SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

(2021-22)

DG SETS and HVAC SYSTEMS

UNDER THE ESTEEMED GUIDANCE OF

Mrs. GARIMA VERMA
SUPERINTENDING ENGINEER (MECHANICAL)
Electrical Maintenance
Infrastructure Group
Tel Bhavan, ONGC Dehradun
Submitted by-
1. Ayush Gupta, B. Tech (3rd year), ME, MNNIT Allahabad
2. Girish Kumar Maddula, B. Tech (3rd year), ME, NIT Rourkela
3. Ayush Gupta, B. Tech (3rd year), ME, MNNIT Allahabad
4. Charchit Gupta, B. Tech (3rd year), ME, NIT Rourkela
5. Satyam Singh, B. Tech (2nd year), ME, MNNIT Allahabad
6. Abhinav Krishna, B.Tech (3rd year), ME, NIT Rourkela
7. Kartikya Agarwal, B.Tech (3rd year), ME, MNNIT Allahabad
8. Anuvab Das, B.Tech (3rd year), ME, NIT Agartala
9. Kallam Lasya Sri, B.Tech (3rd year), ME, NIT Agartala
10. Aaryan, B.Tech (2nd year), ME, MNNIT Allahabad
11. Pratik Padmesh, B.Tech (2nd year), ME, MNNIT Allahabad
12. Tribhuvan Kumar Sahani, B.Tech (3rd year), ME, NIT Rourkela
13. Suryansh Tyagi, B.Tech (2nd year), ME, MNNIT Allahabad
14. Aman Verma, B.Tech (2nd year), ME, MNNIT Allahabad
15. Sushreema Behera, B.Tech (3rd year), ME, NIT Rourkela
16. Gaurav Sharma, B. Tech (2nd year), ME, MNNIT Allahabad
17. Kamal Garg, B. Tech (3rd year), ME, NIT Rourkela
18. Devashish Singh Tomar, B.Tech (2nd year), ME, MNNIT Allahabad
19. Dibyadip Deb, B.Tech (3rd year), ME, NIT Agartala
20. Rajeshwar Gupta, B.Tech (2nd year), ME, MNNIT Allahabad
21. Tamajit Mondal, B. Tech (3rd year), ME, IIEST Shibpur

Mentored by,
Mrs. Garima Verma
SE (M)
Electrical Maintenance
Tel Bhavan, ONGC Dehradun

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The project is done as summer training with the objective of familiarisation with
the industry during summer vacations. We have taken a lot of effort into this
project/training. We acquire this opportunity with much pleasure to acknowledge
the invaluable assistance of Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited and all the
people who have helped us through the course of our journey in the successful
completion of this training.

We would like to express our deepest appreciation to all those who provided us
the possibility to complete this report. A special gratitude we give to our project
mentor, Mrs. Garima Verma, SE(M), ONGC Ltd., whose contribution in
stimulating suggestions and encouragement, helped us to coordinate our project
especially in writing this report.

We would like to thank our mentor for organizing virtual visits to different ONGC
venues. Our deepest thanks to Mr. Vachaspati Sharma for conducting our online
visit to ONGC Hospital and clearing all our doubts regarding components and
their process of working.

The completion of this project could not have been possible without the
participation and assistance of a lot of individuals contributing to this project so
last but not least, we would like to thank everyone who is involved in the project
directly or indirectly.

The summer training has indeed helped us to explore more knowledgeable

avenues related to our topic and widened our knowledge that will surely be
helpful for us in our future.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Sl.
Contents Page No.
No.

01 Executive Summary (DG Sets and HVAC Systems) 05-08

02 Introduction to ONGC 09-16

03 An Introduction to Engines 17-21

Internal Combustion Engines (SI, CI and Reciprocating

04 22-40
Engines)

05 Fuel-Air and Actual Cycle 41-44

06 Development and Usage of IC Engine 45-53

07 Specifications of DG Sets of ONGC 54-55

08 Introduction to HVAC Systems 56-62

Operating Principles & Refrigeration Cycles

09 62-78
(Application, Load Calculation, Maintenance)

10 New Technology of HVAC Systems 78-82

11 Specifications of HVAC System of ONGC 83-90

12 ONLINE Visits 91-99

13 Conclusion 100

14 Bibliography 101

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 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

 DG Sets: -

Figure: DG Set Figure: Line Diagram

A Diesel Generator (DG) (also known as Diesel Genset) is the combination of a

diesel engine with an electric generator (often an alternator) to generate electrical
energy. This is a specific case of engine-generator. A diesel compression-ignition
engine is usually designed to run on diesel fuel, but some types are adapted for
other liquid fuels or natural gas.

Diesel generating sets are used in places without connection to a power grid, or
as an emergency power supply if the grid fails, as well as for more complex
applications such as peak-lopping, grid support, and export to the power grid.

Proper sizing of diesel generators is critical to avoid low-load or a shortage of

power. Sizing is complicated by the characteristics of modern electronics,
specifically non-linear loads. In size ranges around 50 MW and above, an open
cycle gas turbine is more efficient at full load than an array of diesel engines, and
far more compact, with comparable capital costs; but for regular part-loading,
even at these power levels, diesel arrays are sometimes preferred due to their
superior efficiencies.

Set sizes range from 8 to 30 kW (also 8 to 30 KVA single phase) for homes, small
shops, and offices with the larger industrial generators from 8 KW (11 KVA) up
to 2,000 kW (2,500 KVA three-phase) used for large office complexes, factories,
and other industrial facilities. A 2,000 KW set can be housed in a 40 ft. (12 m)
ISO container with a fuel tank, controls, power distribution equipment, and all
other equipment needed to operate as a standalone power station or as a standby

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backup to grid power. These units, referred to as power modules, are gensets on
large triple axle trailers weighing 85,000 pounds (38,555 kg) or more. A
combination of these modules is used for small power stations and these may use
from one to 20 units per power section and these sections can be combined to
involve hundreds of power modules. In these larger sizes, the power module
(engine and generator) are brought to the site on trailers separately and are
connected with large cables and a control cable to form a complete synchronized
power plant. Several options also exist to tailor specific needs, including control
panels for auto start and mains paralleling, acoustic canopies for fixed or mobile
applications, ventilation equipment, fuel supply systems, exhaust systems, etc.

Diesel generators are not only for emergency power, but may also have a
secondary function of feeding power to utility grids either during peak periods,
or periods when there is a shortage of large power generators. In the UK, this
program is run by the national grid and is called STOR.

Ships often also employ diesel generators, sometimes not only to provide
auxiliary power for lights, fans, winches, etc. but also indirectly for main
propulsion. With electric propulsion the generators can be placed in a convenient
position, to allow more cargo to be carried. Electric drives for ships were
developed before World War I. Electric drives were specified in many warships
built during World War II because manufacturing capacity for large reduction
gears was in short supply, compared to capacity for manufacture of electrical
equipment. Such a diesel-electric arrangement is also used in some very large
land vehicles such as railroad locomotives.

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  HVAC Systems: -

Figure: HVAC System Figure: Line Diagram

HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) is the technology of indoor and
vehicular environmental comfort. Its goal is to provide thermal comfort and
acceptable indoor air quality. HVAC system design is a sub-discipline of
mechanical engineering, based on the principles of thermodynamics, fluid
mechanics, and heat transfer. HVAC is important in the design of medium to large
industrial and office buildings such as skyscrapers and in marine environments
such as aquariums, where safe and healthy building conditions are regulated
concerning temperature and humidity, using fresh air from outdoors.

The three central functions of heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning are

interrelated, especially with the need to provide thermal comfort and acceptable
indoor air quality within reasonable installation, operation, and maintenance
costs. HVAC systems can provide ventilation, reduce air infiltration, and
maintain pressure relationships between spaces. The means of air delivery and
removal from spaces is known as room air distribution. Ventilation includes both
the exchange of air with the outside as well as the circulation of air within the
building. It is one of the most important factors for maintaining acceptable indoor
air quality in buildings. Air cleaning and filtration is an important factor of our
indoor environment.

The filtered and cleaned air then is used in heating, ventilation, and air
conditioning. Air cleaning and filtration should be taken into account when
protecting our building environments. Today’s Air-Conditioning (AC)
technology is so prevalent that it is considered a necessity for the majority of
residential and commercial buildings throughout the world. During the 100-plus
years of development, Air-Conditioners have been optimized for cost and
thermodynamic efficiency, both of which are nearing their practical limits. In
modern buildings, the design, installation, and control systems of these functions

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are integrated into one or more HVAC systems. For very small buildings,
contractors normally estimate the capacity, engineer, and select HVAC systems
and equipment.
For larger buildings, building service designers, mechanical engineers, or
building services engineers analyse, design, and specify the HVAC systems.
Speciality mechanical contractors then fabricate and commission the systems.
Building permits and code-compliance inspections of the installations are
normally required for all sizes of buildings.

Although HVAC is executed in individual buildings or other enclosed spaces, the

equipment involved is in some cases an extension of a larger district heating (DH)
or district cooling (DC) network or a combined DHC network. In such cases, the
operating and maintenance aspects are simplified and metering becomes
necessary to bill for the energy that is consumed, and in some cases energy that
is returned to the larger system. Basing HVAC on a larger network helps to
provide an economy of scale that is often not possible for individual buildings,
utilizing renewable energy sources such as solar heat, winter's cold, the cooling
potential in some places of lakes or seawater for free cooling, and the enabling
function of seasonal thermal energy storage. The project studies the different
types of HVAC systems, their functions, basic components, and operating cycles.
Selection of the best suitable AC system based upon the dimensions of space,
cooling requirement, ambient conditions, occupancy, and fresh air requirement.

The report also includes the study of different types of refrigerants and their effect
on the cooling load, efficiency, and environment. It consists of a detailed study
of equipment like the Air handling unit, Fan coil unit, and Cooling Towers, their
operations, and maintenance. In the end, the project involves the subjective
analysis of HVAC systems and comes up with the probable solution for the
problems faced in the operation of HVAC systems.

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 INTRODUCTION TO ONGC

Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) is a Public Sector Undertaking (PSU)
of the Government of India, under the administrative control of the Ministry of
Petroleum and Natural Gas, registered in New Delhi. It is India's largest oil and
gas exploration and production company. The headquarters is located in
Dehradun, India. It is India's largest oil and gas exploration and production
company. It produces around 70% of India's crude oil (equivalent to around 57%
of the country's total demand) and around 84% of its natural gas. In November
2010, the Government of India conferred the Maharatna status to ONGC.
On 19 May 2014, its market capitalization hit the highest of INR 3.56 trillion. On
July 10th, the market capitalization hit INR 1.48 trillion. In a government survey
for FY 2019-20, it was ranked as the largest profit-making PSU in India. ONGC
has been ranked 190th in the Fortune Global 500 list of the world's biggest
corporations for the year 2020. It is ranked 11th among the Top 250 Global
Energy Companies by Platts on September 25th,2017.
ONGC was founded on 14 August 1956 by the Government of India, which
currently holds a 69.23% equity stake. It is involved in exploring for and
exploiting hydrocarbons in 26 sedimentary basins of India and owns and operates
over 11,000 kilometres of pipelines in the country. ONGC has discovered 7 of
the 8 commercially producing Indian Basins, in the last 50 years, adding over
7.15 billion tons of In-place Oil & Gas volume of hydrocarbons in Indian basins.
Against a global decline of production from matured fields, ONGC has
maintained production from its brownfields like Mumbai High, with the help of
aggressive investments in various IOR (Improved Oil Recovery) and EOR
(Enhanced Oil Recovery) schemes.

Figure: ONGC Ltd.

9
ONGC Group of Companies comprises of Oil and Natural Gas Corporation
Limited (ONGC - The Parent Company); ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL - a
wholly-owned subsidiary of ONGC); ONGC Nile Ganga BV (ONG BV - a
wholly-owned subsidiary of OVL) and Mangalore Refinery and Petrochemicals
Limited (MRPL - a subsidiary of ONGC).
ONGC Videsh Limited (OVL) is the overseas arm of ONGC, engaged in
Exploration & Production Activities. It trans-national operates E&P Business in
15 countries, making ONGC the biggest Indian Multinational Corporation. In
recent years, it has laid footholds in hydrocarbon acreage in various countries
including Ivory Coast and Australia. ONGC Nile Ganga BV is a wholly-owned
subsidiary of OVL and has equity in the producing field in Sudan.
ONGC has many matured fields with a current recovery factor of 25-33%. Its
Reserve Replacement Ratio for between 2005 and 2014, has been more than one.
During FY 2012-13, ONGC had to share the highest ever under-recovery of INR
494.2 million (an increase of INR 49.6 million over the previous financial year)
towards the under-recoveries of Oil Marketing Companies (IOC, BPCL, and
HPCL).

 History: -

a) 1947-1960: -
During pre-independence, the Assam Oil Company in the North-Eastern and
Attock Oil Company in the North-Western part of undivided India were the only
oil companies producing oil in the country. The major part of Indian sedimentary
basins was deemed to be unfit for the development of oil and gas resources.
After independence, the Government
realized the importance of oil and gas for
rapid industrial development and its strategic
role in defence. Consequently, while framing
the Industrial Policy Statement of 1948, the
development of the hydrocarbon industry in
the country was considered to be of utmost
necessity.

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Until 1955, private oil companies mainly explored the hydrocarbon resources of
India. The Assam Oil Company was producing oil at Digboi, Assam (discovered
in 1889), and the Oil India Ltd. (a 50% joint venture between the Government of
India and Burma Oil Company) was engaged in developing two fields
Naharkatiya and Moran in Assam. In West Bengal, the Indo-Stanvac Petroleum
project (a joint venture between the Government of India and Standard Vacuum
Oil Company of the USA) was engaged in exploration work. The vast
sedimentary tract in other parts of India and adjoining offshore remained largely
unexplored.
In 1955, the Government of India decided to develop the oil and natural gas
resources in the various regions of the country as part of Public Sector
development. With this objective, an Oil and Natural Gas Directorate was set up
in 1955 under the then Ministry of Natural Resources and Scientific Research.
The department was constituted with a nucleus of geoscientists from the
Geological Survey of India. A delegation under the leadership of Mr. K.D.
Malviya, the then Minister of Natural Resources, visited several countries to
study the oil industry and to facilitate the training of Indian professionals for
exploring potential oil and gas reserves. Foreign experts from the USA, West
Germany, Romania, and the erstwhile USSR visited India and helped the
government with their expertise. Finally, the visiting Soviet experts drew up a
detailed plan for geological and geophysical surveys and drilling operations to be
carried out in the 2nd Five Year Plan (1956-57 to 1960-61).
In April 1956, the Government of India adopted the Industrial Policy Resolution,
which placed the mineral oil industry amongst the Schedule 'A' industries, the
future development of which was to be the sole and exclusive responsibility of
the state.
Soon, after the formation of the Oil and Natural Gas Directorate, it became
apparent that it would not be possible for the Directorate with limited financial
and administrative powers to function efficiently. So in August 1956, the
Directorate was raised to the status of a commission with enhanced powers,
although it continued to be under the government. In October 1959, the
Commission was converted into a statutory body by an act of Parliament, which
enhanced the powers of the commission further. The main functions of the Oil
and Natural Gas Commission subject to the provisions of the Act were "to plan,
promote, organize and implement programs for the development of Petroleum
Resources and the production and sale of petroleum and petroleum products
produced by it, and to perform such other functions as the Central Government
may, from time to time, assign to it".

11
 b) 1960-1990: -
Since its inception, ONGC has been instrumental in transforming the country's
limited upstream sector into a large viable playing field. In the inland areas,
ONGC not only found new resources in Assam but also established a new oil
province in the Cambay basin (Gujarat), while adding new petroliferous areas in
the Assam-Arakan Fold Belt and East coast basins (both inland and offshore).
ONGC went offshore in the early ‘70s and discovered a giant oil field in the form
of Bombay High, now known as Mumbai High. This discovery, along with
subsequent discoveries of huge oil and gas fields in Western offshore changed
the oil scenario of the country. Subsequently, over 5 billion tons of hydrocarbons,
which were present in the country, were discovered. The most important
contribution of ONGC, however, is its self-reliance and development of core
competence in E&P activities at a globally competitive level.

c) 1990-Present: -
After the conversion of business of the
erstwhile Oil & Natural Gas Commission to
that of Oil & Natural Gas Corporation
Limited in 1993, the Government
disinvested 2 percent of its shares through
competitive bidding. Subsequently, ONGC
expanded its equity by another 2 percent by
offering shares to its employees.
In March 1999, ONGC, Indian Oil Corporation (IOC) - a downstream giant and
Gas Authority of India Limited (GAIL) - the only gas marketing company, agreed
to have a cross-holding in each other's stock. This paved the way for long-term
strategic alliances both for the domestic and overseas business opportunities in
the energy value chain, amongst themselves. Consequent to this the Government
sold off 10 percent of its shareholding in ONGC to IOC and 2.5 percent to GAIL.
With this, the Government holding in ONGC came down to 84.11 percent.
In the year 2002-03, after taking over MRPL from the A V Birla Group, ONGC
diversified into the downstream sector. ONGC has also entered the global field
through its subsidiary, ONGC Videsh Ltd. (OVL). ONGC has made major
investments in Vietnam, Sakhalin, Columbia, Venezuela, Sudan, etc., and earned
its first hydrocarbon overseas revenue from its investment in Vietnam.

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 Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited Dehradun: -

The headquarters of the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited at Dehradun
(ONGC) was set up in Tel Bhawan (Patiala House), Dehradun in 1956. ONGC is
the foremost exploration and production company in India. It is responsible for
most of the exploration effort, established reserves, and oil and gas production in
India. ONGC possesses the fiscal, technical and managerial strength to rank as a
world-class oil and gas company.
Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) at Dehradun constitutes part
of a company with a global vision and
noble mission. Having a workforce of
over 41,000 dedicated to constant
technological innovation and up-
gradation, it employs experts in its
business. Apart from an excellent
atmosphere for growth, the company
offers a remuneration package at par
with the best in the Indian
industry.

 Vision and Mission: -

“To be a global leader in integrated

energy business through sustainable
growth, knowledge excellence, and
exemplary governance practices.”

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 Strengths: -
a. O.N.G.C LTD is perceived to be the leader in the oil production industry.
b. O.N.G.C has a very efficient and professional management team.
c. O.N.G.C being an international company has sufficient resources and
capital to invest.
d. Overseas acquisition in the oil field has increased to seventeen countries
and leads to increased production on a sharing basis.
e. Energy utilization of buried coal resources (700 -1700M), estimated 63BT
– Equivalent to 15000 BCM.
 Weakness: -
a. O.N.G.C facing difficulties to produce oil from ageing reservoirs.
b. Security of personnel & property especially crude oil continues to be a
cause of concern in certain areas.
c. In some exploration, Campaign Company involves high technology, High
investment, and high risks.
 Threats: -
a. Non-availability of deep drilling RIGS in international markets.
b. Depleting reservoirs all over the world.
c. Policies all over the world demand a decrease in oil production due to
increased concern for global warming and greenhouse gases.

 Profile: -
a. Forbes has ranked ONGC, 3rd largest in India and 220 worldwide.
b. It is ranked 160th in Forbes Global 500 list of the World's biggest
companies for 2019.ONGC ranks 377 in the Forbes Global list of 750 World
Best Employers compiled in partnership with Statista, the market research
firm.
c. ONGC has been ranked 39th among the world's 105 largest listed
companies in 'transparency in corporate reporting' by Transparency
International making it the most transparent company in India.

14
 ONGC: India's Most Valuable Public Sector Enterprise: -
a. The Company won Petrified Oil & Gas Industry Awards 2011 in three
categories- "Environmental Sustainability: Company of the Year", "Human
Resource Management: Company of the Year" and "Innovator of the Year:
Team (Won by IOGPT)".
b. It was bestowed with the "Most Attractive Employer" Award in Randstad
Awards 2011.
c. Won "Golden Peacock Award for Sustainability" for the year 2011.
d. Awarded with the Gold Trophy of SCOPE Meritorious Award for
"Environmental Excellence & Sustainable Development" for the Year 2010-
11 by former President Smt. Pratibha Devi Singh Patil.
e. Anointed "Outstanding PSU of the Year" at AIMA Managing India
Awards 2012.
f. Awarded the Best Overall Performance PCRA Award in the Upstream
Sector (Oil & Gas) for the 3rd consecutive year.
g. Awarded the "ICSI National Award for Excellence in Corporate
Governance for 2011"- Certificate of Recognition.
h. Awarded NIPM National Award for Best HR Practices – 2011.
i. Adjudged amongst 20 Top Companies for Leaders 2011 in Aon Hewitt
Awards.
j. "Best Enterprise Award" for the organization in the Maharatna and
Navratna Category at the 22nd National Meet of Women in Public Sector
(WIPS).
k. It was bestowed with Safety Innovation Award 2011 in the Oil & Gas
sector for innovative safety measures.

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 Listing and Shareholding: -
The equity shares of ONGC
are listed on the Bombay
Stock Exchange where it is a
constituent of the BSE
SENSEX index the National
Stock Exchange of India
where it is a constituent of the
S&P CNX Nifty. As of 31
March 2021, the Government
of India held around 60%
equity shares in ONGC. Over
480,000 individual
shareholders hold approx.
2.45% of its shares.

 Branches of ONGC in India: -

Figure: Branches of ONGC in the map of India

16
 AN INTRODUCTION TO ENGINES

An engine is a device that converts one form of energy into another useful form
of energy. If we talk in the language of thermodynamics and engineering, a heat
engine is a system that converts heat to mechanical energy, which can then be
used to do mechanical work. It does this by bringing a working substance from a
higher state temperature to a lower state temperature. A heat source generates
thermal energy that brings the working substance to a high-temperature state. The
working substance generates work in the working body of the engine while
transferring heat to the colder sink until it reaches a low-temperature state. During
this process, some of the thermal energy is converted into work by exploiting the
properties of the working substance. The working substance can be any system
with a non-zero heat capacity, but it usually is a gas or liquid. During this process,
some heat is normally lost to the surroundings and is not converted to work. Also,
some energy is unusable because of friction and drag.

In general, an engine converts energy to mechanical work. Heat engines

distinguish themselves from other types of engines by the fact that their efficiency
is fundamentally limited by Carnot's theorem. Although this efficiency limitation
can be a drawback, an advantage of heat engines is that most forms of energy can
be easily converted to heat by processes like exothermic reactions, nuclear
fission, absorption of light or energetic particles, friction, dissipation, and
resistance. Since the heat source that supplies thermal energy to the engine can
thus be powered by virtually any kind of energy, heat engines cover a wide range
of applications.
In thermodynamics, heat engines are often modelled using a standard engineering
cycle. The theoretical model can be refined and augmented with actual data from
an operating engine, using tools such as an indicator diagram.

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 Heat Engines Thermal Efficiency: -
The efficiency of a heat engine relates to how much useful work is obtained as
the output for a given amount of heat energy input.

QH = W + QC
where,
W = ∮ PdV is the work done by the engine,
QH=Th ∆Sh is the heat energy taken from the high-temperature system,
and
QC=Tc ∆Sc is the heat energy delivered to the cold temperature system.
In other words, a heat engine absorbs heat energy from the high-temperature heat
source, converting part of it to useful work and delivering the rest to the cold
temperature heat sink.
Mathematically,
W
Efficiency, 𝜂=
QH

The typical range of efficiencies of various heat engines proposed or used today
are as follows:
a. 3% (97 percent waste heat using low-quality heat) for the ocean thermal
energy conversion (OTEC) ocean power proposal
b. 25% for most automotive gasoline engines.
c. 49% for a supercritical coal-fired power station.
d. 60% for a combined cycle gas turbine.

The efficiency of these processes is roughly proportional to the temperature drop

across them. Significant energy may be consumed by auxiliary equipment, such
as pumps, which reduces efficiency.

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 Types of Engines: -
Based on the location of the combustion chamber, the engines are classified as
follows:
a. Internal combustion engines (I.C. Engines).
b. External combustion engines (E.C. Engines).

a. Internal Combustion Engines: -

In an internal combustion engine, the burning or
combustion takes place in the cylinder and the power
is developed in the same cylinder. The engine then
partially converts the energy from the combustion to
work. The engine consists of a fixed cylinder and a
moving piston. The expanding combustion gases
push the piston, which in turn rotates the crankshaft.
Ultimately, through a system of gears in the
powertrain, this motion drives the vehicle’s wheels.
Example: Automobile Engines.

b. External Combustion Engines: -

In an external combustion engine, the
burning or combustion takes place outside
the cylinder, and power is transferred from
the products of combustion to the working
fluid. An external heat engine (EHE) refers
to any engine that receives its heat from a
source other than the fluid that makes the
engine work. The most common type of
EHE is the external combustion engine,
which is used in many power plant designs.

External heat engines are steam engines, an external combustion engine would
use a flame to heat water into steam, then using the steam to turn a turbine.
Example: Power Plants, Stirling engines.

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 Examples of Heat Engines: -
Everyday examples of heat engines include the thermal power station, internal
combustion engine, firearms, fireworks, refrigerators, and heat pumps.

a. Power stations are examples of heat engines run in a forward direction in

which heat flows from a hot reservoir and flows into a cool reservoir to
produce work as the desired product.

b. Refrigerators, air conditioners, and heat pumps are examples of heat

engines that are run in reverse, i.e., they use work to take heat energy at a low
temperature and raise its temperature in a more efficient way than the simple
conversion of work into heat (either through friction or electrical resistance).
Refrigerators remove heat from within a thermally sealed chamber at low
temperature and vent waste heat at a higher temperature to the environment
and heat pumps take heat from the low-temperature environment and 'vent' it
into a thermally sealed chamber (a house) at a higher temperature.

c. Earth's atmosphere and hydrosphere (Earth's heat engine) are coupled

processes that constantly even out solar heating imbalances through
evaporation of surface water, convection, rainfall, winds, and ocean
circulation when distributing heat around the globe.

d. A Hadley cell is an example of a heat engine. It involves the rising of warm

and moist air in the earth's equatorial region and the descent of colder air in
the subtropics creating a thermally driven direct circulation, with consequent
net production of kinetic energy.

e. In Phase change cycles, the working fluids are gases and liquids. The
engine converts the working fluid from a gas to a liquid, from liquid to gas, or
both, generating work from the fluid expansion or compression.

 Rankine cycle (classical steam engine)

 Regenerative cycle (steam engine more efficient than Rankine cycle)
 Organic Rankine cycle (Coolant changing phase in temperature ranges of
ice and hot liquid water)
 Vapour to liquid cycle (Drinking bird, Injector, Minto wheel)

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 Liquid to solid cycle (Frost heaving — water changing from ice to liquid
and back again can lift the rock to 60 cm.)
 Solid to gas cycle (firearms — solid propellants combust to hot gases.)

f. In Gas cycles and engines, the working fluid is always a gas (i.e., there is
no phase change):

 Carnot cycle (Carnot heat engine)

 Ericsson cycle (Caloric Ship John Ericsson)
 Stirling cycle (Stirling engine)
 Internal combustion engine (ICE):
o Otto cycle (e.g., Gasoline/Petrol engine)
o Diesel cycle (e.g., Diesel engine)
o Dual cycle
o Atkinson cycle (Atkinson engine)
o Brayton cycle or Joule cycle originally Ericsson cycle (gas turbine)
o Lenoir cycle (e.g., pulse jet engine)
o Miller cycle (Miller engine)

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 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

An internal combustion engine is an engine in which the combustion of a fuel

(normally a fossil fuel) occurs with an oxidizer (usually air) in a combustion
chamber that is an integral part of the working fluid flow circuit. In an internal
combustion engine (ICE) the expansion of the high-temperature and high-
pressure gases produced by combustion apply direct force to some component of
the engine. The force is applied typically to pistons, turbine blades, or a nozzle.
This force moves the component over a distance, transforming chemical energy
into useful mechanical energy. The first commercially successful internal
combustion engine was created by Étienne Lenoir. The term internal combustion
engine usually refers to an engine in which combustion is intermittent, such as
the more familiar four-stroke and two-stroke piston engines, along with variants,
such as the six-stroke piston engine and the Wankel rotary engine. The second
class of internal combustion engines uses continuous combustion: gas turbines,
jet engines, and most rocket engines, each of which is internal combustion
engines on the same principle as previously described.
An ICE is quite different from external combustion engines, such as steam or
Stirling engines, in which the energy is delivered to a working fluid not consisting
of, mixed with, or contaminated by combustion products. Working fluids can be
air, hot water, pressurized water, or even liquid sodium, heated in some kind of
boiler. ICEs are usually powered by energy-dense fuels such as gasoline or diesel,
liquids derived from fossil fuels. While there are many stationary applications,
most ICEs are used in mobile applications and are the dominant power supply for
cars, aircraft, and boats.

 Main Components of an IC Engine: -

a. Cylinder Block: -

 It is the main block of the engine.

 It contains cylinders accurately finished to
accommodate pistons.
 The cylinder block houses crank, camshaft,
piston, and other engine parts.
 In water-cooled engines, the cylinder block
is provided with water jackets for the
circulating cooling water.
 The materials used for the cylinder are grey
cast iron, aluminium alloys, etc.
 It is usually made of a single casting.

22
 b. Cylinder Head: -
 The cylinder head is bolted to the
cylinder Block through studs.
 The water jackets are provided for
cooling water circulation.
 The materials used for the cylinder
head are cast iron, aluminium alloy,
etc.
 This is also generally made of single
cast iron.

c. Liner: -
The liner is a sleeve that is fitted into the
cylinder bore. It provides a wear-resisting
surface for the cylinder bores. Liners are
classified into wet and dry liners.
 Wet Liner: These liners are
surrounded or wetted by cooling
water. It provides a wear-resisting
surface for the piston to reciprocate.
Also, it acts as a seal for the water
jacket.

 Dry Liner: Dry liners have metal-to-

metal contact with the cylinder block.
They are not directly in touch with the
cooling water.

d. Crankcase: -
It may be cast integral with the cylinder block.
Sometimes, it is cast separately and then attached
to the block. The materials used for a crankcase are
cast iron, aluminium alloys, or alloy steels.

23
 e. Oil pan or oil sump: -
The oil sump is the bottom part of the engine. It
contains lubricating oil. A drain plug is provided to
the oil sump to drain out the oil. It is made of a
pressed sheet.

f. Piston: -
The piston serves the following purposes:
 It acts as a movable gas-tight seal to keep the
gases inside the cylinder.
 It transmits the force of the explosion in the
cylinder to the crankshaft through the
connecting rod.
 Some of the materials used for piston are cast
iron, aluminium alloy, chrome-nickel alloy,
nickel-iron alloy, and cast steel.
The materials used for the piston should be wear-
resistant. Normally piston rings are made of alloy
steel iron-containing silicon, manganese alloy steel,
etc.

g. Piston rings: -
Piston rings are inserted in the grooves provided in the piston. Two types of piston
rings are used in the piston: compression rings and oil rings or oil control rings.
 Compression rings: Compression rings
provide an effective seal for the high-pressure
gases inside the cylinder. They prevent the
leakage of high-pressure gases from the
combustion chamber into the crankcase. Each
piston is provided with at least two
compression rings.
 Oil rings: Oil rings wipe off the excess oil
from the cylinder walls. It also returns excess
oil to the oil sump, through the slots provided
in the rings.

24
h. Cam Shaft: -

 It contains a series of cams.

 It is used to convert rotary motion into
linear or straight-line motion.
 It has so many cams as the number of valves
in an engine.
 An additional cam is also provided to drive
the fuel pump.
 Gear is provided in the camshaft to drive the
distributor or oil pump.
 The opening and closing of the engine valves are controlled by the cams
provided on the camshaft.

i. Crank Shaft: -

 It is the main rotating shaft of the engine.

Power is obtained from the crankshaft.
 The crankshaft is combined with a
connecting rod that converts the
reciprocating motion of the piston into
rotary motion.
 The crankshaft is held in position by the
main bearings. There are two main
bearings to support the crankshaft.
 The materials used for the crankshaft are billet steel, carbon steel, nickel-
chrome, and other heat-treated alloy steels.

j. Connecting Rod: -
 It connects the piston and crankshaft.
 It transmits the force of the explosion during
power stroke to the crankshaft.
 The connecting rod has bearings at both ends.
The small end of the connecting rod has a
solid or split eye and contains a bush.
 This end is connected to the piston employing
a gudgeon pin. The other end is called the big
end of the connecting rod.
 The connecting rods must withstand heavy thrusts. Hence it must have
strength and rigidity. They are usually drop-forged I sections.
 The materials used are plain carbon steel, aluminium alloys, nickel alloy
steels, etc.

25
 Classification of IC Engines: -

IC Engines are classified into:

a. The cycle of operation (No of Strokes per cycle):

 Two-Stroke Cycle Engines
 Four Stroke Cycle Engines

b. Thermodynamic Cycle or Method of Heat addition:

 Otto Cycle Engines (Combustion at constant volume)
 Diesel Cycle Engines (Combustion at constant Pressure)
 Semi Diesel Engines (Dual Combustion Engines)

c. Types of Fuel Used:

 Petrol Engines
 Diesel Engines
 Gas Engines

d. Ignition Method:
 Spark Ignition (SI)
 Compression-Ignition(CI)

e. Cooling System:
 Air-cooled Engines
 Water Cooled Engines

f. Valves Location:
 L head (Side valve) engine
 T Head (Side valve) engine
 I head (overhead valve) engine
 F head (overhead inlet and side exhaust) engine

26
Chart: Classification of internal combustion engines

27
 Nomenclature: -

a. Cylinder Bore(d): -
The nominal inner diameter of the working cylinder is called the cylinder bore
and is designated by the letter d and is usually expressed in millimetres (mm).

b. Piston Area(A): -
The area of a circle of diameter equal to the cylinder bore is called the piston area
and is designated by the letter A and is usually expressed in square centimetre
(cm2).

c. Stroke(L): -
The nominal distance through which a working piston moves between two
successive reversals of its direction of motion is called the stroke and is
designated by the letter L and is expressed usually in millimetres (mm).

d. Stroke to Bore Ratio: -

L/d ratio is an important parameter in classifying the size of the engine. If d < L,
it is called an under-square engine. If d = L, it is called a square engine. If d > L,
it is called an over-square engine.
An over-square engine can operate at higher speeds because of its larger bore and
shorter stroke.

e. Dead Centre: -
The position of the working piston and the moving parts which are mechanically
connected to it, at the moment when the direction of the piston motion is reversed
at either end of the stroke is called the dead centre.
There are two dead centres in the engine as
indicated in Fig. They are:

 Top Dead Centre: It is the dead centre

when the piston is farthest from the
crankshaft. It is designated as T DC for
vertical engines and Inner Dead Centre
(IDC) for horizontal engines.
 Bottom Dead Centre: It is the dead centre
when the piston is nearest to the
crankshaft. It is designated as BDC for
vertical engines and Outer Dead Centre (ODC) for horizontal engines.

28
 SPARK IGNITION ENGINE

A spark-ignition engine (SI engine) is an

internal combustion engine, generally a petrol
engine, where the combustion process of the
air-fuel mixture is ignited by a spark from a
spark plug. This is in contrast to compression-
ignition engines, typically diesel engines,
where the heat generated from compression
together with the injection of fuel is enough to
initiate the combustion process, without
needing any external spark. In this engine,
liquid fuel is atomized, vaporized, and mixed
with air in the correct proportion before being
taken to the engine cylinder through the intake
manifolds. The ignition of the mixture is
caused by an electric spark and is known as
spark ignition.

SI engine stands for the spark-ignition engine. Spark ignition engine means any
engine in which fuel is ignited by a spark plug or by a predefined ignition source.
Many of us have the misconception that only petrol engines are SI engines but
actually, petrol engines are a type of SI engine. There are many other SI engines
like gas engines, Hydrogen engines, LPG engines, etc.

 Four Stroke SI Engine: -

a. Principle: -
We know that stroke is defined as the maximum movement of the piston in any
direction inside the engine cylinder. For example, if a piston moves from bottom
dead centre to top dead centre is known as a stroke. If it returns to the bottom
dead centre, it is known as 2 strokes. Similarly, if it again moves towards TDC
and comes back BDC, it completes four strokes. This is the basic principle of a
four-stroke engine. An engine that completes four strokes into one power stroke
or to complete one cycle is called a four-stroke engine. The crankshaft completes
one revolution in two strokes. So it rotates two revolutions in four-stroke engines.

29
b. Working: -

A four-stroke engine completes

its cyclic operation into four
strokes of piston or two
revolutions of the crankshaft.
These strokes are suction stroke,
compression stroke, power or
expansion stroke, and exhaust
stroke. Both SI and CI engines
follow these four strokes to
complete one cycle. The
working operation of these
strokes can be summarized as
follows.
 Suction Stroke: Suction means drawing charge (air-fuel mixture in SI
engines and air alone in CI engines) into the engine cylinder. It is drawn
through an inlet valve. The piston moves from TDC to BDC during this
stroke. The air is sucked due to the pressure difference between engine
cylinder and atmosphere in non-supercharged engines and by an air
compressor in supercharged engines.
 Compression Stroke: In this stroke, the piston moves from BDC to TDC.
Both inlet and exhaust valves closed and the piston compressed charge
during this stroke. The movement of the piston is due to inertia or cranking
of the engine. This process takes place isentropically in both SI and CI
engines.
 Power and Expansion Stroke: In this stroke, the piston moves from TDC
to BDC. Both inlet and exhaust valves closed during this stroke. In SI
engines, a spark plug generates a spark that ignites the fuel-air mixture.
Because total fuel is available inside the cylinder, the burning takes place
instantly so this process is considered as constant volume burning for an
ideal cycle. Due to the burning of fuel, a high-pressure force is generated
inside the cylinder which acts as the driving force of the piston and
crankshaft. After burning, the piston expands from TDC to BDC
isentropically.
 Exhaust Stroke: When the piston reaches BDC, the exhaust valve opens
and the piston starts moving from BDC to TDC due to the inertia of the
piston. The burnt gases exhausted the exhaust valve from the engine
cylinder to the environment. When the piston reaches TDC, a new charge
enters into the cylinder and this cycle repeats itself.

30
 c. Application: -

 Four-stroke engines are widely used in the automobile industry.

 They are used in buses, trucks, and other vehicles.
 They are used in the pumping system.
 These engines find application in mobile electric generators.
 These engines are widely used in aircraft and marine engines.

d. Advantages: -

 Four-stroke engines give higher efficiency.

 It creates less pollution.
 Less wear and tear due to a good lubrication system
 It is quieter in operation.
 They give high rpm at low power.
 It runs cleaner due to no extra oil added to fuel.

e. Disadvantages: -

 These engines are more complicated due to valve mechanisms and

lubrication systems.
 These are costly compared to two-stroke engines.
 Four-stroke engines give less power.

 Two-Stroke SI Engine: -

a. Principle: -

It works on the same principle as wear-resisting a four-

stroke engine. When the fuel burns inside the cylinder,
it creates a large pressure force which is further used to
move the piston hence the movement of the crankshaft.
It completes two piston strokes during one power
stroke. It completes all processes like suction,
compression, power, and exhaust in just two piston
strokes.

31
b. Working: -

Two-stroke engines have two types. The

first one is known as the Spark-ignition
engine or better known as the petrol
engine, which works on Otto Cycle and
another one is the compression ignition
engine or diesel engine, which works on
the diesel cycle. Both these engines
work on the same principle with some
fundamental differences. Its work can
be summarized as follows.
 Suction and Compression Stroke: Suction means charge drawn into the
engine cylinder or in the case of the two-stroke engine in crankcase and
compression means compressed the previously drawn charge into the
engine cylinder. In two-stroke engines, both these processes take place
simultaneously. When the piston moves from BDC to TDC, the inlet port
opens and a partial vacuum is created into the crankcase which accelerates
the charge drawn into the crankcase. Simultaneously the piston compressed
the charge available in the engine cylinder or combustion chamber. The
exhaust port remains closed during this stroke.
 Power and Exhaust Stroke: In this stroke, the piston moves from TDC to
BDC. Inlet port remains open for the first half of this stroke and closed in
the other half. Simultaneously, the exhaust port remains closed during the
first half of this stroke and opens into the second half. Transfer port opens
into the second half of this stroke. There is a deflector in the engine cylinder
which regulates the fresh charge and is not exhausted with exhaust gases.
During this piston stroke, in SI engines, spark plug produces sparks. This spark
ignited the charge which created a high-pressure force. This force moves the
piston from TDC to BDC. When the piston reaches the middle, the exhaust
port and transfer port opens simultaneously. This exhausted burnt gases out
from the engine cylinder and transfer port supplied fresh fuel-air mixture into
the engine cylinder from the crankcase for the further cycle.

c. Application: -

 These engines are used in small vehicles like mopeds, scooters, etc.
 Small gasoline engines are used for lawnmowers.
 These are used for ship propulsions.
 It is also used for small electric generator sets, pumping sets, and
outboard motorboats.

32
d. Advantages: -

 Lower cost.
 High power compared to four-stroke engines.
 Easy maintenance due to absence of valve mechanism and lubrication
system.
 Compact compared to four-stroke engines.
 Produce uniform torque on crankshaft.
 More power to weight ratio.

e. Disadvantages: -

 A high amount of cooling and lubrication oil is required.

 These engines are less efficient compared to four-stroke engines.
 It produces high vibration and noisy operation.
 Lower volumetric efficiency due to lesser time for mixing intake.
 More wear and tear because of the poor lubrication system.

33
 COMPRESSION IGNITION ENGINE
The diesel engine, named after Rudolf Diesel, is an internal combustion engine
in which ignition of the fuel is caused by the elevated temperature of the air in
the cylinder due to the mechanical compression; thus, the diesel engine is a so-
called compression-ignition engine (CI engine). This contrasts with engines using
spark plug-ignition of the air-fuel mixture, such as a petrol engine (gasoline
engine) or a gas engine (using a gaseous fuel like natural gas or liquefied
petroleum gas).

Diesel engines work by compressing only the air. This increases the air
temperature inside the cylinder to such a high degree that atomized diesel fuel
injected into the combustion chamber ignites spontaneously. With the fuel being
injected into the air just before combustion, the dispersion of the fuel is uneven;
this is called a heterogeneous air-fuel mixture. The torque a diesel engine
produces is controlled by manipulating the air-fuel ratio (λ); instead of throttling
the intake air, the diesel engine relies on altering the amount of fuel that is
injected, and the air-fuel ratio is usually high.

The diesel engine has the highest thermal

efficiency (engine efficiency) of any practical
internal or external combustion engine due to its
very high expansion ratio and inherent lean burn
which enables heat dissipation by the excess air.

On average the diesel engine can run on 15–20

percent (of the original consumption) diesel and
rest on producer gas. Generally, the engine is
started on diesel and as the gas generation builds
up the diesel consumption is then kept at the idling level. The engine efficiency,
in this case, is about 25 percent. Thus as a thumb rule, the dual-fuel engine
producing 1 kWh requires 1 kg of biomass and consumes 0.07 litres of diesel.

 Four Stroke CI Engine: -

In four-stroke cycle engines, four strokes are completed by two revolutions of the
crankshaft. These are respectively, the suction, compression, power, and exhaust
strokes. The piston descends on its suction stroke. Only pure air is drawn into the
cylinder during this stroke through the inlet valve, whereas the exhaust valve is
closed. These valves can be operated by the cam, pushrod, and rocker arm. The
next stroke is the wear-resisting compression stroke in which the piston moves
up with both the valves remaining closed. The air, which has been drawn into the
cylinder during the suction stroke, is progressively compressed as the piston

34
ascends. The compression ratio usually
varies from 14:1 to 22:1. The pressure at
the end of the compression stroke
ranges from 30 to 45 kg/cm2. As the air
is progressively compressed in the
cylinder, its temperature increases, until
when near the end of the compression
stroke, it becomes sufficiently high
(650-80O oC) to instantly ignite any fuel
that is injected into the cylinder. When
the piston is near the top of its
compression stroke, a liquid
hydrocarbon fuel, such as diesel oil, is
sprayed into the combustion chamber under high pressure (140-160 kg/cm2),
higher than that existing in the cylinder itself. This fuel then ignites, being burnt
with the oxygen of the highly compressed air.

a. Principle of Four Stroke CI Engine:

During the fuel injection period, the piston reaches the end of its compression
stroke and commences to return on its third consecutive stroke, viz., power stroke.
During this stroke the hot products of combustion consisting chiefly of carbon
dioxide, together with the nitrogen left from the compressed air expand, thus
forcing the piston downward. This is only the working stroke of the cylinder.

During the power stroke, the pressure falls from its maximum combustion value
(47-55 kg/cm2), which is usually higher than the greater value of the compression
pressure (45 kg/cm2), to about 3.5-5 kg/cm2 near the end of the stroke. The
exhaust valve then opens, usually a little earlier than when the piston reaches its
lowest point of travel. The exhaust gases are swept out on the following upward
stroke of the piston. The exhaust valve remains open throughout the whole stroke
and closes at the top of the stroke.

The reciprocating motion of the piston is converted into the rotary motion of the
crankshaft by means of a connecting rod and crankshaft. The crankshaft rotates
in the main bearings, which are set in the crankcase. The flywheel is fitted on the
crankshaft to smoothen out the uneven torque that is generated in the
reciprocating engine.

35
 Two-Stroke CI Engine: -

The cycle of the four-stroke of the

piston (the suction, compression,
power, and exhaust strokes) is
completed only in two strokes in the
case of a two-stroke engine. The air is
drawn into the crankcase due to the
suction created by the upward stroke of
the piston. On the down stroke of the
piston, it is compressed in the
crankcase. The compression pressure is
usually very low, being just sufficient to
enable the air to flow into the cylinder
through the transfer port when the
piston reaches near the bottom of its down stroke.

The air thus flows into the cylinder, where the piston compresses it as it ascends,
till the piston is nearly at the top of its stroke. The compression pressure is
increased sufficiently high to raise the temperature of the air above the self-
ignition point of the fuel used. The fuel is injected into the cylinder head just
before the completion of the compression stroke and only for a short period. The
burnt gases expand during the next downward stroke of the piston. These gases
escape into the exhaust pipe to the atmosphere through the piston uncovering the
exhaust port.

36
 RECIPROCATING ENGINE

Reciprocating internal combustion

engines are a mature technology used for
power generation, transportation, and
many other purposes. Worldwide
production of reciprocating IC engines
exceeds 200 million units per year. For
CHP installations,
reciprocating engines have capacities
that range from 10 kW to 10 MW.
Multiple engines can be integrated to
deliver capacities exceeding 10 MW in a
single plant.

Several manufacturers offer reciprocating engines for distributed power

generation, and these engines, which are most often fuelled with natural gas, are
well suited for CHP service.

a. Applications: -

Reciprocating engines are well suited to a variety of distributed generation

applications and are used throughout industrial, commercial, and institutional
facilities for power generation and CHP. There are nearly 2,400 reciprocating
engine CHP installations in the U.S., representing 54% of the entire population
of installed CHP systems.2 These reciprocating engines have a combined
capacity of nearly 2.4 gigawatts (GW), with spark-ignited engines fuelled by
natural gas and other gas fuels accounting for 83% of this capacity. Thermal loads
most amenable to engine-driven CHP systems in commercial/institutional
buildings are space heating and hot water requirements. The primary applications
for CHP in the commercial/institutional and residential sectors are those with
relatively high and coincident electric and hot water demand. Common
applications for reciprocating engine CHP systems include universities,
hospitals, water treatment facilities, industrial facilities, commercial buildings,
and multi-family dwellings.

37
b. Technology Description: -

There are two primary reciprocating

engine designs relevant to stationary
power generation applications – the
spark-ignition Otto-cycle engine and
the compression ignition Diesel-
cycle engine. The essential
mechanical components of the Otto-
cycle and Diesel cycles are the same.
Both use a cylindrical combustion
chamber in which a close-fitting
piston travels the length of the
cylinder. The piston connects to a crankshaft that transforms the linear motion of
the piston into the rotary motion of the crankshaft. Most engines have multiple
cylinders that power a single crankshaft.

The main difference between the two cycles is the method of igniting the fuel.
Spark ignition engines (Otto cycle) use a spark plug to ignite a pre-mixed air-fuel
mixture introduced into the cylinder. Compression ignition engines (Diesel-
cycle) compress the air introduced into the cylinder to high pressure, raising its
temperature to the auto-ignition temperature of the fuel that is injected at high
pressure.

Reciprocating engines are characterized as either rich-burn or lean-burn. Rich-

burn engines are operated near the stoichiometric air/fuel ratio, which means the
air and fuel quantities are matched for complete combustion, with little or no
excess air. In contrast, lean-burn engines are operated at air levels significantly
higher than the stoichiometric ratio. In lean-burn engines, engine-out NOx
emissions are reduced as a result of lower combustion chamber temperatures
compared to rich-burn engines. Most spark ignition and diesel engines relevant
to stationary power generation applications complete a power cycle in four
strokes of the piston within the cylinder.

 Intake stroke: Introduction of air (diesel) or air-fuel mixture (spark

ignition) into the cylinder.
 Compression stroke: Compression of air or an air-fuel mixture within the
cylinder. In diesel engines, the fuel is injected at or near the end of the
compression stroke (top dead center, or TDC) and ignited by the elevated

38
 temperature of the compressed air in the cylinder. In spark-ignition
engines, the compressed air-fuel mixture is ignited by an ignition source at
or near TDC.
 Power stroke: Acceleration of the piston by the expansion of the hot, high-
pressure combustion gases.
 Exhaust stroke: The movement of an engine piston (as of a 4-stroke-cycle
engine) that forces the used gas or vapour out through the exhaust ports

c. Performance Characteristics: -

The five systems range from 100 kW to 9.3 MW, which covers most CHP
installations that use reciprocating engines. Electric efficiencies generally
increase with size, and the electric efficiencies for the five systems range from
approximately 30% (System #1) to 42% (System #5). Overall CHP efficiencies
are near 80%, ranging from approximately 77% (System #5) to 83% (System #1).
As electrical efficiency increases, the quantity of thermal energy available to
produce useful heat decreases per unit of power output, and the power to heat
ratio generally increases. A changing ratio of power to heat impacts project
economics and may affect the decisions that customers make in terms of CHP
acceptance, sizing, and the desirability of selling power. For the representative
system, the power to heat ratio ranges from 0.56 to 1.20. In power generation and
CHP applications, reciprocating engines generally drive synchronous generators
at a constant speed to produce steady alternating current (AC) power. As load is
reduced, the heat rate of spark ignition engines increases and efficiency decreases.
While gas engines compare favourably to gas turbines which typically experience
efficiency decreases of 15 to 25 percent at half load conditions, multiple engines
may be preferable to a single large unit to avoid efficiency penalties.

d. Capital and O&M Costs: -

The costs are average values based on data collected from multiple
manufacturers. Installed costs can vary significantly depending on the scope of
the plant equipment, geographical area, competitive market conditions, special
site requirements, emissions control hardware, and prevailing labour rates.
Capital costs for generator set packages include all expenses for a complete CHP
system, including heat recovery hardware and emission control equipment. The
CHP systems shown in Table 3 are assumed to produce hot water, although
reciprocating engines are also capable of producing low-pressure steam. With
construction and installation included, installed costs range from $2,900 to $1,430
per kW. As indicated, capital costs decline on a per kW basis as size increases.

39
Non-fuel operation and maintenance (O&M) costs are also shown in Table 3. As
indicated, these costs range from 2.4 to 0.9 ¢/kWh. Like capital costs, O&M costs
decline as capacity increases. Maintenance costs vary with type, speed, size, and
number of cylinders of an engine. These costs typically include:
 Maintenance labour.
 Engine parts and materials (e.g., oil filters, air filters, spark plugs, gaskets,
valves, piston rings, electronic components, etc.) and consumables, such as
oil.
 Minor and major overhauls Maintenance can either be done by in-house
personnel or contracted out to manufacturers, distributors, or dealers under
service contracts.

e. Emissions: -

Emissions of criteria pollutants oxides of nitrogen (NOx), carbon monoxide

(CO), and volatile organic compounds (unburned, non-methane hydrocarbons, or
VOCs) are the primary environmental concern with reciprocating engines
operating on natural gas. Table 4 shows representative emissions for
reciprocating engines operating on natural gas in CHP applications. Emissions
can vary significantly between different engine models and manufacturers and
can also vary significantly with small changes in operating conditions (e.g.,
air/fuel ratio). Rich-burn engines have higher uncontrolled NOx emissions
compared to lean-burn engines and are almost always supplied with a three-way
catalyst to control NOx, CO, and VOC emissions. For lean-burn engines,
selective catalytic reduction (SCR) can be used to reduce NOx emissions if
needed, and an oxidation catalyst can be used to reduce CO and VOC emissions.

40
 FUEL AIR CYCLE

The theoretical cycle based on the actual properties of the cylinder contents is
called the fuel-air cycle. The fuel-air cycle takes into consideration the following:
 The actual composition of the cylinder contents.
 The variation in the specific heat of the gases in the cylinder.
 The dissociation effect.
 The variation in the number of moles present in the cylinder as the pressure
and temperature change.
 No chemical changes in either fuel or air before combustion.
 Combustion takes place instantaneously at the top dead center.
 All processes are adiabatic.
 The fuel is mixed well with air.

 Comparison of P-V Diagram of Air-standard and Fuel–Air cycle

for SI engine:

a. Losses due to variation of specific heats with temperature: -

All gases, except mono-atomic gases, show an increase in specific heat as

temperature increases. The specific heat may be written in the form:
C = a + b T + c (T2)
where T is the absolute temperature and a, b and c are constants for any specific
gas. 𝐶𝑣 and 𝐶𝑝 increase with temperature but, ɣ=𝐶𝑝/𝐶𝑣, decreases as the
temperature increase.

There are special tables and charts

which give the specific heat of
different gases at different
temperatures. Specific heats of a
mixture of gases can be calculated,
if the constituents of the mixture
are known, using the gas mixture
relations. If the variation of
specific heat is taken into account
during the compression stroke, 6
the final pressure and temperature
would be lower if the constant

41
value of specific heats is used (2’) as shown in the figure. When taking variable
specific heat, the end of combustion will be (3’) instead of 3. The expansion
process would be 3’4’ when assumed isentropic, but expand variable-specifically
specific heats into accounts is above 3’4’ and represented by3’4’. Thus it is seen
that the effect of variation of specific heats is to deliver less work. The final cycle
is (123'4’).

b. Losses due to dissociation: -

The effect of dissociation is much

smaller than that of change of specific
heats. The effect of dissociation on
combustion temperature is as shown
in the figure, the dotted line represents
the maximum combustion.

It reduces the temperature of the

products after combustion by 300 C.
This, in turn, reduces the amount of
energy that can be drawn from the
combustion process and reduces the
work output of engines.

The adjacent figure shows the Effect of dissociation temperature at different ϕ.

The other effect of dissociation is to form pollutants. This is particularly true in

combustion in engines when carbon monoxide (CO) can be formed even when
the mixture is weak (excess air over that of Stoichiometric) - that is, there is more
than sufficient oxygen in the air to oxidize completely both the carbon and
hydrogen in the fuel.

42
 ACTUAL CYCLE

The actual cycle is an open cycle

with changing composition, the
actual cycle efficiency is much
lower than the air standard
efficiency due to various losses
occurring in the actual engine.
Figure shows (1) the two constant
volume cycles (heat added and
rejected) Air – Standard cycle
(Otto). (2) Fuel – Air cycle with
variable specific heat and
dissociation. (3) Actual cycle.

Other losses depicted in the figure are as follows:

c. Time losses: -
In theoretical cycles, the burning is assumed to be instantaneous. Whereas, in the
actual cycle, burning is completed in a definite interval of time. The effect of this
time is that the maximum pressure will not be produced when the volume is
minimum; but sometime after T.D.C., causes a reduction in the work produced.
The time at which burning starts is varied by varying the spark timing (spark
advance).

d. Incomplete combustion losses: -

Fuel vapour, air, and residual gas are present in the cylinder, this makes it
impossible to obtain a perfectly homogeneous mixture. Therefore, some fuel does
not burn to CO2 or partially burns to CO, and O2 will appear in the exhaust.
Energy release in the actual engine is about 90 to 93% of fuel energy input.

e. Direct heat loss: -

During the combustion process and subsequent expansion stroke, the heat flows
from cylinder gases through cylinder walls and cylinder head into the water jacket
or cooling fins. Some heat enters the piston head and flows through piston rings
into the walls of the cylinder or is carried away by the engine oil. The heat loss
during combustion and expansion does not represent a complete heat loss; a part
of the heat loss would be rejected in the exhaust at the end of the expansion
stroke.
43
f. Friction losses: -
These losses are due to the friction between the piston and cylinder walls, the
various bearings, and the friction in the auxiliary equipment, such as pumps, fans,
etc.

g. Exhaust blowdown loss: -

The escape of the combustion particles from the cylinder when the exhaust valve
opens.

h. Pumping loss: -
These are the losses occurring on account of power that is lost during the suction
and exhaust operation of the engine.

44
 DEVELOPMENT AND USAGE OF IC ENGINE

 OHV Engine: -
It is also called the Pushrod engine. In
an OHV (Over Head Valve) engine,
the camshaft is placed inside the block
and the valves are operated through
lifters, pushrods, and rocker arms.
This mechanism is called a valve
train. An OHV design has been
successfully used for many years.
Most early American cars had OHV
engines and they are still used in
trucks and sports cars.
On the downside, it's difficult to
precisely control the valve timing at
high rpm due to higher inertia caused
by larger amounts of valve train
components (lifter-pushrod-rocker
arm). Also, it's very difficult to install
more than 2 valves per cylinder.

 OHC or SOHC Engine: -

OHC in general means Over Head Cam while SOHC means Single Overhead
Cam or "Single Cam". In a SOHC engine, the camshaft is installed in the cylinder
head, and valves are operated either by
the rocker arms or directly through the
lifters.

The advantage is that valves are

operated almost directly by the
camshaft, which makes it easy to
achieve the perfect timing at high rpm.
It's also possible to install three or four
valves per cylinder.

The disadvantage is that an OHC engine

requires a timing belt or chain with
related components, which is a more
complex and more expensive design.

45
 DOHC Engine: -
DOHC means Double Overhead Cam,
or sometimes it could be called "Twin
Cam'' or "Double Cam''. The majority
of modern cars have a DOHC engine.

A typical DOHC engine has two

camshafts and four valves per cylinder.
One camshaft operates intake valves,
while another camshaft controls
exhaust valves on the opposite side.
DOHC engine can "breathe" better,
meaning that it can produce more
horsepower with smaller engine
volume.

a. Comparison: The 3.5-litre V6 DOHC engine of the 2003 Nissan

Pathfinder has 240 hp, similar to 245 hp of the 5.9-litre V8 OHV engine of the
2003 Dodge Durango.
b. Advantages: High efficiency, possible to install multiple valves per
cylinder, and adopt variable timing.
c. Disadvantages: More complex and more expensive design.

 MPFI Engine: -
There are different types of gasoline injection systems in S I Engines, and one of
them is a Multi-Point Fuel Injection System or MPFI System.

If we compare MPFI system/MPFI

engine with single-point fuel injection,
single-point fuel injection has only one
centrally located fuel injector which
supplies fuel to all cylinders, but in a
multi-point fuel injection system, each
cylinder has a separate fuel injector that
supplies fuel from the fuel tank to the
cylinders.

46
 a. Components: A mechanical solenoid injector, Electronic Control Unit
(ECU), Electronic sensors, Air filters, etc.
b. Working:
 In the MPFI system, using the fuel pump which is driven by the electric
motor is used to spray fuel into the engine intake manifold.
 This technique helps to provide an accurate air-fuel ratio at all operating
conditions.
 The suction pressure of the engine is used to spray the fuel into the
cylinders (In carburetors, the vacuum is used to provide the fuel).
 As shown in the figure, you can see that a single injector is placed on the
intake port of the different cylinders.
 The process of fuel injection occurs simultaneously in each injector once
in every rotation.
 Using the electrical fuel pump, fuel from the fuel tank supplies to each fuel
injector equally.
c. Advantages:
 The power generated by the engine is more than the carburetion system.
 Due to the accurate mixture of air-fuel supplied to each cylinder, the
difference between power generated at each cylinder is negligible.
 Engine vibrations from MPFI equipped engines are very less, hence the life
of MPFI system-equipped engines is high.
 This system is very responsive in case of sudden acceleration or
deceleration.
 Lower fuel consumption leads to better mileage.
 The volumetric efficiency of MPFI is high.

 Supercharger and Turbocharger: -

A supercharger is an air compressor used to
increase the pressure, temperature, and
density of air supplied to an internal
combustion engine. This compressed air
supplies a greater mass of oxygen per cycle
of the engine to support combustion than
available to a naturally aspirated engine,
which makes it possible for more fuel to be
burned and more work to be done per cycle,
which increases the power produced by the

47
 engine. Power for the supercharger
can be provided mechanically by a
belt, gear, shaft, or a chain
connected to the crankshaft.
When power is provided by a
turbine powered by exhaust gas, a
supercharger is known as a
turbosupercharger – typically
referred to simply as a
turbocharger or just turbo.
Common usage restricts the term
supercharger to mechanically
driven units. Turbochargers are a
type of forced induction system.
They compress the air flowing into
the engine.

The advantage of compressing the air

is that it lets the engine squeeze more
air into a cylinder, and more air
means that more fuel can be added.
Therefore, you get more power from
each explosion in each cylinder. A
turbocharged engine produces more
power overall than the same engine
without charging. This can
significantly improve the power-to-
weight ratio for the engine.

To achieve this boost, the turbocharger uses the exhaust flow from the engine to
spin a turbine, which in turn spins an air pump. The turbine in the turbocharger
spins at speeds of up to 150,000 rotations per minute (rpm), which's about 30
times faster than most car engines can go. And since it is hooked up to the exhaust,
the temperatures in the turbine are also very high.

 CRDI Engine: -
The common rail direct injection configuration for diesel engines is a great
example of modern diesel technology. Common rail direct injection uses a high-
pressure rail to deliver diesel fuel to each solenoid valve. Unlike conventional
direct fuel injection systems used in older diesel cars which use a low-pressure
pump nozzle to deliver diesel fuel. This traditional technology was inefficient and

48
 wasted a lot of fuel. On diesel
engines, it features a high-pressure
(over 1,000 bar or 15,000 psi) fuel
rail feeding individual solenoid
valves, as opposed to low-pressure
fuel pump feeding unit injectors.
Third-generation common rail diesel
controls now feature piezoelectric
injectors for increased precision,
with fuel pressures up to 2,000 bar or
29,000 psi. In gasoline engines, it is
used in gasoline direct injection
engine technology.

a. Working:
 The fuel in an electronically controlled engine is stored at variable pressure
in a cylinder or ‘rail’ connected to the engine’s fuel injectors via individual
pipes, making it a ‘common rail’ to all the injectors.
 The pressure is controlled by a fuel pump but it is the fuel injectors,
working in parallel with the fuel pump, that controls the timing of the fuel
injection and the amount of fuel injected. In contrast, earlier mechanical
systems rely on the fuel pump for pressure, timing and quantity.
 A further advantage of the CRDI system is that it injects the fuel directly
into the combustion chamber. The indirect injection (IDI) system in older
engines injected fuel into a pre-combustion chamber, which fed the main
combustion chamber.

b. Advantages:
 CRDi diesel engines were developed out of necessity. A common problem
that plagued older diesel engines was black soot-like smoke and horrible
emissions. The CRDi diesel engine produces significantly less smoke and
tolerable emissions.
 Utilising a common rail for fuel delivery, CRDi engines are not gas
guzzlers anymore. They provide great mileage which is how they outrank
petrol engines in terms of fuel economy.
 Owing to a lot fewer moving parts and advancements in diesel engine
technology. CRDi engines are quieter.
 CRDi engines are powerful, very powerful. A CRDi diesel engine produces
up to 25% more torque compared to a petrol engine displacing the same
amount of fuel.

49
 I-VTEC Engine: -
I-VTEC stands for Intelligent
Variable Valve Timing and Lift
Electronic Control, a system
created by Honda to improve the
fuel consumption of Honda
vehicles. The VTEC system uses
two camshaft profiles and
hydraulically selects between the
two. This technology was invented
by Ikuo Kakitani, a Honda
engineer.

Honda i-VTEC permits the engine to effectively have multiple camshafts. The
difference with this technology is that the engine’s computer can activate
alternate lobes on the camshaft and change the cam timing as the engine moves
into different RPM ranges.

The incredible feature of this

technology is that the engine can
have low-speed and high-speed
camshafts in the same engine. The
main idea with Honda i-VTEC is to
have the maximum engine
performance at every RPM range.

 DTS-i & DTS-SI Engine: -

In a conventional single spark plug-equipped combustion chamber, the rate of
combustion is slow. The spark plug situated at one end of the combustion
chamber ignites the air-fuel mixture and the ensuing flame front spreads like a
slowly inflating balloon. There is an inevitable delay for this inflating balloon to
reach the furthest part of the combustion chamber. Thus, the combustion is slow
and inefficient.
a. DTS-i: -
The Digital Twin Spark – ignition,
equipped combustion chamber takes
care of the slow rate of combustion in a
simple but novel way. The cylinder
head is equipped with two spark plugs,
instead of the conventional single spark
plug.

50
By generating two sparks at either end of the combustion chamber,
(approximately 90 to the valve axis) the Air-Fuel mixture gets ignited such that
there are 2 flame fronts created and therefore a reduction in flame travel of the
order of 40% is achieved.
A fast rate of combustion is achieved leading to a fast rate of pressure rise. The
obvious outcome of this is more torque, better fuel efficiency, and lower
emissions.

b. DTS-SI: -
The Digital Twin Spark - ignition or
DTS- i is the mother technology for the
latest Digital Twin Spark – Swirl
induction or DTS-Si technology. Thanks
to DTS- I, a fast rate of combustion and
therefore the resulting fast rate of
pressure rise is when we increase the
RPM harnessed by optimally positioning
this pressure to deliver maximum
possible work and obtain more torque,
better fuel efficiency, and lower
emissions.

When burning lean Air-Fuel mixtures, the two plugs provide rapid combustion,
but at light loads, the opportunity exists to improve the combustion further.
Combustion efficiency in lean Air-Fuel mixture conditions can be further
improved by generating high turbulence in the combustion chamber.

Combustion chambers having low turbulence give rise to the propagation of a

flame front, which is akin to that of a gradually expanding balloon. This results
in a slower rate of combustion and a thus slower rate of pressure rise.

The result is lower efficiency. When high turbulence is generated and combustion
takes place, the surface of the ballooning flame front fragments itself, with
projection-like fingers, which increases its surface area, thereby improving
combustion further.

51
 GDI (Gasoline Direct Injection): -

Gasoline Direct Injection (GDI), also

known as Petrol Direct Injection or Direct
Petrol Injection or Spark Ignited Direct
Injection (SIDI) or Fuel Stratified Injection
(FSI), is a variant of fuel injection
employed in modern two-stroke and four-
stroke gasoline engines.
The gasoline is highly pressurized, and
injected via a common rail fuel line directly
into the combustion chamber of each
cylinder, as opposed to conventional
multipoint fuel injection that happens in the
intake tract, or cylinder port. In some
applications, gasoline direct injection
enables a stratified fuel charge (ultra-lean)
combustion for improved fuel efficiency,
and reduced emission levels at low load.

a. Advantages:
 8-22% higher fuel economy.
 More torque and horsepower allowing smaller engines.
 Can inject fuel anytime during the 4-stroke cycle of events.
 Cylinder scavenging is greatly enhanced.
 Compression ratios can be higher.
 Leaner fuel mixtures during cold engine operation.
 Adjustable fuel modes to target emission problems.
 Lower CO2 emission levels.
 Reduced engine pumping losses.
 Cylinder charge cooling.
 Much smaller droplets spray of fuel.
 Reduced cylinder wall temperatures (A/C theory- high-pressure liquid
changing to a low-pressure gas).
 Spark knock is much more controlled.

52
b. Working:

c. Disadvantages:

 Dramatic changes in the fuel delivery and control systems.

 Small injection time window (sometimes in micro-sec.).
 Lean burns make post-combustion NOX difficult to control.
 High levels of soot (carbon) formation due to lower intake temps & exhaust
inversion.
 Increased electrical power demands for injectors.
 Proper engine maintenance is very critical.
 Components can be more expensive.
 Newer technologies require technician training.
 Many components are “one-time” use. (Seals, HP line, etc.).
 Fuel rail and lines are made from stainless steel.
 Has many “special tools” needed for routine service.

53
 DG SETS AT ONGC HOSPITAL

DG set stands for Diesel Generator Set. Generator is a combination of electrical

energy and mechanical energy conversion. It comprises of alternator which is a
part of producing electrical energy and engine which is a part of producing
mechanical energy. At ONGC Hospital, we have 2 DG sets of 750KVA each in
which one is kept at running and other is kept as standby, in case of emergency
or increased load. It is used a backup power supply at ONGC Hospital. ONGC
Hospital is having life-saving machine which need immediate backup power in
case of state power supply cutoff. ONGC Hospital draws 11KVA power from
state supply, in power cutoff, the generator starts leading to resume the power
supply at critical area. ONGC Hospital has the central UPS system to store the
data.
Generator at ONGC Hospital works in 4-Stroke CI Engines. As the fuel is burnt,
the chemical energy is released, resulting to produce the power, which gives the
movement to the crankshaft. Thus, Mechanical energy is produced which moves
the alternator producing the electrical energy which is then distribute to different
substation at different locations. Whereas the Starting torque is given by Battery
of 24V which moves the crank leading to start the combustion and then switched
off. Turbo-Charger used to increase the
efficiency of the engine and Control
panels to convert the AC to DC.
Fuel tank has capacity of 900litres each
for 2 DG sets in that DG1 is filled with
660litres and DG2 is filled with
520litres of fuel for use on the day of
our visit. Return pipe is also there for
returning of excess diesel to the tank.
In Underground fuel tank, it has
15000litres storage capacity; when fuel
level is up-to 200-300 liter in DG1 and
DG2, it is refilled with the help of
motor.
The following key points to be taken into considerations in Generator Safety
Control:
 Oil Pressure Switch (to be maintained at certain pressure): Rotating part must
be lubricated to prevent wear and tear from friction. In case Oil Pressure
decrease due to any reasons, the system is instantly stopped.

54
 Oil Temperature Switch (maintained at 90℃-110℃): If the oil temperature
increases due to any reasons leading to heat up the engine resulting into the
decrease in the efficiency. Therefore, the temperature should be maintained
to get the higher efficiency.
 Water Temperature: It is used to cool down the engine. Coolant used in
generator is mixed with the water in the certain ratio depending upon the
manufacturer.
 Over-current: In the case of increased load, the amount of current exceeds the
actual value, which may lead to failure of the Engine. In that case, the engine
is stopped immediately.

In this generator, we aim to produce the maximum power by burning up 100％

fuel, which is practically not possible rather we can get closer to it by introducing
dry air and pure fuel. For the pure air, the air filters are used and for the fuel, the
fuel filters. For pure oil lubrication, oil filters are used. Periodically, the filters are
cleaned and changed as per wear and tear. And Coolant plays the important role
qualitatively and quantitatively.
Operational method used at ONGC Hospital:
 Manual Operation
 Remote Operation (From Office Panel)
 Auto-Operation (In case of interruption of the State power supply, Generator
get started within 3 minutes and backup power get dispersed in the
distribution panel. This operation is used in this covid times for instant health
service.)

In ONGC Hospital there are 4 substation panels present. Two panels are
Transformer incomer-1 and Transformer incomer-2 for the power supply coming
from the state. These panels distribute the supply to both the transformer for use
of hospital.
When DG works, Transformers are in the state of switch off mode as it charges
the different panel with the capacitor bank of 500KVR.
The Running DG is loaded with 400KVA, 50Hz frequency, 595KPa Oil Pressure,
17℃ Coolant Temperature worked for 224 hr.

55
 INTRODUCTION TO HVAC SYSTEMS
 History: -
The oldest form of HVAC is the Korean Ondol method. Dating back to the iron
age, it involved an outside furnace, underfloor pipes, and stone that would retain
heat well for long periods of time that releases slowly. During the Han Dynasty
around 206 B.C. in China, early cooling systems were invented. The windmill fan
was first created for the military and was later used for thresh grain.
Another design for ancient homes was the self-raining pavilion. It worked only for
homes built next to a river, but it combined a windmill and water wheel pump water
to the roof of a building where it then dripped down to form rain curtains that
provided a cooling effect.
In the 1600s, Louis Savot invented the circulating fireplace in France. It allowed
cold room air to enter at the bottom of the fireplace, be warmed and enter the room
through openings above the mantle. In England, a duct from the outside was added
to provide air for combustion.
In the 1840s, Dr. John Gorrie of Florida believed that hot weather contributed to
illness and cooling was essential to prevent the spread of malaria and other diseases.
Cooling methods at that time were difficult and expensive, requiring ice from
frozen lakes so he experimented with artificial cooling, eventually designing a
compressor powered by steam or horses that could create ice. He received a patent
for the same in 1851.

 Modern HVAC Systems

The 20th century brought with it a variety of breakthroughs and innovations. In
1902, Willis Carrier, a 25-year old engineer in New York, invented modern air
conditioning that moved air through water cooled coils. In 1922, he created the
centrifugal chiller.
In 1918, the Electrol was introduced as the first oil burner with an electric ignition,
Honeywell designed the first controls exclusively for oil burners in 1924. In the
1930s, General Electric created a “self-contained room cooler” which led to the
first modern window air conditioning unit.

56
 Types of HVAC Systems
The major classification of HVAC systems is central system and decentralized or
local system. Types of a system depend on addressing the primary equipment
location to be centralized as conditioning entire building as a whole unit or
decentralized as separately conditioning a specific zone as part of a building.
Therefore, the air and water distribution system should be designed based on
system classification and the location of primary equipment.
The major classification of HVAC systems is central system and decentralized or
local system. Types of a system depend on addressing the primary equipment
location to be centralized as conditioning entire building as a whole unit or
decentralized as separately conditioning a specific zone as part of a building.
Therefore, the air and water distribution system should be designed based on
system classification and the location of primary equipment.
a) Central HVAC Systems: -
A central HVAC system may serve one or more thermal zones, and its major
equipment is located outside of the served zone(s) in a suitable central location
whether inside, on top, or adjacent to the building. Central systems must
condition zones with their equivalent thermal load. Central HVAC systems will
have as several control points such as thermostats for each zone.
The thermal energy transfer medium can be air or water or both, which
represent as all-air systems, air-water systems, all-water systems. Also, central
systems include water-source heat pumps and heating and cooling panels. All
of these subsystems are discussed below. Central HVAC system has combined
devices in an air handling unit, as shown in Figure, which contains supply and
return air fans, humidifier, reheat coil, cooling coil, preheat coil, mixing box,
filter, and outdoor air.

Figure: Line diagram of sample HVAC system

57
 b) Local HVAC Systems: -
Some buildings can have multiple zones or have a large, single zone, which
needs central HVAC systems to serve and provide the thermal needs. However,
other building may have a single zone which needs equipment located inside
the zone itself, such as small houses and residential apartments. This type of
system is considered as local HVAC systems since each equipment serving its
zone without crossing boundaries to other adjacent zones (e.g., using an air
conditioner to cool down a bedroom, or using an electrical heater for the living
room). Therefore, a single zone requires only one-point control point connected
to a thermostat to activate the local HVAC system. Some buildings have
multiple local HVAC systems as proper equipment serving specific single
zones and controlled by the one-point control of the desired zone. However,
these local systems are not connected and integrated to central systems, but still
part of a large full-building HVAC systems.

Chart: Different local HVAC systems

 Purpose: -
The main purpose of commercial HVAC (heating, ventilating, and air
conditioning) is to achieve the environmental requirements of the comfort of
occupants and a process, simultaneously providing conditioned air to environment
of application. "Conditioned" air means that air is clean and odor-free, and the
temperature, humidity, and movement of the air are within certain comfort ranges.
Well-designed efficient systems do this with minimal non-renewable energy and
air, and water pollutant emissions.
58
 Many factors affect the way people respond to their work environment. Air quality
is one of these factors. The American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air-
Conditioning Engineers (ASHRAE) has established standards which outline air
quality for indoor comfort conditions. Generally, these indoor comfort conditions,
sometimes called the "comfort zone," are between 20⁰C to 24⁰C for winter and 23⁰C
to 27⁰ C during the summer. Both these temperature ranges are for room air at
approximately 50% relative humidity and moving at velocity of 9 meter per minute
or slower. Factor other than temperature like humidity, odor and composition of
specific substance also effect the performance of HVAC.
The objective of successful HVAC is to control the temperature of air inside the
designated “Air Conditioned” space along with control of moisture, filtration of air
and containment of air borne particles, supply of outside fresh air for control of
oxygen and carbon dioxide levels in the air-conditioned space, and finally control
of the movement of air or draught. Air conditioning has changed over the years
from just cooling of a space to the effective control of all the above-mentioned
parameters.
The requirements and objective of HVAC systems had suffered constant evolution
from the day of evolution to present. The outbreak of SARS-CoV-2 has associated
disinfection as another specification to modern HVAC systems. This could be
achieved by application of UV Lamp into the system.
Even the best HVAC equipment and systems cannot compensate for a faulty rig
design. Problems of this type, causes inherently high cooling and heating needs and
consume unnecessary resources and should be corrected if possible. The most
important factors in these designs are careful control of solar gain, while taking
advantage of passive heating, day lighting, natural ventilation and cooling. The
critical factors in mechanical systems' energy consumption - and capital cost - are
reducing the cooling and heating loads they must handle.

 Terminology: -

a) Absorption chiller
Absorption chillers differ from mechanical vapor compression chillers in the fact
that they utilize a heat source (thermal or/and chemical process) to produce the
refrigeration effect necessary to provide chilled water. There is no mechanical
compression of the refrigerant taking place within the machine as it occurs within
more traditional vapor compression type chillers.

59
Following are the type of Absorption Chiller:
1. Water Cooled
2. Air Cooled

b) Air change rate Ventilation

It indicates how many times, during a time interval, the air volume from a space
is replaced with outdoor air. It is defined as ratio of air flow rate by room volume.
Air change rate ventilation = Air flow rate ⁄ Room volume.

c) Air cleaning system

A device or combination of devices applied to reduce the concentration of
airborne contaminants, such as microorganisms, dusts, fumes, irrespirable
particles, other particulate matter, gases, and/or vapors in air.

d) Air handling unit (AHU)

Assembly consisting of sections containing a fan or fans and other necessary
equipment to perform one or more of the following functions: air circulation,
filtration, heating, cooling, heat recovery, humidifying, dehumidifying and
mixing of air, and necessary controls functions.

e) Indoor air quality (IAQ)

IAQ deals with the health and comfort of the air inside buildings and characterize
the indoor climate of a building, including the gaseous composition, temperature,
relative humidity, and airborne contaminant levels. IAQ is the expression for both
the concentration of impurities in the air and an expression of how people signify
their perception of the air (perceived air quality) in the form of e.g. smell and
irritation (sensory measurements).

60
 f) Air treatment
Process comprising of sequential action to modify the state of the air with respect
to various properties such as temperature, moisture content, dust content, bacterial
count, gas and vapor contents.

g) Barrier, radiant
A thin, reflective foil sheet that exhibits low radiant energy transmission and
under certain conditions can block radiant heat transfer; installed in attics to
reduce heat flow through a roof assembly into the living space. This is used to
improve upon efficiency by reducing the losses.

h) Barrier, vapor
A moisture-impervious layer applied to the surfaces enclosing a humid space to
prevent moisture travel to a point where it may condense due to lower
temperature.

i) Boundary conditions
Values of physical parameters (e.g. temperature, heat flux, mass flux, velocity,
etc.) that are specified at the boundaries of a solution domain and are required for
solving the discretized equations in a CFD (computational fluid dynamics)
solution or any other physical problem.

j) Building automation and control (BAC)

Products, software, and engineering services for automatic controls, monitoring
and optimization, human intervention, and management to achieve energy-
efficient, economical, and safe operation of building services equipment.

k) Chilled beam
A cooled element or cooling coil situated in, above or under a ceiling which cools
convectively using natural or induced air flows. The cooling medium is usually
water.

61
 l) Chimney effect
The tendency of heated air or gas to rise in a duct or other vertical passage, such
as in a chimney, small enclosure, or building staircase, due to its lower density
compared to the surrounding air or gas.

m) Cogeneration
Simultaneous production of two or more forms of useable energy from a single
fuel source, e.g., heat energy and electrical or mechanical power, in the same
facility. Because a typical cogeneration facility uses thermal energy which is
generally wasted in a traditional power plant, the process can be 50 to 70 percent
more efficient. Fuels used in cogeneration facilities may take the form of natural
gas, biomass, oil or coal. Cogeneration systems are designed to simultaneously
produce electric power and thermal heat for industrial processes or the heating
and cooling of buildings. Cogeneration plants can be any size, from 10 kilowatts
to 1,000 megawatts or more.

n) Commissioning
The testing of HVAC systems prior to building occupancy to check whether the
systems meet the operational needs of the building within the capabilities of the
system design. Start-up of a building that includes testing and adjusting HVAC,
electrical, plumbing, and other systems to assure proper functioning and
adherence to design criteria. Commissioning also includes the instruction of
building representatives in the use of the building systems.

 Operating Principles: -
HVAC systems works on the principles of thermodynamics, fluid mechanics and
heat transfer. All three principles utilized at different steps of the whole process
in the HVAC system. The Thermodynamics concept comes in effect to maintain
the indoor air quality of the premises. The fluid flow mechanics comes in effect to
maintain the temperature by passing the coolants in the coils of the air conditioning
system. The third portion of the principle is the heat transfer segment of the main
principle, where desired heat supply to the air supplied in the room.

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Air conditioning theory

There are two laws that are significant to understand the basic refrigeration cycle
and air conditioning.
1. First Law of Thermodynamics explains that energy cannot be created nor
destroyed, but can be changed from one form to another.
2. Second Law of Thermodynamics can help us better understand how the
basic refrigeration cycle works. Once of these laws state that heat always flows
from a material at a high temperature to a material at a low temperature.
As mentioned earlier, air conditioning (the refrigeration cycle) is a process that
simply removes heat from an area that is not wanted and transfers that heat to an
area that makes no difference. The air conditioner itself does not create heat, it
just transfers heat. For heat to transfer, there has to be a temperature and pressure
difference. In the refrigeration process there are two sections which produce a
pressure difference: a high-pressure, high temperature section (condenser) and a
low-pressure, low temperature section (evaporator).

The refrigeration system removes heat from an area that is low-pressure, low
temperature (evaporator) into an area of high-pressure, high temperature
(condenser). For example, if cold refrigerant (5° C) flows through the evaporator
and the air surrounding evaporator is 25° C, the cold 5° C refrigerant will absorb
the heat from the 25° C space. By absorbing the heat from the warm space, it also
cools the space. It then transfers that heats to condenser (high side) through
compressor.
A hot refrigerant from the compressor flows to a cooler location the condenser
medium (air surround condenser) for example, the refrigerant will give up the
vapor heat that it absorbs from the indoor evaporator and becomes cool again and
turns back to liquid. This is what the second thermodynamics’ law stated.
The main objective of the HVAC system is to supply fresh and filtered air in the
production area where proper air control is the desired condition. It controls the
temperature, air quality and moisture of the subjected room.

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 Figure: Diagram of Air-Conditioning

Heat transfer in the basic refrigeration cycle

There are three modes of heat transfer: - conduction, convection, and radiation
or any combination of the three methods. Heat transfer is the movement of heat
from solid, liquid or gas materials to other solid, liquid and gas materials.
According to the second law of thermodynamics, heat always flows from a
material at a high temperature to a material at a low temperature. For heat to
transfer, there has to be a temperature difference between the two materials. Heat
transfer by conduction is when as heat transfer takes place if there is a temperature
gradient in a solid or stationary fluid medium. That is molecule to molecule heat
transfer.
Radiation is the transfer of heat in an invisible ray, for example, sun ray. We
cannot see it, but we can feel the sun ray on our skin. Convection is the transfer
of heat from one place to a different location by circulating it with movement of
fluid (force movement) or natural movement.
Air conditioner refrigerant is a chemical substance that air conditioner units use;
these refrigerants absorb heat from low-pressure, low temperature evaporator and
condensing at a higher pressure, high temperature condenser. These refrigerants

64
could be R-22, R-410a or R-134a. It depends on what kind of refrigerant the air
conditioner units are designed for.

Figure: Brayton Cycle

Refrigerant can change state from vapor (by absorbing heat) to liquid (by
condensing that heat). In residential, the Freon is R-22 and R410a.

Basic refrigeration cycle principles:

1) As refrigerant in the latent state or as vapor refrigerant in the process of
changed state to liquid, this is the phase where it absorbs or rejects large
quantities of heat. The quantities of heat absorbed or rejected can be
managed by controlling the pressure and temperature of the refrigerant.
2) The boiling point of closed-system liquid can be controlled by changing the
vapor pressure above it.
3) Gauge pressure is used to determine the pressure inside the closed
refrigeration cycle system. It’s expressed in pounds per square inch gauge
(psig).
4) Heat flows from a material at a higher temperature to a material at low
temperature.
5) Heat energy is not created but converted and transferred.

65
Two forms of heat: -
Sensible Heat when change in temperature can be measured by a thermometer or
when we put our hand on an object we’ll feel heat. That is sensible heat.
Latent Heat absorbed or rejected when a refrigerant is changing state from liquid
to gas, or vice versa; however, the temperature remains the same. Heat is known
to add to refrigerant but does not register in a thermometer, it just changed the
refrigerant state (gas to liquid, or vice versa).
Required Properties of Ideal Refrigerant: -
1) The refrigerant should have low boiling point and low freezing point.
2) It must have low specific heat and high latent heat. Because high specific
heat decreases the refrigerating effect per kg of refrigerant and high latent
heat at low temperature increases the refrigerating effect per kg of
refrigerant.
3) The pressures required to be maintained in the evaporator and condenser
should be low enough to reduce the material cost and must be positive to
avoid leakage of air into the system.
4) It must have high critical pressure and temperature to avoid large power
requirements.
5) It should have low specific volume to reduce the size of the compressor.
6) It must have high thermal conductivity to reduce the area of heat transfer
in evaporator and condenser.
7) It should be non-flammable, non-explosive, non-toxic and non-corrosive.
8) It should not have any bad effects on the stored material or food, when
any leak develops in the system.
9) It must have high miscibility with lubricating oil and it should not have
reacting properly with lubricating oil in the temperature range of the system.
10) It should give high COP in the working temperature range. This is
necessary to reduce the running cost of the system.
11) It must be readily available and it must be cheap also.
Important Refrigerants: Properties at −15° C
(1) Ammonia (NH3) (R-717)
Latent heat = 1312.75 kJ/kg Specific volume = 0.509 m3 /kg

66
 (2) Dichloro–Difluoro methane (or Freon–12) (R-12) [C Cl2 F2]
Latent heat = 162 kJ/Kg Specific volume = 0.093 m3 /kg
(3) Difluoro monochloro methane (or Freon-22) (R-22) [C H Cl F2]
Latent heat = 131 kJ/Kg Specific Volume = 0.15 m3 /kg.
(4) 1,1,1,2-Tetrafluoroethane (R-134a) [C F3 C H2 F ]
Latent heat = 216.97 kJ/Kg Specific volume = 0.1247 m3 /kg
 Refrigeration Cycle: -
The refrigeration cycle, also called a heat pump cycle, is a means of routing heat
away from the area you want to cool. This is accomplished by manipulating the
pressure of the working refrigerant (air, water, synthetic refrigerants, etc.) through
a cycle of compression and expansion.
The four fundamental elements of a basic cycle are as follows:
● The compressor
● The condenser
● The expansion device
● The evaporator

Figure: Pressures at different point of Refrigeration Cycle

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In the refrigeration cycle, heat is transported from a colder location to a hotter
area. As heat would naturally flow in the opposite direction, work is required to
achieve this. A refrigerator is an example of such a system, as it transports the
heat out of the interior and into its environment (i.e., the room). The refrigerant is
used as the medium which absorbs and removes heat from the space to be cooled
and subsequently rejects that heat elsewhere.
Circulating refrigerant vapor enters the compressor and is compressed to a higher
pressure, resulting in a higher temperature as well. The hot, compressed
refrigerant vapor is now at a temperature and pressure at which it can be
condensed and is routed through a condenser. Here it is cooled by air flowing
across the condenser coils and condensed into a liquid. Thus, the circulating
refrigerant moves heat from the system and the heat is carried away by the air.
The condensed and pressurized liquid refrigerant is next routed through an
expansion valve where it undergoes an abrupt reduction in pressure. That pressure
reduction results in flash evaporation of a part of the liquid refrigerant, lowering
its temperature. The cold refrigerant is then routed through the evaporator. A fan
blows the warm air (which is to be cooled) across the evaporator, causing the
liquid part of the cold refrigerant mixture to evaporate as well, further lowering
the temperature. The warm air is therefore cooled.
To complete the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant vapor is routed back into the
compressor.
By placing the condenser inside a compartment, and the evaporator in the ambient
environment (such as outside), or by merely running an air conditioner's
refrigerant in the opposite direction, the overall effect is the opposite, and the
compartment is heated instead of cooled.

The engineering of physical and

thermodynamic properties of gas–
vapor mixtures is called
psychometrics.
In the typical split-air
conditioning system, the four
basic components are separated
into two sections indoor and
outdoor. Let’s start the basic
refrigeration cycle diagram
discussion on evaporator section first. As we remember, evaporator and condenser
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 act as a heat exchanges in the air conditioning system. There are two pressure
lines and two heat exchangers. The low-pressure line is an evaporator (it absorbs
heat) and the high pressure line is the condenser (it rejects heat).

Indoor Units Outdoor Units

air conditioner expansion valve air conditioner condenser

air conditioner evaporator air conditioning compressor

The first heat exchange that occurs in this basic refrigeration cycle is the
evaporator. The air conditioner evaporator is located between points 6 and 1, in the
basic refrigeration cycle diagram. The evaporator is a heat exchange that is
responsible for absorbing heat from whatever place (medium) that needs to be
cooled; for our discussion it’s indoor.
Since the evaporator is at a low temperature than the air surrounding it, it will
absorb the surrounding heat until the refrigerant liquid inside the evaporator coils
starts boiling as result of absorbing that heat. As the evaporator refrigerant has
boiled completely to vapor it’s now saturated vapor at point 7. Some compressors
cannot pump liquid; if it does pump liquid, it will damage it. This is why we need
the entire liquid refrigerant to boil at point 7.
After, the entire liquid refrigerant turns to vapor and passes point 7. Superheat
occurs. Superheat is between point 7 and 1. Superheat is life insurance for the
compressor. It makes sure the compressor does not pull in liquid refrigerant from
the evaporator.
The air conditioner compressors located between points 1 and 2 has two important
lines: a suction line (low side pressure and back pressure) and discharge line (high
side pressure, head pressure). The suction line is the line that pulls the low-pressure
and temperature from the evaporator and the discharge line is the line that
compresses and pushes that superheat vapor to the condenser. It creates a pressure
difference in the air conditioning system by pulling in low pressure, low
temperature vapor from the evaporator suction line and increasing it to high
pressure, high temperature superheat. This pressure difference what makes the
refrigerate flow in a refrigeration cycle.

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 The air conditioner condenser located between points 2 and 5 is a heat exchange;
it rejects both sensible (measurable) and latent (hidden) heat absorbed by the indoor
evaporator plus heat of compression from the compressor. There are three
important states that take place in the condenser heat rejection.
The first state points 2 and 3 it de-superheat or simply rejects hot superheat vapor
(it removes sensible heat). At points 3 and 4 this the state where it rejects so many
saturated vapors heat, it starts changing phase from vapor to liquid; as the
refrigerant reaches point 4 it is 100 percent saturated liquid refrigerant. From points
4 and 5 it removes sensible heat from the saturated liquid refrigerant. This is where
we could use a thermometer and tell how much heat it has removed; as more heat
is removed it’s now in the sub cooled region.
The expansion device (metering Device) is normally installed in the liquid line
between condenser and evaporator (points 5 and 7). We cannot see it, since the
device is within a compartment. In a regular split central air conditioners system,
it’s located indoors with or near the evaporator coils.
The general principle behind any metering device is it acts as a restriction. It
reduces high-pressure, high temperature refrigerant from the condenser liquid line
to low-pressure, low temperature refrigerant for the evaporator.

 Applications: -

Figure: Applications of HVAC

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A. Hospitals
Hospitals require efficient heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC)
systems to maintain good indoor air quality (IAQ). Hospital ventilation must be
effective for controlling airborne transmission and preventing outbreaks of
infectious diseases. The medical equipment in hospitals and healthcare facilities
are sensitive to temperature levels and require perfect air control to function
accurately.

Figure: Advanced Hospital

B. Laboratories
Laboratory ventilation, a part of the HVAC system, is the supply of fresh/clean
air to displace contaminated air and dilute it to safe levels. Air is continuously
exchanged between buildings and their surroundings. The rate at which air is
exchanged is an important property for the purposes of ventilation design and heat
loss calculations and is expressed in ‘air changes per hour’ (ach). Different
laboratory areas and rooms in the building will need a different number of air
changes. Rooms containing fume cupboards and higher containment need a
greater number of air changes than a general laboratory.

Figure: Sample Laboratory

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C. Commercial buildings
HVAC systems are designed to maintain stable temperatures, protect indoor air
quality, and assure appropriate humidity levels. Although air conditioning is
sometimes provided via a refrigerant-based system, for commercial applications,
evaporative cooling is often the preferred option. Evaporative cooling uses
chillers, refrigeration units specifically designed to remove heat from water. This
chilled water is then circulated throughout the system and run through air-handlers
located near the rooms being cooled. The water may be chilled using air-cooled
chillers located outside the building or water-cooled chillers located inside.
Generally speaking, chillers are quieter, more energy efficient and longer lasting
than refrigerant-based systems.

Figure: HVAC system at commercial building

D. Nuclear facilities
HVAC plays an essential role in ensuring the safety and smooth operation of
nuclear power plants. As in most commercial applications, HVAC in a nuclear
power plant is used to maintain ambient conditions within acceptable limits of
temperature and humidity, and control contamination. In addition, these systems
help protect staff and equipment from specific risks inside the buildings, such as
explosions or fire. Perhaps most importantly, these systems monitor the release of
air from the controlled areas and contain any radioactivity that might be released
in the event of a malfunction, failure, or accident.

72
 Figure: Nuclear Facility

 Load Calculations: -
 The load calculation is how HVAC professionals determine the correct size
for your home’s HVAC equipment, whether you’re building a new home or
installing new HVAC equipment. Load calculation takes into account many
factors and comes up with numbers that represent your home’s total heating
and cooling requirements.
 Load calculation used to depend only on square footage, but the formula has
become more complicated and accurate in recent years.
 HVAC contractors use factors such as square footage, home sealing,
insulation and household activity to complete a load calculation. Today’s
calculations can be completed efficiently with computer programs although
some contractors may prefer entering information on a worksheet and
completing calculations manually. Early days in the industry involved
simple determinations based primarily on square footage. However, more
advanced insulating options, multi-pane windows, efficient home sealing
and other structural factors make it possible for two homes of similar size to
have dramatically different heating and cooling needs.
 Cooling load is considered to be the amount of cooling necessary to maintain
a structure at 26 C during the summer months. Heating load is considered to

73
 be the amount of heating needed to maintain a structure at 18 C degrees
during the winter.
The amounts determined by use of formulas or programs allow a contractor to
select comfort control equipment that will work optimally in your residence.
Sizing of a system is the capacity of a system to heat or cool a structure.
Heat load calculation method
A building or room gains heat from many sources. Inside occupants, computers,
copiers, machinery, and lighting all produce heat. Warm air from outside enters
through open doors and windows, or as ‘leakage’ though the structure. However,
the biggest source of heat is solar radiation from the sun, beating down on the roof
and walls, and pouring through the windows, heating internal surfaces. The sum of
all these heat sources is known as the heat gain (or heat load) of the building, and
is expressed either in BTU (British Thermal Units) or Kw (Kilowatts).
For an air conditioner to cool a room or building its output must be greater than the
heat gain. It is important before purchasing an air conditioner that a heat load
calculation is performed to ensure it is big enough for the intended application.
There are several different methods of calculating the heat load for a given area:
Quick calculation for offices
For offices with average insulation and lighting, 2/3 occupants and 3/4 personal
computers and a photocopier, the following calculations will suffice:
Heat load (BTU) = Length (ft.) x Width (ft.) x Height (ft.) x 4
Heat load (BTU) = Length (m) x Width (m) x Height (m) x 141
For every additional occupant add 500 BTU. If there are any additional significant
sources of heat, for instance floor to ceiling south facing windows, or equipment
that produces lots of heat, the above method will underestimate the heat load. In
which case the following method should be used instead.
A more accurate heat load calculation for any type of room or building
The heat gain of a room or building depends on:
a) The size of the area being cooled
b) The size and position of windows, and whether they have shading
c) The number of occupants
d) Heat generated by equipment and machinery
e) Heat generated by lighting

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By calculating the heat gain from each individual item and adding them together,
an accurate heat load figure can be determined.
Step One: -
Calculate the area in square feet of the space to be cooled, and multiply by 31.25
Area BTU = length (ft.) x width (ft.) x 31.25

Step Two: -
Calculate the heat gain through the windows. If the windows don’t have shading
multiply the result by 1.4
North window BTU = Area of North facing windows (m. sq.) x 164
If no shading,
North window BTU = North window BTU x 1.4
South window BTU = Area of South facing windows (m. sq.) x 868
If no shading,
South window BTU = South window BTU x 1.4
Add the results together.
Total window BTU = North window + South window

Step Three: -
Calculate the heat generated by occupants, allow 600 BTU per person.
Occupant BTU = number of people x 600

Step Four: -
Calculate the heat generated by each item of machinery - copiers, computers, ovens
etc. Find the power in watts for each item, add them together and multiply by 3.4
Equipment BTU = total equipment watts x 3.4

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 Step Five: -
Calculate the heat generated by lighting. Find the total wattage for all lighting and
multiply by 4.25

Lighting BTU = total lighting watts x 4.25

Step Six: -
Add the above together to find the total heat load.

Total heat load BTU = Area BTU + Total Window BTU + Occupant BTU +
Equipment BTU + Lighting BTU

Step Seven: -
Divide the heat load by the cooling capacity of the air conditioning unit in BTU, to
determine how many air conditioners are needed.

Number of a/c units required = Total heat load BTU / Cooling capacity
BTU

 Maintenance: -

A regular maintenance plan keeps your HVAC system running smoothly, lowers
your utility bills, and offers greater protection for your family.
If an HVAC system has a problem, it not only may result in costly repairs, but it
could also endanger your family. In the event of a short circuit, there’s always the
possibility of a fire. While you want to ensure you have a quality HVAC technician
looking over your system each summer and winter, there are some things you can
do yourself to help keep your HVAC equipment operating efficiently and running
smoothly throughout the year.

76
1. Change your filters: You should change your filters every 30 to 90 days. A
clean filter greatly enhances the efficiency of your HVAC unit. Dirty filters
mean your equipment has to work much harder to keep your home at the
temperature you desire.

2. Clear Debris Around Outside Units: Remove the build-up of leaves and
overgrown vegetation so they do not interfere with the airflow of your
outdoor unit. You can trim any bushes or trees also, so your unit has plenty
of clearance, about 2 feet, on all sides. Keep a close eye if you have bushes
or trees that give off excessive pollen, such as Cottonwood trees in particular.
They are notorious for clogging up condensing units.

3. Check Refrigerant Lines Monthly: Refrigerant lines that come from your
HVAC unit into your home are what ensure you have the heating or the
cooling you need. If those lines get worn, develop leaks or become detached,
you won’t get the comfortable temperatures you and your family want.

4. Clean your condensing unit: Most air conditioners have an outdoor

condensing unit/heat pump sitting outside with a fan on top to disperse heat
in the summer. The metal fins on the condensing unit frequently get clogged
up with dirt, pollen, and grime. Once each season, spray the outside of the
unit with a water hose to clean it.

5. Check Your Evaporator Coil’s Drain Pipe and Drain pan: Check your
HVAC system’s drainpipe and clear any blockages of the algae/mold that
sometimes builds up there. A wet-dry vacuum can suction out any plugged-
up areas, and bleach can help clean it too. Often customers learn of it when
water comes pouring through their ceiling unless a protective float switch or
“ceiling saver” is installed, which switches off the air conditioning to prevent
damaging leaks.

6. Check your Home’s Carbon Monoxide Detector: It’s a good idea to

replace the batteries in your carbon monoxide detector at the same time you
replace the batteries in your home’s smoke alarm. Often your carbon

77
 monoxide detector and your fire alarm are the same unit, so you only need
to replace one set of batteries every six months.

7. Check the thermostat batteries: The thermostat batteries can last up to 2

years depending on usage and device model. If the battery is low, you need
to change it now. You don’t want it to stop working in the middle of
unfavorable temperatures.

8. Make sure Unit is leveled: Over time, the concrete slab that your outdoor
unit is on can shift. If your outdoor compressor is not level, this can disrupt
refrigerant and oil flow through the system. This could lead to some costly
repairs if not leveled out at some point. If the unit is not level, you can
possibly correct this by using a few rot-resistant shims. If this doesn’t work,
it’ll be best to call your HVAC technician.

9. Inspection of fan blades: The motor and blades on the fan should be
checked to make sure they are not damaged.

10. Blower maintenance (AC system): Adjusting the blower components can
help maintain proper airflow. The blower assembly should be cleaned during
routine maintenance.

11. Examine heating elements (AC system): For safe operation, gas or oil
connections should be clean and unblemished, and there should be no leaks.

 New Technologies: -
While the initial development in HVAC technology focused on mechanical
advancements and increased efficiency, the current focus has also majorly grown
towards sustainability, comfort, and energy-saving. This is extremely important
considering the current impact on our climate and the rise in demand for efficient
heating and cooling systems.
Engineers and scientists are looking for new and different ways to enhance the
HVAC landscape. Many answers lie in improved technologies, renewable energy
sources, or even a complete reimagining of how an HVAC system should work.
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Latest advancements in technology that are taking the present-day HVAC system
towards a brighter future:

1. Smart HVAC: Smart ACs, intelligent controllers, and programmable

thermostats offer numerous benefits. You can achieve energy savings along
with comfort and convenience by setting triggers to activate your HVAC unit
exactly when you need it. This ensures that the unit would not be running
unnecessarily throughout the day and thus saving energy. With intelligent
technology, completely automated homes are also becoming a reality. Now,
your HVAC unit can be connected with other smart appliances in your home
and behave automatically based on climate conditions, preferences, and
settings.

2. Geothermal HVAC: Geothermal heating and cooling systems are an

excellent option to start reducing your carbon footprint. Their primary
emphasis lies on naturally cooling a house using heat pumps, water, and an
underground piping system. They exchange heat with the ground, and no
refrigerant is used, making them highly environmentally friendly. During
winter, the heat from the ground is absorbed and transferred into a building,
while in summer, the heat is transferred to the ground after being absorbed
from the building. Geothermal systems are expensive to install, but they
deliver double to four times the efficiency of other systems.

3. Ductless HVAC: Ductless systems are quickly becoming the system of

choice as they are super-efficient and their installation does not involve
extensive ducts. This makes them easy to install and cost-effective. Another
benefit of ductless systems is their zoning capability. In the case of a ductless
system, you do not need to heat or cool an entire home, but you can simply
heat or cool a particular zone. These systems are very efficient, with
excellent seasonal efficiency ratings. Ductless HVAC systems can be
installed from moderate temperature zones to harsh temperature zones. The
already efficient ductless system can be made more efficient by the use of
intelligent AC controls. These smart AC controls are brand and type
independent, and you can control your ductless system from anywhere.
Moreover, users can benefit from intelligent, innovative AC features such as
geofencing, scheduling, comfy mode, and more.

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4. Solar HVAC: Thermally driven air conditioning is a new HVAC technology
picking up on the need for sustainable systems. It provides an energy-
efficient cooling method and can be used as an alternative to traditional air
conditioners. Instead of electricity, this system utilizes solar energy for
cooling, and if unavailable, then natural gas kicks in. This eliminates
electricity costs. While this HVAC technology is not extremely widespread,
it is an excellent glimpse into an eco-friendly future. Thermally driven air
conditioning systems remove heat with evaporation at low pressure. They
are highly effective and efficient; however, a high temperature (around
350F) is required to generate electricity from the solar panels.

Figure: Solar HVAC

5. Dual Fuel Heat Pump: This is an excellent system for homes in areas where
the electricity rates are not too high, and during winter, the temperature does
not fall below freezing point. This advanced HVAC technology utilizes a gas
furnace and a heat pump to provide efficient, cost-effective heating and
cooling. If the outdoor temperature is above 35 degrees, the heat pump
utilizes electricity to pull in heat from the outside air. This is extremely cheap
compared to firing up the furnace. Although, once temperatures are below
35, gas is used to create heat for higher efficiency. When the weather is cool,
such as in spring, the dual fuel heat pump comes in handy to distribute air.
Even during summer, the heat pump circulates the refrigerant through the
furnace’s air conditioning coil to blow cool air. This system has a high
upfront cost, but this can be recovered through energy savings over the next
few years.

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6. Zoned HVAC: An HVAC zoning system divides a house into different
areas, each of which can be individually controlled by a separate thermostat.
Different temperature settings may be required in different parts of a home,
and by utilizing zoning, you can achieve the best temperature for each area.
This is especially important to decrease usage in empty rooms. Zones can be
applied to central air conditioning systems, VRF systems, or ductless
systems. Zones can easily be installed in existing systems also by utilizing a
zone control panel.

Figure: Zoned HVAC

7. DeVAP HVAC:
DeVAP stands for “Desiccant Enhanced Evaporative.” A desiccant is a
substance that absorbs water from its surroundings. DeVAP HVAC systems
cool the air by employing an evaporative cooling system. Water is run into
a honeycomb media, like absorbing it into a sponge. A fan then blows water
through the honeycomb media, causing the water to evaporate. As the water
evaporates, the air becomes cooled and is released into your system. DeVAP
systems then use a desiccant to absorb the humidity from the air. This
provides you with the same kind of cool, dry air the current air conditioners
offer. DeVAP systems use less energy to operate and use no harmful
refrigerant.

Figure: De-Vap HVAC

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 Figure: Air-Conditioners

From manual buttons, dialers, remote controls to controlling your HVAC system
via voice commands, technology has come a long way. HVAC is bound to embrace
new technologies. The smart home trend is here to stay. AI in the form of machine
learning is going to thrive. Fully automated, super-efficient, self-learning, and
sustainable HVAC systems are the future.

Figure: Under-ground coil system

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 SPECIFICATIONS OF ONGC HVAC

HVAC system has three cycles: -

1. REFRIGERATION CYCLE
2. CHILLING WATER CYCLE
3. CONDENSED WATER CYCLE

Figure: HVAC System

REFRIGERATION CYCLE: -

 Compressor- Screw Compressor of 160 TR (3 units)

83
 Figure: Compressor

 Condenser- There are 3 Units

Figure: Condenser

 Expansion Valve- Thermostatic Expansion Valve

 Evaporator- Shell and Tube type

84
CHILLING WATER CYCLE: -

Figure: ONGC Chiller

 Chilled water Pump- Centrifugal Pump-3

Figure: CHILL WATER LINE

85
  Air Handling Unit- Regulate room temperature
 Chiller Flow Switch- To control flow of chilled water
 Fan/Blower- To flow air through tubes of chilled water
 Screw Compressor- Coolant used HCF R134A

CONDENSER WATER CYCLE: -

Figure: CONDENSER WATER LINE WITH PUMPS

 Cooling Tower- 3 Units

 Condenser Water Pump- Centrifugal Pump-4
 Blower- To flow air in cooling tower
 Y-Strainer- To remove dust particles from water
 Scroll Compressor- Coolant used is HCF R407 gas
 Condenser Flow Switch- To control flow of Condensed Water

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Types of Central AC System
 DX (Direct expansion system) system: -
The DX Air Conditioner system uses a refrigerant vapor expansion and
compression cycle to cool air coming in through a supply plenum and returns
it to the area that needs cooling through the return. The unit effectively
circulates refrigerant through a series of condensers and evaporators, which
warm air moves through and is cooled down before being pushed through the
return.
This has an advantage of having the entire cooling system self-contained in
one unit. This allows for the installation on top of or alongside a building
without too large of a footprint, and are generally less expensive to install.
 Air Cooled Chiller system: -
Chiller units also use a vapor expansion/compression cycle for liquid
refrigerant, much like the DX units. The refrigerant is continuously
transformed from a liquid, to a vapor, and back again. This process cools down
the refrigerant which is passed through an evaporator. Warm water coming
through a 2-5-inch radius supply hose is passed over the evaporator and cooled
off to the desired temperature. Typically, the cooled water is used for existing
air handler systems.

Figure: ONGC Hospital’s Chilling System Model

Oil separator: -
The function of an oil separator is to separate oil from the hot gas in the
discharge line and return it to the compressor crankcase or to the oil reservoir in
systems with multiple compressors.

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Compressors Used in ONGC: -
The compressor used are screw (3) and scroll type (2)
 Screw compressor –
Refrigerant of screw compressor R134a is a HFC, used in automotive air
conditioning and as a replacement for R12 and R22 in medium and high
temperature refrigeration applications, such as commercial and domestic
refrigeration and chillers. R-134a is an HFC refrigerant, which requires
polyolester (POE) lubricant to be used in the compressor.

Figure: Screw Compresor

Capacity of Screw compressor system in ONGC Hospital is 160 tons of

refrigeration * 3
Generally, two compressors are in running state while the third one is on standby.

 Scroll compressor-
Refrigerant of scroll compressor is R-407C which is a non-azeotropic
mixed refrigerant composed of the three ingredients R-32, R-125, and R-
134a, and was developed as a substitute refrigerant for R-22, used in
applications such as air conditioning equipment and chiller equipment for
medium temperature ranges. It possesses outstanding properties as a
refrigerant for air conditioners, chillers, vending machines, and other
equipment.

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 Figure: Scroll Compressor

Capacity of Scroll compressor system is 60 tons of refrigeration per compressor

(10TR*6).
Strainers: -
Strainers are designed to protect water and steam piping system components from
dirt, rust, and other damaging debris in residential, commercial, and industrial
application, based on the pressure drop we can check whether dust particles or
rust are there or not.

Figure: Y Strainer

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Air Handling Unit (AHU)-

It can operate in 2 modes: -

 Auto mode
 Manual mode
An Air Handling Unit (AHU) is used to re-condition and circulate air as part of a
heating, ventilating and air-conditioning system. The basic function of the AHU
is to take in outside air, re-condition it and supply it as fresh air to a building. All
exhaust air is removed, which creates an acceptable indoor air quality. Depending
on the required temperature of the re-conditioned air, the fresh air is either heated
by a recovery unit or heating coil or cooled by a cooling coil

Figure: AHU

Power supply to our ONGC Systems by government is about 11000 KV, which in
case of emergency is supported by the generators.

Thermal Expansion Valve (TXV)-

The Thermal Expansion Valve (TXV) is

an important piece of equipment in
the HVAC industry. The valve is used to
control the amount of refrigerant released
to the evaporator section. In this way it
controls the difference between superheat
and the current refrigerant temperature at
the evaporator outlet.

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 ONLINE VISITS
 ONGC HOSPITAL
ONGC hospital is situated in Krishna Nagar, Dehradun Uttarakhand. It is also
known as Satya Pal Wahi Hospital as a tribute to Sri Satya Pal Wahi ji. Satya Pal
Wahi was an Indian corporate executive, army officer, technocrat, writer and a
former chairman of public sector enterprises such as Oil and Natural Gas
Commission (ONGC) and Cement Corporation of India (CCI). The Government
of India awarded him the third highest civilian honour of the Padma Bhushan, in
1988, for his contributions to society. This hospital was inaugurated by Sri Dinesh
Kumar on the ONGC Day, 14th August 2017.

Among the finest Hospitals in the city, Satya Pal Wahi Hospital in Krishna Nagar,
Dehradun is known for offering excellent patient care. The clinic is located
centrally in Krishna Nagar, a prominent locality in the city. There is no dearth of
public modes of transport to reach the clinic from all major areas of the city. Satya
Pal Wahi Hospital in Krishna Nagar, Dehradun has a well-equipped clinic with
all the modern
equipment. The
clinic has separate
waiting and
consultation areas
which allow enough
space for patients to
wait conveniently at
the clinic. Being a
specialized
Hospitals, the doctor
offers a number of
medical services.

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  HVAC SYSTEM AT ONGC HOSPITAL

HVAC stands for Heating, ventilation and air conditioning system. Any machine
which fulfils the below four factors can be categorized as air conditioning system.
a. Temperature control
b. Air circulation
c. Air purification
d. Humidity control
In HVAC system, 1 TR (Ton of refrigeration) can remove 12,000 Btu (British
thermal units in FPS system) or 3,000 kilo Calorie (in MKS system) of heat each
hour. Ton is a unit of heat and one ton refers to the amount of heat required to
completely melt a ton of ice. Melting this amount of ice requires 2, 86,000 Btu.
24 hours is used as standard time period for air conditioners by HVAC technician.
Under standardized conditions, melting of a ton of ice in 24 hours requires 11,917
Btu/hour or approximately 12,000 Btu/hr.
Earlier, refrigerants used were CFC and dichlorodifluoromethane but these
refrigerants pose severe threat to ozone layer. So now-a-days refrigerant being
used is HFC (hydrofluorocarbon or freons). It does not damage the ozone layer.

HVAC system at ONGC Hospital employs Central air conditioning with chilled
water system. It comprises of 4 basic cycle.
1. Refrigeration cycle
2. Condenser-water cycle
3. Chilled water cycle
4. Air circulation cycle

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 Figure: Central air conditioning with chilled water system

1. Refrigeration Cycle: It basically consists of 4 components.

a. Compressor
b. Shell and tube type condenser
c. Thermostatic expansion valve
d. Shell and tube type chiller or evaporator

a. Compressor: It compresses the vapor refrigerant and discharges it in the

shell and tube type compressor. High temperature and high pressure
refrigerant discharged by the compressor is made to pass through oil
separator to separate the oil (lubricant) and pure dry vapor refrigerant
enters the condenser.

b. Shell and tube type condenser: Water flows through the tube and vapor
refrigerant surrounds it in the shell. Due to the differences in temperature
of the refrigerant and the water (temperature of water being lower than that
of refrigerant), exchange of heat takes place which leads to condensation
of the vapor refrigerant. Thus, the fluid leaving the condenser is liquid
refrigerant which subsequently enters the expansion valve.

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 c. Thermostatic expansion valve: As the liquid refrigerant passes through
the expansion valve, throttling occurs due to which there is decrease in
pressure of the refrigerant.

d. Shell and tube type chiller or evaporator: Low temperature and low-
pressure refrigerant enters in tube side of the chiller and in shell side water
is present. Chiller remains insulated. Temperature of the liquid refrigerant
is less than the temperature of the water. Due to the exchange of heat
between two fluids, water cools (chilled water) and the liquid refrigerant
vaporizes. This cooled/chilled water flows through pipes in a building and
passes through cooling coils of AHU (air handling unit). The vapour
refrigerant enters the compressor through the suction lines and the
refrigeration cycle continues.

2. Condenser-water cycle:
It has three basic parts, Condenser water pump, Condenser, Cooling tower.
Condenser water pump sucks the cold water from the sump of cooling tower. This
cold water is made to pass through Y-strainer (to capture the dust particles) and
is then supplied to the tube of the shell and tube type condenser. This cold water
after gaining heat from the vapor refrigerant present in the shell side of condenser
becomes warm and it is subsequently forced back to the cooling tower where it
gets cooled down. Cooling towers are usually installed on open space like terrace
where there is free flow of air. Cooling towers cools the warm water discharged
from the condenser and feed the cooled water back to the condenser. A fan is
mounted at the top of the cooling tower. Warm water is sprinkled with the help
of nozzle in cooling tower and due to contact with the circulating air, water cools.
Cold water collects in the sump of cooling tower which is subsequently circulated
to the condenser tube with the help of condenser water pump.

3. Chilled water cycle: Its various parts are

a. Chilled water pump
b. AHU (air handling unit)
c. Expansion tank
d. Shell and tube type chiller or evaporator

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The cold water from the shell side of the shell and tube type chiller is circulated
to cooling coils of AHU at different location using chilled water pump. A blower,
run by motor, is used to suck the return air of AHU room. Return air is made to
pass through the filter of AHU to remove the dust particles. Temperature of return
air being higher than the water present in the cooling coil, return air cools and is
circulated forward. The temperature of the water in cooling coil rises. This water
is circulated back to the chiller where it is cooled down.
When water in the chiller cools, its volume decreases. To overcome this decrease
in volume, extra volume of water is supplied from the expansion tank. When plant
is closed, the temperature of water in chiller increases due to which its volume
increases. This extra volume of water transfers to the expansion tank through the
pipeline.
4. Air Circulation cycle: Various parts involved in the air circulation cycle are
a. AHU
b. Supply air duct
c. Supply air diffuser
d. Air conditioning room
e. Return air diffuser
f. Return air duct
g. Fresh air duct
h. AHU room
The blower run by the motor causes the movement of filtered cold air to the air
conditioning room through the supply air duct. Supply air diffuser spreads the
cold air in the air conditioning room. Cold air absorbs the heat from the air
conditioning room due to which its temperature rises. This air is collected by the
return air diffuser and is forwarded to the AHU room through the return air duct.
The air reaching the AHU room has less percentage of oxygen and high
percentage of carbon dioxide. In order to maintain the level of oxygen, a fresh air
duct is present in the AHU room which introduces the fresh air from outside.
Mixture of return air and fresh air enters back into the AHU and the cycle
continues.

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 Specification of various components and miscellaneous points
 Three screw compressor each of capacity 160 TR. Out of the three screw
compressors, one is kept standby and the other two remains in running
condition. So, there is a load of 320 TR.
 The refrigerant used in case of screw compressor is R134A.
 Four condenser pumps are installed. Out of which one is kept standby and
other three remains in running condition.
 Since three chillers are present, so three cooling towers each having a
capacity of 200 TR is installed.
 Three secondary chilled water pumps are used to pump the chilled water
to AHU at different location in the ONGC hospital.
 One primary pump performs the function of handling warm water coming
from different location to circulate it in chiller.
 In package unit, 6 scroll compressor each of capacity 10 ton are installed.
Here, two chilled water pumps are installed out of which one is kept
standby.
 In case of scroll compressor, the refrigerant used is R407 and the
refrigerant discharging from scroll compressor into the condenser gets
condensed with the help of atmospheric air (using fan).
 A centralized control panel is present in the plant to control the AHU at
different location wherever air-conditioning is required.
 Operation panel of AHU has 2 modes i.e. auto mode and manual mode.
 At critical places in ONGC hospital like ICU, OT etc. HEPA filters (very
fine filter) are used for the purification of air.
 An upcoming technology, which employs the usage of UV lamps in AHU
to sterilize the air, is very soon going to be installed in the ONGC hospital.

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 SUBIR RAHA OIL MUSEUM

Figure: Subir Raha Oil Museum

 Subir Raha Oil Museum at Tel Bhawan, Dehradun is a unique Museum

and first of its own kind in India dedicated to Oil Industry. This Museum
is indeed an important source of dissemination of knowledge on historical
and technological facts of Indian as well as World Oil Industry and history
of ONGC in particular. The Museum showcases complete gamut of Oil
Industry activities in simplistic manner to students and matured visitors
alike. It is a museum which every person associated in this field must visit.

 SROM has been housed in The ‘PATIALA HOUSE’, the most significant
heritage building of Tel Bhawan Complex of ONGC, Dehradun, India. The
‘Patiala House’ was the first property in Dehradun which ONGC had
acquired on 2 April 1957 after beginning its operations to find oil fields in
India. Later, the Building became the Headquarter of ONGC and the
complex was renamed as ‘Tel Bhawan’ which means, the Oil Mansion.
This is also the Building where Keshav Dev Malaviya – known as “Tel
Purush, a great Indian visionary in oil field, held office as the First
Chairman of ONGC.”. Thus, the Patiala House became the Hub of activity
for 60 odd Oilmen in search of oil in India and hence, it is pride of ONGC.

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 Once activities initiated for setting up of oil museum, the Patiala House,
was decided to be architecturally conserved and renovated as the Oil
Museum to become a repository of ONGC’s heritage. Later, ONGC Oil
Museum was inaugurated by Dr. A.P.J. Abdul Kalam, the then President
of India, launching the Golden Jubilee Year of ONGC in 14th August,
2005. In a befitting tribute to the visionary leader, the ONGC Golden
Jubilee Museum was rechristened as ‘Subir Raha Oil Museum’ in March,
2010 in the memory of its chairman who in true sense envisioned the
concept of oil museum for ONGC during his tenure.

 There is an interesting pendulum situated from the starting of the museum,

named as Foucault pendulum. The Foucault pendulum is a simple device
named after French physicist Léon Foucault, conceived as an experiment
to demonstrate the Earth's rotation. The pendulum was introduced in 1851
and was the first experiment to give simple, direct evidence of the Earth's
rotation.

Figure: Foucault Pendulum

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 Interesting communication strategies are deployed in the museum to
explain entire gamut of oil through informative Posters, Models, and
Interactive Displays. There is quiz section too which makes the learning
experience fun. There are also Interesting out-door displays including
working Models of real Sucker rod pumps transported from Assam and
installed for live demonstration, a working model of Christmas tree which
attracts the viewers, a model of Coiled Tubing Unit (CTU) also known as
doctor for sick wells and a bit garden where different types of drill bits are
displayed. Two Marine and Fresh Water aquaria attract children and adults
alike for its exquisite beauty.
 There are “Coffee Table Book”, “Upstream and Downstream Books” &
Technical Memoirs which relive the historic moments of ONGC, spread
across a more than half century from the days of its humble beginning the
need arises to in 1956 to India’s top E & P Company.

 Though at present Oil museum is closed for visitors for Covid safety,
however ONGC museum is outreaching through online presentation in a
lucid manner to far flung places for virtual visits to the students who
otherwise could not have visited museum.

 At present museum Mr Ashish Garg Chief General Manager has taken over
charge as Head Museum of Subir Raha ONGC Oil Museum in Tel Bhawan
Dehradun.

 Thus, The Oil Museum is a gift from ONGC to the Indian Oil Industry, the
State of Uttarakhand and the people of India. It’s a Pride of ONGC. It’s a
Pride of Uttarakhand.

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 CONCLUSION

The online summer training at ONGC, Dehradun has been a very good learning
experience. The knowledge of any theoretical subject is not enough for any
engineering student, one has to have the practical knowledge to remove the gap
between the expected and the actual performance. This particular training helped
a lot to develop various technical, industrial as well as communication skills. It
also gave a deep insight to actual equipment, the process, various operational
phases and safety aspects.

We started to study through some books, internet and materials shared by our
mentor from the basics. We have now learnt to admire these IC Engine and
HVAC System. Their elegant working, beautiful craftsmanship has us spell
bound. We have enjoyed to study during period of one month. In this project the
basic as well as advanced concept regarding IC engine as well as HVAC system
have been discussed to make us aware of all the old as well as new technology.
In this project, classification of heat engine, IC engine and different components
used in HVAC System has been discussed and about its part and application as
well.

Apart from that, the online tours to S P Wahi ONGC HOSPITAL, DEHRADUN
and a virtual visit to Subir Raha Tel Museum were a great value addition and also
initiated a spark for Industry Visit. With this we really would like to thank each
and every person I have interacted during the training and who have helped so
deep in clearing all the problems that we faced.

Finally, summing it up we consider ourselves fortunate to be a part of India’s

tycoon company for Oil &Gas Production, though for a short tenure only. We had
a great exposure to the oil and gas industry during our training as it continuously
facilitated us developing our knowledge to the where-about of oil and gas
industry.

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 BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Official Website of ONGC India – www.ongcindia.org

2. Refrigeration and Air Conditioning Technology, William C. Whitman,
William M. Johnson, John Tomczyk Cengage Learning, 2005.
3. Handbook of heating, ventilation, and air conditioning, Jan F. Kreider.
CRC press.
4. Indoor Air Quality and HVAC Systems. Bearg, David W. (1993). Lewis
Publishers, page 107-112.

5. Fundamentals of Air Conditioning Systems, Billy Langley, the Fairmont

Press, 2000.
6. Fundamentals of HVAC Systems. McDowall, Robert (2006). Elsevier,
Page-3.
7. Power Plant Technology by P K nag
8. Internal Combustion Engine by V. Ganeshan
9. Internal combustion fundamentals by John Heywood
10.Green Building Fundamentals-
http://ecenter.colorado.edu/greening-cu/greenbuilding
11.Air Handling Unit Fundamentals-
https://www.airtecnics.com/news/what-is-an-air-handling-unit-ahu
12.ASHRAE Handbook-
http://www.ashrae.org/resourcespublications/bookstore/standards-62-1--
62-2

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