and signalization conditions.
Capacity is defined for each approach or for each Group of lanes within the approach.

Designating Lane Groups

A lane Group: is defined as one or more lanes serving one or
more traffic movements.

Intersection geometry and signalization regulates lane

grouping.

Traffic movement :

Left Turn : (LT)

Through Traffic (Th)

Right Turn : (RT)

74
 Lane Groups -Examples
Intersection Geometry No. of Lanes
Movement by lane No. of lane Groups

LT + Th + RT 1
1 lane
1 } Lane Group
1 lane

Excl. LT
2
Exclusive } Lane Group
2

Left turn lane

Th + RT } Lane Group

LT + Th 1
} Lane Group

2
Th + RT
2 } Lane Group

} Lane Group

Excl. LT 2 } Lane Group

Exclusive } Lane Group

3 Th
} Lane Group
3
Left turn lane } Lane Group
Th + RT
} Lane Group

Capacity of Interrupted Flow

Intersection

Approach or
Lane group

Saturation Flow (S): is defined as the max. rate of flow that can
be accommodated by a given lane group (or approach) under
prevailing conditions assuming that the green time is available for
an entire one hour (vphpg vehicle per hour per green).
(S) may be considered as the maximum theoretical capacity at
LOS E (assuming there is a queue).
Capacity of the lane group (or approach) can be estimated from
saturation flow by taking into account the signal limiting.

75
 Saturation flow under ideal conditions (S0)
Ideal condition for signalized intersections:
1. 12 ft lane width.
2. Level grade.
3. No curb parking.
4. Only passenger car (no trucks , no busses).
5. No turning movement (No LT or RT).
6. Non business District location.
7. No blocking.
8. Green time is available at all time.
Under the above conditions,S0 is estimated to be
1800 pcphgpl (passenger car per hour per green per lane)

S0: Saturation flow

S0
under Ideal
conditions.

Saturation flow under Non-ideal conditions (S)

[S = S0 N fw fHV fg fp fbb fa fRT fLT]

Where:
S0 = Ideal saturation flow (1800 pcphgpl)
N = No. of lanes in the lane group or approach.
fw = Adjustment factor for lane width. (Table 10).
fHV = Adjustment factor for heavy vehicles (Table 11).
fg = Adjustment of approach grade (Table 12).
Fp = Adjustment factor for parking (Table 13).
fbb = Adjustment factor for blocking due to bus top(T-14)
fa = Adjustment factor for area type (CBD or non CBD)(T-15)
fRT = Adjustment factor for right turn movement in the lane
group (T-16)
fLT = Adjustment factor for left turn movement (T-17).
S = Saturation flow under non-ideal conditions = (vphpg)

76
 Estimating capacity from saturation flow

To correct for the assumption that the green time is

available for one hour , the ratio of green time (g) to the
total cycle length (c) of the signal should be considered.
Capacity (vph) Effective green time (sec)

For a given approach C = S (g/c) Cycle length (sec)

or lane group Saturation flow rate under
Rate of flow prevailing conditions (vphg)
Lost time R Signal timing
Lost
Y
time G Y R
G
Effective Green
(g)
C = cycle length (sec)
Time G = Actual green time (sec)
G Y R Y = Yellow (Amber) time(sec)
g = G + Y – Total lost time R = Red time (sec)

Quantification of LOS for Interrupted flow (Table 18)

LOS Stopped Delay per Vehicle (sec) Description

†Most vehicles arrive during the green phase. Short cycle length.
A <5

†Few vehicles stops.

B 5.1 –15

†Cycle length is relatively short.

†Significant number of stopping vehicles.

C 15.1 – 25

†Long cycle length.

†Most vehicles stop.

D 25.1 – 40
†Congestion becomes more noticeable.

†Delay is due to long cycle length and high v/c ratio

†Maximum limit of acceptable delay.
E 40.1 – 60

†Very long cycle

†Unacceptable length.
delay - and drivers.
for most high v/c ratio.
†Very long cycle length and high v/c ratio.
†Over saturation: arrival rates exceed capacity
F > 60

77
 Delay time per vehicle at signalized intersection for
each lane group i
2 2 2
d = 0.38 C [1 – g/c] + 173 xi [(xi –1) + (xi –1) + (16 xi/ci)]
[1- (gi/c)xi]

Where :
d = average stopped delay per vehicle for lane group i
= sec / veh.
C = cycle length of the traffic signal.
gi / C = effective green time of the lane group to cycle

V Volume = degree of saturation of the lane

X = c i = capacity group
i
c = capacity of the lane
group.

SB
Intersection Analysis - Example WB
EB
NB
WB NB SB
EB Approach
approach approach approach
Intersection

Lane group
Approach

S S1 S2

Smaller
C C1 C2 CwB CNB CSB Least C
c1,c2

V V1 V2

Greater
D D1 D2 dwB dNB dSB Highest delay
d1,d2

V/c (v/c)1 (v/c)2

g/c (g1/c)1 (g1/c)2

Worse los1
LOS LOS1 LOS2 Los Los Los Worst los
or 2 wB NB SB

78
 Design of signals
When to use signals:
•The most important factor is the approach volume (i.e, minimum approach
volume).
•Pedestrians and accident rates may play a significant role.
•If traffic volume is low , traffic signs may be used (i.e, other types of intersection
control may be used).

Types o traffic signals:

Red
1. Fixed time signals: R,G,Y, for each phase are t\ Yellow
pre-determined and fixed at constant values Green
[pre-timed signals].
2. Traffic actuated signals: Green time changes in
response to traffic volume which is detected by
sensors or traffic control centers.
3. Manually Operated Signals: h
personal judgment.

Signal Phasing and Operation

Two – Phase Signal

Phase 1 Phase 2
Green Yellow Red
G1 Y1 R1 R2 G2 Y2
Stop Interval Clearance
Go Interval Stop Interval for Phase 2 Interval
for Phase 1 for Phase 1 Go Interval
for Phase 2
Clearance
Interval
Cycle Length,C
Cycle Length,C
C = G1+Y1+R1 C = G2+Y2+R2

79
 R1 G1 Y1 R1 G1
G2 Y2 R2 G2 Y2 R2
C
Cycle Length, C(sec)
C = G1+Y1+R1 or C = (G1+Y1) + (G2 + Y2)
= G2+Y2+R2 R1 = G2 +Y2 ,R2 = G1=Y1

Start up Effective Clearance

delay time green time delay
Rate of flow

Area = No. of vehicles that pass

Phase 1 Phase 2
through the intersection G1 G2
g during the green time
Y1 Y2
Time R1 R2
R G Y R
Actual Yellow Red C = G1+Y1+R1
Green Time
Time
(Amber) = G2+Y2+R2
Time

Lost time (L) = start up delay + clearance delay g+l=

G+Y g=G+y–l
C = g1 + l1 +R1 = g2 + l2 + R2
C = (G1 + Y1) + (G2 + Y2)
C = g1 + l1 + g2 + l2 C
= (g1 + g2) + (l1 + l2) C =[
Effective
Σ green] + [ LostΣtime]

Three – Phase Signal

R1 = (G2 + Y2) + (G3 + Y3)
R2 = (G1 + Y1) + (G3 + Y3)
R3 = (G1 + Y1) + (G2 + Y2)
OR
C = G1 + Y1 + R1 Phase 1 Phase 2 Phase 31

= G2 + Y2 + R2 G1 G2 G3
Y1 Y2 Y3
= G3 + Y3 + R3 R1 R2 R3

80
 C = (G1 + Y1) + (G2 + Y2) + (G3 + Y3
G+Y=g+l
C = (g1 +l1) + (g2 + l2) + (g3 + l3) = Σ g + Σl
=Σg + L where: L = l1 + l2 + l3
Lost time = lost time for all phases
Lost time g1

G1 Y1 R1
R2 G2 Y2
g1 g2
Lost time Lost time
Lost time Lost time

C=Σg+L
Or Σ g = C - L
L = Σ lost time
Σ g = total operational time during the entire cycle length
= total operational time for all critical lane groups

Calculation of Cycle Length

For each lane group:
Volume Degree of
V
X= = = saturation of V/Sa
C Capacity
the lane group
C = S (g/C)
V (V/S V/Sc
X= = V/Sb
S(g/C) (g/C)
Where (V/S) =Flow ratio of the lane group
For the same phase:
If V1 = V2 requires greater g ??
V2 = [It depends on lane V/Sd
width,grade,%T,parkin These factors where taken
g ,……etc] into account on estimating S
Therefore,the volume V should be normalized (or referenced) to S in order to
obtain an indicator for the green time required for the phase (i.e.v/s)
If more than one lane group have the R.O.W. during a phase ,then,the lane group with higher V/S ratio
will control the required green time for that phase. This lane group is called CRITICAL LANE
GROUP (V/S)crit.

81
 STEP 1:Determining the critical lane group for each phase
Ve
Se V
Phase 1 Vf
Select the highest
flow ratio S [ ] Cr 1
Sf
Vb
Sb V
Phase 2 Va
Select the highest
V/S ratio
[ S ] Cr 2
Sa
Vc
Sc V
Phase 3 Vd
Select the highest
V/S ratio
[ S ] Cr 3
Sd
V
Σ (V/S)cr = Summation of flow ratio for Σ[ ]
S
all critical lane groups in the intersection Cr

Flow Ratio of the lane group

(V/S)
X=
(g/C)
Operation time of the lane group
Flow Ratio of all critical lane groups
X = Σ(V/S)cr
(0/C)
Operation time of all critical lane
groups = Σg = C-L see page 80

Σ(V/S) Xcr
Xc = C =L.
(C-L)/C Xcr – [Σ(V/S)cr]
WHERE:
C = cycle length (sec)
Xc = critical V/C ratio for all intersections May be estimated
L = Total lost time for all phases from experience
= Total lost time per cycle
Σ(V/S)cr = summation of flow ratios
for all critical lane groups

82
STEP 2:Calculate the effective green time for each group i

(V/S)cr i (V/S)cr i .C
X= gi =
(g i /C) Xc

g1 = (V/S)cr1 .C
= sec
Xcr

g2 = (V/S)cr2 .C
= sec
Xcr

g3 = (V/S)cr3 .C
= sec
Xcr

Check: C = (Σ g) + L

STEP 3:Calculate Actual green time for each group

g+l
G+Y=g+l
WHERE: G Y R
l = lost time per phase = L / no. of phases = L /n
y = Amber time = 3 sec.
G = Actual green time (sec)
g =effective green time (sec)
Gi = gi +L/n -3 Get G1 = Actual green time for phase 1
G2 = Actual green time for phase 2
G3 = Actual green time for phase 3
STEP 4:Calculate red time for each group
C
R1 = (G2 + Y2) + (G3 + Y3)
R2 = (G1 + Y1) + (G3 + Y3) G1 Y1 R1
R3 = (G1 + Y1) + (G2 + Y2)
R2 G2 Y2
Check C = G1 + Y1 + R1
= G2 + Y2 + R2 R3 Y3 Y3
= G3 + Y3 + R3

83
 Definitions :
Cycle Length : is the time (in seconds) required for one complete
color sequence.
Signal phase : is that part of a cycle allocated to a stream of traffic
(or a combination of tow or more streams) having
the right of way simultaneously.
Interval : is any part of the cycle length during which signal
indications do not change.
Clearance Interval : is the length of time of the yellow signal
indication. It is provided to clear the
intersection after the effective green time.
All red interval : is the display time of a red indication for all
approaches. It is used for pedestrian crossing or to
allow vehicle or pedestrians to clear very large
intersection.
G1 Y1 R1
R2 G2 Y2
All red interval

Pedestrian Characteristics

Objective :
L
1−1 Sidewalk ( Width , Connections ) .
APProtch
1−2 Crosswalk at intersections .

1- 3 Special pedestrian signals .1

1-4 Pedestrian bridge or tunnel .

1-6 Pedestrian speed .

Tunnel
100
* 1 - 1.5 m/sec 85
% of pedestrian

*Male speed > female speed . 50

gap

1-7 Safety Zones ( gap size about

0
40 m in USA ) .

84
 FHWA Course on Bicycle and Pedestrian Transportation

Design objectives : The main objectives of design of signals are to

reduce the average delay and the probability of
accidents by minimizing possible conflict points
(I.e. selecting suitable phasing and operation).
Ave. Delay Time
F
E

C
Min. delay
B
Optimum Cycle length
A Cycle length
(sec)
Level of service

85
 Design Methods of signal timing

Methods for designing pre-time (fixed time) signals include the

following :

1 – Highway capacity Manual (HCM) Method.

Based on LOS , V/C,Critical Lane Group.

2 – Webester Method:
Based on minimum intersection delay.

3 – Pignataro Method:
Based on total time required to all vehicles to pass
during the peak 15 min period.

Example:- Design of signals

Given:-
750/3000
125/1250

L = 9 sec C
Xcri = 0.9
Required:-
Cycle Length (C) A 550/310
1
080/120
G, R, Y for each phase
120/120 0
Capacity B
900/205
0
Degree of saturation
0
Xi =Volume /capacity
150/1450
700/3250

Delay for each lane group

LOS
D

Phase Phase Phase Phase

1 2 3 4

86
 Solution:- Step –1: Critical lane group for each
phase

Phase Lane Group Flow Rate Saturation flow V/S Critical lane group

120 1200 0.1

180 1200 0.15 0.15

1

550 3100

2 900 2850

125 1250

3 150 1450

700 3250

4 750 3000

C =L. Xcr 0.9

=9 = * sec
Xcr – [Σ(V/S)cr] 0.9 – Σ(V/S)cr Σ(V/S)cr

Step –2: Effective Green Time

(V/S)cri
gi = .C sec
Xcr
Phase i
0.15 . C = * sec
g1 = 0.9

g2 = . C = @ sec
0.9

g3 = . C = & sec
0.9

g4 = . C = $ sec
0.9

Check C = (Σg) + L
# = (Σg) + 9 O.K.

87
 Step –3: Calculate Actual Green Time

L = lost time per phase = L/n = 9/4 = 2.25 sec

Gi + Yi = gi + li
Gi + 3= gi + 2.25
G1 = * + 2.25 – 3 G2 = @ + 2.25 - 3

G3 = …… G4 = ………sec

Step –3: Calculate Red Time for Each Phase

R1 = (G2 + Y2) + (G3 + Y3) + G4 + Y4) = sec

R2 = (G1 + Y1) + (G3 + Y3) + G4 + Y4) = sec
R3 = ……sec R4 =……….sec

Check: C = R1 + G1+ Y1 = R3 +Y3 G3

= R2 + G2 + Y2 = R4 +Y4 + G4

Delay time and LOS of each Lane group From previous step

Lane group Phase (V) S (sat.) D(delay)

g g/c capacity X LOS
no. vph vphg (sec)
App Man.

2 37 0.35 550 3100 1085 0.51 20.8

1 180 1200
B

1 120 1200

A 2 900 2850

4 750 3000 840

C 3 125 1250 139

3 150 1450 166

D 4 700 3250 910

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 Example. 2
Given: Traffic volume for approaches 1,2 as shown
%Trucks = 10%, Grade = 4%
Nm = No. of parking maneuvers per hour = 10
Np = No. of busses stopping per hour = 20
Req.: Saturation flw(S) ,Capacity ( C) , Level of
Service (LOS)
Solution:- 1800 pcphgpl
S = S0*N*fw*fHV*fg*fp*fbb*fa*fRT*fLT = sec
given assumed
For each lane group (G + Y)-L (Σg) +L
C = Capacity = S (g/C) = vph For each lane group
[1 – g/c]2 + 173 xi2 [(xi –1) + (xi –1)2 + (16 xi/ci)]
d = 0.38 C
[1- (gi/c)xi]
LOS for each lane group See page 8 of design charts

89
 50
580 500
Approach A:- 30
N (no. of lanes) = 2
L.W. = 12ft Fw = 0.97 from table 10
%T = 10 FH.V. = from table 11
%g (grade) = +4 Fg = from table 12
Nm = 10 Fp( Parking) = from table 13
Np = 10 Fbb(Bus Blocking) = 0.92 from table 14
Fa = 1.0 from table 15
% R.T. (Right Turn) = 30/580 = 0.05
FR.T. =1-0.15(%R.T.) = from table 16 - --- case 3
% L.T. (Left Turn) = 50/580 = 0.09
F L.T. = 1/1+0.05(%L.T.) from table 17 case 2
S = S0*f.f. S0 = 1800
g ( effect. Green time ) = (G + Y) –l g = 30 – 2 =28
(G+Y) Given l = 2 sec assumed
C(Capacity) = S.g/c vph cycle length = 90 sec
Volume (vph) (V) = 580 ,,, d (delay) (sec) = ….
LOS = ….. From Table 18 ,,,, X = v/c = Volume /Capacity

125
450 575
Approach B:-
N (no. of lanes) = 2
L.W. = 11ft Fw = 0.97 from table 10
%T = 10 FH.V. = from table 11
%g (grade) = +4 Fg = from table 12
Nm = 10 Fp( Parking) = from table 13
Np = 10 Fbb(Bus Blocking) = 0.92 from table 14
Fa = 1.0 from table 15
% R.T. (Right Turn) = 125/575 = 0.22
FR.T. =1-0.15(%R.T.) = from table 16 - --- case 3
% L.T. (Left Turn) = zero
F L.T. = 1/1+0.05(%L.T.) from table 17 case 2
S = S0*f.f. S0 = 1800
g ( effect. Green time ) = (G + Y) –l g = 30 – 2 =28
(G+Y) Given l = 2 sec assumed
C(Capacity) = S.g/c vph cycle length = 90 sec
Volume (vph) (V) = 575 ,,, d (delay) (sec) = ….
LOS = ….. From Table 18 ,,,, X = v/c = Volume /Capacity

90
 Approach C:- 150
N (no. of lanes) = 1
L.W. = 11ft Fw = 0.97 from table 10
%T = 10 FH.V. = from table 11
%g (grade) = +4 Fg = from table 12
Nm = No Parking Fp( Parking) = from table 13
Np = No Blocking Fbb(Bus Blocking) = 1.0 from table 14
Fa = 1.0 from table 15
% R.T. (Right Turn) = zero
FR.T. =1-0.15(%R.T.) = from table 16 - --- case 3
% L.T. (Left Turn) = Exit L.T. Case 1
F L.T. = 1/1+0.05(%L.T.) from table 17 case 1
S = S0*f.f. S0 = 1800
g ( effect. Green time ) = (G + Y) –l g = 30 – 2 =28
(G+Y) Given l = 2 sec assumed
C(Capacity) = S.g/c vph cycle length = 90 sec
Volume (vph) (V) = 150 ,,, d (delay) (sec) = ….
LOS = ….. From Table 18 ,,,, X = v/c = Volume /Capacity

Traffic control devices

1 – Marking: [painted directly on pavement surface = ground level
2 – Signs: Posted sign .
3 – Signals: color sequence or flashing.

Objective:
The purpose of traffic control devices is to help ins highway
safety by providing guidance to vehicle operators and
pedestrians to safely accomplish navigation tasks.

1- Traffic Markings
Function of markings:
Control vehicular and pedestrian traffic
Road users should be given MESSAGES in a clear,standard,and
universal way.
Both marking color and pattern can help clear transfer of message
to road users. ?
Transportation and Traffic Safety Center – Kuwait University Feb 2008 182

91
-Colour of marking:
-White: to separate lanes traveling in the same direction.
-Yellow: to separate flows traveling on opposite directions.
-Pattern of marking :
- Dashed (- - - -) permissive in character (driver can cross).
- Solid ( ) restricted in character (driver cannot cross).
- Double ( ) Maximum restrictions.
4”-6”
Use of Marking
a – Lane line (white 9ft 15ft 9ft 15ft 9ft
b – centerline marking (yellow). 6”-8”
c – Intersection marking (page 32, 33 of supporting handouts).
d – No-passing zones (page 29 of supporting handouts).
e – Pavement width transition (page 29 of supporting handouts)
f – Parking spaces (page 29 of supporting handouts).
g – Channelization.
Transportation and Traffic Safety Center – Kuwait University Feb 2008 183

Intersection Marking
Stop line (12”-24”thick
Barrier line
Cross walk
6”-24” thick

Lane Line
60ft 6-10ft
4ft
yes No

yes yes
Yes both sides Yes one side Passing Maneuver

yes No No No

No No No No
Yes one side No either side No either side
(max. restrictions)
184

92
 Florida -6 inch Markings and
Raised Pavement Markings (RPMs)

Transportation and Traffic Safety Center – Kuwait University Feb 2008 185

No-passing zone
Horizontal
Curve
Two – sides passing
restrictions)

Obstruction
Vertical Curve
Step grades before and
g2
after VL curves. g1

(One side passing

restriction)

Transportation and Traffic Safety Center – Kuwait University Feb 2008 186

93
 Delinators
Delinators are reflecting devices mounted at the side of the road .
- mostly used for rural roads
(or any unlighted pavement)
- Indicate roadway alignment.
- Guiding devices (not warning), especially for
night driving.
- curb Marking may be used as delinators

Chevron sign
(for HZ curves

Curb
pavement
Reflecting point Delineators showing
(Delineators) pavement boarders
Transportation and Traffic Safety Center – Kuwait University Feb 2008 187

Curve Improvements

† Improve superelevation
† Pave shoulders
† Add shoulder rumble strips
† Flatten foreslopes
† Remove fixed objects
† Delineate with chevrons /
pavement markings
† Ball bank advisory speed
188

94
Bigger and Brighter Curve
and Chevron Signs

US 6, Johnson County
Transportation and Traffic Safety Center – Kuwait University Feb 2008 189

Transportation and Traffic Safety Center – Kuwait University Feb 2008 190

95
Transportation and Traffic Safety Center – Kuwait University Feb 2008 191

Transportation and Traffic Safety Center – Kuwait University Feb 2008 192

96
 2 – Traffic Signs
•Signs are required to provide specific information at
certain place (point)and time.
•Sign information could be regulating, warning or
guiding messages for road users.
Shape of sign:
Exclusively for the stop sign
Octagon
Equilateral
Triangle with one Exclusively for the Yield sign
point down word
Diamond
Warning (from hazard:grades,
surface, …)
Pentagon School crossing
Rectangle areas
Regulatory signs (speed
(longer dimension vertically
limit,movement control, ….) (except for
Rectangle stop, yield).
(longer dimension horizontally Guide signs (destination, direction, …..)
Transportation and Traffic Safety Center – Kuwait University Feb 2008 193

Colour of sign

RED STOP or prohibition (Do not ENTER),(Wrong way

BLACK Regulation (e.g. , One way sign).
WHITE Regulation (e.g. , Permissive parking)
ORANGE Exclusively for construction and maintenance
sign.
YELLOW Warning sign.
BLUE Guide signs (information sign for motorist service)
GREEN Guide signs (permitted directions)
BROWN Guide signs (recreational or cultural areas)

Transportation and Traffic Safety Center – Kuwait University Feb 2008 194

97
 Type of traffic signs

Regulatory Signs Warning Guide signs

To give notice on traffic To signs
draw attention to To show destination ,
law or regulations. hazardous conditions direction , distance, ..
- Right of way signs(stop, -Change in Hl alignment -Destination
yield -Road surface conditions -Bicycle facility.
-Speed limit (e.g. 50 mph) -Grades -Recreational areas.
-Parking (e.g. NO P.). -Advance warning of -Information signs.
-Movement control (No control device -
Entry). -Narrow road. -
Stop - -
-
-

Transportation and Traffic Safety Center – Kuwait University Feb 2008 195

3- Traffic Signals
- Light signals (RED, YELLOW, GREEN)
- Mainly used for intersection control.
- Types of signals (fixed – time, Actuated signals, Manually operated)
Intersection control and operation

Controlled Intersections Uncontrolled

Intersections (No
Signals Signs Traffic police traffic sign or
signal)
- Sufficient sight
Stop sign Yield Combinations
distance should be
sign (stop + Yield)
provided
stop
yield No obstruction
Fixed- time Signals
Traffic Actuated
Manually operated signals
signals Transportation and Traffic Safety Center – Kuwait University Feb 2008 196

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