i

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BUILDIND CRACKS

AND REPAIRS

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted By

B.MORISHNATH (311518103016)
A.RATHEESH KUMAR (311518103028)
K.KARTHIK (311518103012)

In Partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING

IN

CIVIL ENGINEERING

MEENAKSHI SUNDARARAJAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE

363, ARCOT ROAD, KODAMBAKKAM, CHENNAI 600024

ANNA UNIVERSITY :: CHENNAI 600 025

NOVEMBER 2021
 ii

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF BUILDING

CRACKS AND REPAIR “is the bonafide work of B.MORISHNATH
(311518103016), A.RATHEESH KUMAR (311518103028) and K.KARTHIK
(311518103012) ’’ who carried out the project under my supervision.

SINGNATURE SINGNATURE
Dr.L.RAMAJEYEM Mr.S.SARAVANAN,M.E,
M.E., Ph.D, F.I.E., F.I.V., C.Eng. (Ind). SUPERVISOR
Dean & Head of the department Assistant Professor

Civil Engineering Department Civil Engineering Department

Meenakshi Sundararajan Meenakshi Sundararajan
Engineering College, Engineering College,
Chennai – 600 024. Chennai - 600024

Submitted for the VIVA VOICE held on _________________at Meenakshi

Sundararajan Engineering College, Kodambakkam, Chennai 24.

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

 iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

An endeavor over a long period can be successfully only with the advice and
support of many well-wishers. We take the opportunity to express our gratitude and
appreciation to all of them.

The project has been successfully completed due to the blessing showered on us by
god. We thank the almighty for giving physical and mental stamina to complete the
project.

We deem it great pride in expressing our heartful gratitude to our beloved

correspondent Dr.K.S.LAKSHMI and Dr.K.S.BABAI and our principal
Dr.P.K.SURESH.

We are highly thankful to Dr.L.RAMAJEYAM Dean and Head of our

secretary.Civil Engineering Department for giving us encouragement and guidance
throughout, for the successful completion of project work.

Our sincere thanks to our Internal guide Asst prof. Mr.S.SARAVANAN for giving
us valuable suggestions at all stages of our project.

Most importantly, we liked to thank all our staff members, family, classmates who
helped us in every possible way and guiding us in the completion of project.
 iv

ABSTRACT

Building cracks are most common type of problem in any type of building. So, it is

important to understand the cause and the measures to be taken for prevention. Due

to some faulty steps during construction and some unavoidable reasons, different

type of cracks start to appear on various structural and non- structural parts of the

building. The research reported in this paper is a contribution in understanding the

epoxy injection and retrofitting technique to strengthen the existing cracked

members. This technique consists of injecting epoxy resin adhesive in a cracked

beam to increase the stiffness and the strength. A total of 8 concrete cubes were

constructed with the same material using the same mix and water-cement ratio.

Structural cracks are the one whose inherent cause lies in either in incorrect design,

or faulty construction or overloading and are the one which can endanger the safety

of a given structure. On the other hand, the non-structural cracks are the one which

have the underlying origin due to moisture or thermal fluctuations, elastic

deformation, creep, chemical reaction, or reason related to the foundation soil such

as it movement or settlement or unhindered vegetation. Non-structural cracks are

mostly due to internally induced stresses in building materials and these generally

do not directly result in structural weakening. In this study, we will discuss about

types of cracks, causes of cracking and preventive measures to be taken along with

the methods for repair of cracks using epoxy injection and retrofitting method.
 v

சுருக்கம்

கட்டிட விரிசல் கள் எந்த வககயான கட்டிடத்திலும் மிகவும்

ப ாதுவான பிரச்சகனயாகும் . எனவவ, வநாய் க்கான
காரணங் கள் மற் றும் தடு ் பு நடவடிக்ககககள ்
புரிந்துபகாள் வது அவசியம் . கட்டுமானத்தின் வ ாது சில
தவறான டிகள் மற் றும் சில தவிர்க்க முடியாத
காரணங் களால் , கட்டிடத்தின் ல் வவறு கட்டகம ்பு மற் றும்
கட்டகம ்பு அல் லாத குதிகளில் ல் வவறு வககயான
விரிசல் கள் வதான் ற ஆரம் பிக்கின் றன. இந்த ஆய் வறிக்ககயில்
பதரிவிக்க ் ட்டுள் ள ஆராய் ச்சி, தற் வ ாதுள் ள விரிசல்
அகடந்த உறு ் பினர்ககள வலு ் டுத்த எவ ாக்சி ஊசி
மற் றும் பரட்வராஃபிட்டிங் நுட் த்கத ் புரிந்துபகாள் வதில் ஒரு
ங் களி ் ாகும் . இந்த நுட் ம் விகற ்பு மற் றும் வலிகமகய
அதிகரிக்க ஒரு கிராக் பீமில் எவ ாக்சி பிசின் கசகய
பசலுத்துகிறது. ஒவர கலகவ மற் றும் நீ ர்-சிபமன் ட்
விகிதத்கத ் யன் டுத்தி ஒவர ப ாருகளக் பகாண்டு
பமாத்தம் 8 கான் கிரீட் கனசதுரங் கள் கட்ட ் ட்டன. தவறான
வடிவகம ் பு, அல் லது தவறான கட்டுமானம் அல் லது
ஓவர்வலாடிங் ஆகியவற் றில் உள் ள உள் ளார்ந்த காரணம்
கட்டகம ்பு விரிசல் களாகும் , வமலும் அகவ பகாடுக்க ் ட்ட
கட்டகம ் பின் ாதுகா ் பிற் கு ஆ த்கத விகளவிக்கும் .
மறுபுறம் , கட்டகம ்பு அல் லாத விரிசல் கள் ஈர ் தம் அல் லது
பவ ் ஏற் ற இறக்கங் கள் , மீள் சிகதவு, ஊர்ந்து பசல் வது,
இரசாயன எதிர்விகன அல் லது அடித்தள மண்ணின் இயக்கம்
 vi

அல் லது குடிவயற் றம் அல் லது தகடயற் ற தாவரங் கள் வ ான் ற
காரணங் களால் அடி ் கட வதாற் றம் பகாண்டகவ.
கட்டகம ்பு அல் லாத விரிசல் கள் ப ரும் ாலும் கட்டுமான ்
ப ாருட்களில் உள் ள உள் தூண்ட ் ட்ட அழுத்தங் களால்
ஏற் டுகின் றன, வமலும் இகவ ப ாதுவாக கட்டகம ்பு
லவீனமகடவதில் வநரடியாக விகளவதில் கல. இந்த
ஆய் வில் , எவ ாக்சி ஊசி மற் றும் பரட்வராஃபிட்டிங் முகறகய ்
யன் டுத்தி விரிசல் ககள சரிபசய் யும் முகறகளுடன் ,
விரிசல் களின் வகககள் , விரிசல் ஏற் டுவதற் கான
காரணங் கள் மற் றும் தடு ்பு நடவடிக்கககள் ற் றி
விவாதி ் வ ாம் .
 vii

MEENAKSHI SUNDARARAJAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Arcot Road, Kodambakkam, Chennai 600 024
(Approved by AICTE and Accredited by NBA)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
VISION AND MISSION OF THE DEPARTMENT

VISION
To develop technical man power by facing challenges in
emerging technologies through excellence in education, research and
scientific training with socio-economic involvement.

MISSION
1. Transcending, disseminating and integrating knowledge of
engineering, science and technology.
2. Developing and innovating in applications through interdisciplinary
research and development projects in collaboration with
stakeholders.
3. Acting as problem solvers by acquiring relevant skills required for
a wide range of career challenges.
4. Creating opportunities in a collaborative and sustainable
environment and encouraging students and staff to achieve the
best.
 viii

TABLE OF CONTENT

CHAPTER NO TITLE PAGE NO

ABSTRACT(ENGLISH) iv
ABSTRACT(TAMIL) v
LIST OF FIGURES xi
LIST OF TABLES xiii
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND SYMBOLS
1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.1 CRACK 1
1.2 CRACK CATEGORIZATION 1
1.3 CAUSE OF CRACKS 2
1.4 PREVENTION OF CRACKS 9
1.5 METHOD FOR REPAIR OF CRACKS 11
2 LITERATURE REVIEW 16
2.1 INTRODUCTION 16
2.2 CASE STUDY 20
3 METHODOLOGY 25
3.1 DETAILED METHODOLOGY 25
3.1.1 Literature Review 26

3.1.2 Selection And Collection Of Materials 26

3.1.3 Trial Mix 26

3.1.4 Curing 26

3.1.5 Upv Testing 26

3.1.6 Crack Formation Using Compression Machine 27

3.1.7 Repairing Of Cracks Using Epoxy And

 ix

Retrofitting Methods 27

3.1.8 Result And Discussion 27

4 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS 28
4.1 GENERAL 28
4.2 MATERIAL INVESTIGATION 28
4.2.1 Cement 28
4.2.1.1 specific Gravity of Cement 29
4.2.2 Fine Aggregate 29
4.2.2.1 Physical Properties of The FineAggregate. 29
4.2.2.2 Specific Gravity Test and Water Absorption Test. 29
4.2.3 Water 31
4.2.4 Coarse Aggregate 31
4.2.4.1 Physical Properties of The Coarse Aggregate 31
4.2.4.2 Specific Gravity Test and Water Absorption Test 31
4.2.5 Epoxy 33
4.2.5.1 Manufacturing Process of Epoxy 33
4.2.5.2 Mix Proportion 34
4.2.5.3 Concreting 34
4.2.5.4 Casting 35
4.2.5.5 Curing 35
4.2.5.6 Upv Testing 36
5 RESULT AND DISCUSSION 37
5.1 UPV TESTING 38
5.2 CRACK FORMATION 39
5.3 REPAIRING OF CRACKS USING EPOXY
INJECTION 39
5.4 UPV TESTING AFTER REPAIRING OF CRACKS 41
 x

5.5 REBOUND HAMMER TEST 41

5.6 REPAIRING OF CRACKS BY RETROFITTING
METHOD 43
5.7 REBOUND HAMMER TEST 45
5.8 GRAPH ON EPOXY INJECTION METHOD AND
RETROFITTING METHOD 45
6 CONCLUSION 46
REFERENCES 47
 xi

LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE. DESCRIPTION PAGE.
NO NO

1.1 CRACKS DUE TO EXPANSION OF BRICKWORK 3

1.2 CRACKING IN TOP MOST STOREY OF A LOAD
BEARING STRUCTURE 3
1.3 VERTICAL CRACKS AND DIAGONAL CRACKS 4
1.4 VERTICAL CRACKS AT JUNCTION OF RCC COLUMN
AND WALL MASONRY 5
1.5 (a) CRACKING AND UPHEAVING OF A,TITLE FLOOR DUE
TO SULPHATE ACTION IN BASE CONCRETE 6
(b) OVERSAILING OF BRICK MASONRY AT DPC LEVEL
DUE TO EXPANSION 6
1.6 CRACKS AT THE CORNER OF THE BUILDING DUE
TO FOUNDATION SETTLEMENT 7
1.7 (a) CRACKING OF A COMPOUND WALL DUE TO
GROWING ROOTS UNDER THE FOUNDATION 8
(b) CRACKS DUE TO UNDER GROWING TREE ROOTS 8
1.8 CEMENTITIOUS GROUTING METHOD 12
1.9 APPLYING EPOXY TO THE CRACKS 13
1.10 CRACK STITCHING METHOD 13
1.11 DRY PACKING METHOD 14
1.12 POLYMER IMPREGNATION 15
1.13 RETROFITTING METHOD IN COLUMN 16
2.1 CRACKS BELOW WINDOW SILL LEVEL 21
2.2 CRACKS AT JUNCTURE OF SLAB AND STEEL BEAM 21
2.3 CRACKS AT JUNCTURE OF BRICKWORK & STEEL
COLUMN 22
 xii

2.4 VERTICAL CRACKS IN WALL 22

2.5 CRACKS AT CORNER OF SUNSHADE 23
2.6 CRACKS BELOW A BEAM 23
2.7 CRACKS ABOVE WINDOW 24
2.8 CRACK IN RCC COLUMN 24
3.1 METHODOLOGY OF THE PROJECT 25
4.1 CONCRETING 34
4.2 TAMPING AND CASTING 35
4.3 CURING OF CONCRETE CUBES 36
5.1 ULTRASONIC PULSE VELOCITY TEST 37
5.2 CRACK FORMATION PROCESS 38
5.3 CRACK FORMATION IN THE CONCRETE CUBES 39
5.4 CRACK FORMATION IN THE CONCRETE CUBES 39
5.5 APPLYING OF EPOXY MORTAR 39
5.6 ATTACHMENT OF INJECTION PORTS 40
5.7 INJECTION OF THE EPOXY RESIN IN PORT 40
5.8 REBOUND HAMMER TESTING FOR CUBES 42
5.9 CUBE MOULD SIZE 20x20x20 cm 44
5.10 20x20x20 cm CUBE CONSISTING OF 15x15x15 cm CUBE 44
5.11 GRAPH ON EPOXY INJECTION AND RETROFITTIING
METHOD 45
 xiii

LIST OF TABLE

TABLE DESCRIPTION PAGE.

NO. NO
1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF CRACKS BASED ON WIDTH 1

4.1 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF CEMENT 28

4.2 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE FINE AGGREGATE 29

4.3 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF FINE AGGREGATE 30

4.4 WATER ABSORPTION OF FINE AGGREGATE 30

4.5 PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF THE COARSE AGGREGATE 31
4.6 SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF COARSE AGGREGATE 32
4.7 WATER ABSORPTION OF COARSE AGGREGATE 32
4.8 MIX PROPORTION 34
5.1 UPV TEST FOR 28 DAYS CUBE 37
5.2 UPV TEST FOR 14 DAYS CUBE 38
5.3 UPV TEST FOR REPAIRED CONCRETE 41
5.4 REBOUND HAMMER TEST RESULTS FOR CUBE 43
5.5 REBOUND HAMMER TEST RESULTS 45
 1

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 CRACK

Cracks in a building are of common occurrence. The first and most common reason
of crack development is the stress component exceeding its strength component
which can be associated to the externally applied loads (forces) such as dead, live,
wind or seismic loads, or foundation settlement or stresses developed internally due
to thermal movements, moisture changes and/or chemical action,etc.
Most buildings crack at some time during their service life. The appearance of
cracks is a symptom of distress within the structure of the building.

1.2 CRACK CATEGORIZATION

Cracks develop due to deterioration of concrete or corrosion or reinforcement bars

due to poor construction or inappropriate selection of constituent material and by
temperature and shrinkage effects. Internally induced stresses in building
components lead to dimensional changes and whenever there is a restraint to
movement as is generally the case cracking occurs. Depending on width of crack,
these are classified as follows:

Table 1.1 Classification of Cracks Based on Width

CLASSIFICATION CRACK WIDTH
Thin <1mm

Medium 1mm to 2mm

Wide > 2mm wide

 2

According to IS: 456 2000, the surface width of crack should not exceed 0.3mm
in members where cracking is not harmful and does not have any serious adverse
effects upon the preservation of reinforcing steel, nor upon the durability of the
structures. In the members where cracking in tensile zone is harmful either because
they are exposed to moisture or in contact of soil or ground water, an upper limit of
0.2mm is suggested for maximum width of crack. For particularly aggressive
environment such as the ‘severe’ category, the assessed surface width of crack
should not in generally exceed 0.1mm. Cracking in reinforced concrete structures
of various types can be divided into two main groups:
A.Non-structural Cracks

These type of crack occur mostly due to internally induced stresses in building
material and normally do not endanger safety but may look unsightly, create
impression of faulty work or give feeling of instability. Crack on wall, parapet wall,
driveway are called non-structural cracks.
B.Structural Cracks

Structural cracks results from incorrect design, faulty construction or overloading

and may endanger the safety of a building. The cracks in beam, column, slab and
footing are considered as structural cracks.

1.3 CAUSES OF CRACKS

A. Moisture Movement

Most of the building materials having pores in their structure in the form of
intermolecular (ex. concrete, mortar, bricks etc) expand on absorbing moisture and
shrink on drying. These movements are reversible. Initial shrinkage is partly
irreversible and occurs in all building materials which are cement/lime based e.g
concrete, mortar, masonry etc.
 3

Fig. 1.1 Cracks due to expansion of brickwork

B. Thermal Movement

Cracks due to thermal movement could be distinguished from those due to

shrinkage or other causes from the criterion that the former open and close
alternately with changes in temperature while the latter are not affected by such
changes. Thermal movement depends on colour and surface characteristics of
exposed bonding surfaces. In case of concrete roof slabs, as the material has low
conductivity, thermal gradient is quite appreciable and that causes the slab to arch
up and also to move outward due to heat from the sun. This result in cracks in
external walls which support the slab and in the internal walls that are built up to
the soffit of the slab.

Fig.1.2 Cracking in Top Most Storey of a Load Bearing Structure

 4

C. Elastic Deformation

Structural components of a building such as walls, columns, beams and slabs,

generally consisting of materials like masonry, concrete, steel etc, undergo elastic
deformation due to load in accordance with Hook's law, the amount of deformation
depending upon elastic modulus of the materials, magnitude of loading and
dimensions of the components. If RCC slabs, RCC lintels over openings and
masonry in plinth and foundation have good shear resistance, cracking in question
would not be very significant.

4 56
Fig. 1.3 Vertical Cracks and Diagonal Cracks
D. Movement due to Creep

In concrete, extent of creep depends on a number of factors, such as water and

cement content, water cement ratio, temperature, humidity, use of admixtures and
pozzolanas, age of concrete at the time of loading and size and shape of the
component. Creep increases with increase in water and cement content, water
cement ratio, and temperature; it decreases with increase in humidity of the
surrounding atmosphere and age of material at the time of loading. In case of
brickwork, amount of creep depends on stress/strength ratio and, therefore, creep
in brickwork with weak mortar, which generally has higher stress/strength ratio, is
more.
 5

Fig.1.4 Vertical Cracks at Junction of RCC Column and Wall Masonry

in a Load Bearing Structure

E.Movement Due to Chemical Reaction

Chemical reactions may occur due to the materials used to make the concrete or
materials that come into contact with the concrete after it has hardened. Concrete
may crack with time as the result of slowly developing expansive reactions between
aggregate containing active silica and alkalis derived from cement hydration,
admixtures or external sources. Certain chemical reactions in building materials
result in appreciable increase in volume of materials, and internal stresses are set
up which may result in outward thrust and formation of cracks. The materials
involved in reaction also get weakened in strength. Commonly occurring instances
of this phenomenon are: sulphare attack on cement products, carbonation in cement
based materials, corrosion of reinforcement in concrete and brickwork, and alkali-
aggregate reaction. In buildings, the main components which are liable to sulphate
attack are concrete and masonry in foundation and plinth, and masonry and plaster
in superstructure. The chemical reaction proceeds very slowly and it may take about
two or more years before the effect of this reaction becomes apparent. Sulphate
attack on concrete and mortar of masonry in foundation and plinth would result in
 6

weakening of these components and may, in course of time, result in unequal

settlement of foundation and cracks in the superstructure

Fig. 1.5(a) Cracking and Upheaving of a, Tile Floor Due to Sulphate

Action in Base Concrete

Fig. 1.5(b) Oversailing of Brick Masonry at DPC Level Due to Expansion

F. Foundation Movement and Settlement of Soil
Chemical reactions may occur due to the materials used to make the concrete or
materials that come into contact with the concrete after it has hardened. Shear
cracks may occur in the building due to large differential settlement of foundation
and it may also occur due to unequal bearing pressure under different parts of the
structure, or due to it excess the bearing strength of the soil, or due to minimum
factor of safety used in the foundation…etc.
 7

Cracks that occur due to foundation movement of a corner on an end of a building

are usually diagonal in shape. These cracks are wide at top and decrease in width
downward. These cracks thus can be easily distinguished from those due to thermal
or moisture movements. Such a settlement generally not being uniform in different
parts, results in cracking. Plinth protection around the building helps to some extent
in preventing seepage of rain and surface water into the foundation, thereby
obviating the possibility of settlement cracks.

8
Fig.1.6 Cracks at the Corner of a Building Due to Foundation Settlement

G. Cracking Due to Vegetation

Chemical reactions may occur due to the materials used to make the concrete or
materials that come into contact with the concrete after it has hardened. Shear
cracks may occur in the building due to large differential settlement of foundation
and it may also occur due to unequal bearing pressure under different parts of the
structure, or due to it excess the bearing strength of the soil, or due to minimum
factor of safety used in the foundation…etc. Existence of vegetation, such as fast
growing trees in the vicinity of compound walls can sometimes cause cracks in
walls due to expansive action of roots growing under the foundation.
 8

Fig.1.7 (a) Cracking of a Compound Wall Due to Growing Roots Under the
Foundation
459

Fig. 1.7 (b) (i) Cracks due to under growing tree roots
1.4 PREVENTION OF CRACKS

A. To Prevent Cracks Due to Moisture Movement

1) Select materials having small moisture movement eg bricks, lime stones, marble
etc
2) Plan for less richer cement content, larger size of aggregates and less water
content.
 9

3) Porus aggregates (from sand stone, clinker etc) prone for high shrinkage

4) Plan for offsets in walls for length of more than 600 mm

5) Use of of composite cement-lime mortar of 1:1:6 mix or weaker for plastering

work
B. To prevent Cracks Due to Thermal Movement

1) Dark coloured and rough textured materials on exteriors have lower reflectivity
and react more for thermal expansions
2) Plan for a layer of adequate thickness of good reflective surface over concrete
roof slabs to minimize these cracks
3) Slip joint should be introduced between slab and its supporting wall or the some
length from the supporting wall or the slab should bear only on part width of the
wall
4) Mortar for parapet masonry should be 1cement: 1 lime: 6 sand

5) Construction of masonry over the slab should be deferred as much as possible

(at least one month) so that concrete undergoes some drying shrinkage prior to
the construction of parapet.
C. To Prevent Cracks Due to Elastic Deformations

1) When large spans cannot be avoided, deflection of slabs or beams could be

reduced by increasing depth of slabs and beams so as to increase their stiffness.
2) Adoption of bearing arrangement and provision of a groove in plaster at the
junction of wall and ceiling will be of some help in mitigating the cracks.
D. To prevent Cracks due to Movements Due to Creep

1) Do not provide brickwork over a flexural RCC member (beam or slab) before
removal of centering and allow a time interval of at least 2 weeks between removal
of centering and construction of partition or panel wall over it.
2) When brick masonry is to be laid abutting an RCC column, defer brickwork as
much as possible.
 10

3) When RCC and brickwork occur in combination and are to be plastered over,
allow sufficient time (at least one month) to RCC and brickwork to undero initial
shrinkage and creep before taking up plaster work.
4) A panel walls in RCC framed structures: (i) as far as possible, all framework
should be completed before taking up masonry work of cladding and partitions
which should be started from top storey downward. (ii) Provide horizontal
movement joint between the top of brick panel and soffit of beams.
5) Partitions supported on floor slab or beam :( i) Provide upward camber in
floor slab/beam so as to counteract deflection. (ii) Defer construction of partitions
and plaster work as much as possible (iii) Provide horizontal expansion joints
between the top of masonry and soffit of beam/slab, filling the gaps with some
mastic compound.
E. To Prevent cracks due to Foundation Movement and Settlement of Soil

1) Plan for under-reamed piles in foundation for construction on shrinkable soil.

2) Plan for plinth protection around the building.

3) Slip / expansion joints to ensure that new construction is not bonded with the old
construction and the two parts (Old and new) are separated right from bottom to the
top. When plastering the new work a deep groove should be formed separating the
new work from the old.

1.5 METHODS FOR REPAIR OF CRACKS

A. Surface Filling Method

For cracks of width of micro-cracks less than 0.2mm, it is the most simple technique
used and to apply brush polymer or to apply elastomeric sealant on the surface in
order to prevent moisture content, carbon dioxide and other harmful materials. But
the main drawback is that it belongs to repair only shallow surfaces and not deep
cracks and cracks not suitable to water pressure.
 11

B. Cementitious Grouting Method

It is used for repair of wide cracks. It is a mixture of cementitious material and water
that is proportioned to produce a proper consistency. Cement-based grouts are
available in a wide range of consistencies; therefore, the methods of application are
different for different material. This type of material do not require skilled worker
or special equipment to apply, safe to handle and economical. These materials tend
to have similar properties to the parent concrete and mortar, and have the ability to
undergo autogenously healing due to subsequent hydration of cementitious
materials at fracture surfaces. The main disadvantage is that this material shrinks.
These are not suitable for structural repairs of active cracks. For application of
cementitious grouts generally, some form of routing and surface preparation, such
as removal of loose debris are needed. Grouts are generally to be mixed to a proper
consistency by using a drill and proper mixer, and the consistency may be adjusted
thereafter. Application should be done by hand troweling or dry packing into
vertical and overhead cracks to fill all pores and voids .Finally, a suitable coating
to be applied on the repaired surfaces.
 12

Fig.1.8 Cementitious grouting method

C. Epoxy Resin Grout

This is the most common polymer material used to fill gravity feed crack repairs. It
should be formulated to very low viscosity and low surface tension and resins
should be applied so that it can easily penetrate through cracks under the action of
gravity. The material which is having viscosity below 200 centipoise should be
preferred to a minimum content. While using this method cracks should be properly
cleaned and should be free from dust. If required some routing techniques must be
required to facilitate pouring of resins. While cleaning the surface which is having
dust if water is applied for it then it should be properly dried for 24hr because the
moisture if present in the crack it will obstruct the flow of resins. The pouring of
resins should be continued till the cracks go in absorbing after which the excess
resins may remove with the help of flat rubber squeeze.
 13

Fig.1.9 Applying Epoxy To the cracks

D. Crack Stitching
Stitching involves drilling holes on both sides of the crack and grouting in U shaped
metal units with short legs (staples or stitching dogs) that span the crack. Stitching
may be used when tensile strength must be re-established across major cracks. The
stitching procedure consists of drilling holes on both sides of the crack, cleaning
the holes, and anchoring the legs of the staples in the holes, with either a non-shrink
grout or an epoxy resin-based bonding system.

Fig. 1.10 Crack Stitching method

 14

E. Gravity filling
Low viscosity monomers and resins can be used to seal cracks with surface widths
of 0.001 to 0.08 in.by gravity filling. High molecular weight methacrylates,
urethanes, and some low viscosity epoxies have been used successfully.
F. Dry packing

It is the hand placement of a low water content mortar followed by tamping or

ramming of the mortar into place and also helps in producing intimate contact
between the mortar and the existing concrete.

Fig. 1.11 Dry packing method

G. Polymer impregnation
Monomer systems can be used for effective repair of some cracks. A monomer
system is a liquid consisting of monomers which will polymerize into a Solid. The
most common monomer used for this purpose is methyl methacrylate. The normal
curing procedure of the hardened concrete results in the gain of a considerable
amount of free water in its voids. These water-filled voids account for a significant
amount of the total volume of the component. It ranges from 5% in the case of dense
concrete and 15% in the case of gap-graded concrete.
 15

Fig.1.12 Polymer Impregnation

H. Retrofitting
Retrofitting is the method of modifying or repairing something after it has been
manufactured. Retrofitting of Building work includes changing or repairing the
structure system of a building after its construction and occupation. This work
result in increased safety and durability of the structure.
Retrofitting, refers to inadequate reliability or owner for higher reliability of the
bearing structure, component part and its related to enhance, local replacement or
adjustment measures such as its internal force, to make it with the current design
specification and the owner required safety, durability and applicability

Fig.1.13 Retrofitting Method In Column

 16

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 INTRODUCTION

Literature study for the project provides the reference details about the work, from
the papers further experimental study can be carried out to explore the
disadvantages to the advantage over the project. Here some of the literatures been
collected and studied thoroughly to understand the project concept and queries from
various journals were discussed below.

CRACKS IN PUBLIC BUILDINGS AND THEIR REMEDIES Civil

Engineering Journel, Vol.6, 2017 | Rishabh Pathak , Deepak Rastogi.

Cracks are inherent and detrimental elements of building detailed investigation

should be carried out regularly to ensure the assessabillity and serviceability of the
building. For rehabilitation of cracks it is important to understand the causes and
the types of cracks appeared in the structure. This paper shortly describes the causes
and types of cracks and their remedial measures. Non destructive testing methods
are used to access the strength of the structure at a first instance to know the actual
state of the structure whether it will be serviceable/workable or to be demolished.
Few case studies were conducted at different public buildings at Gwalior M.P.
Political science, economic and archaeological blocks of Jiwaji University. Moti
Mahal building.NITM (Nagaji institute of Technology and Management building.
Which were reported cracks and they were in suspension to whether it will work or
should be demolished. The purpose of this study is to determine the position of
structure whether it is further serviceable or not and secondly, if we use the same
building how it will be repaired.
 17

CONTROL OF CRACKS IN A STRUCTURE THROUGH VISUAL

IDENTIFICATION & INSPECTION Dept Of Civil Engineering Journal
Vol.11 , 2014 | Kishore Kunal, Namesh Killemsetty.

Structural Cracks are a common occurrence in all types of buildings. To ensure the
longevity of the structure, engineers are often required to look into their causes and
carry out suitable repairs and remedial measures. For repairs and remedies to be
effective, it is essential that the engineer should have a proper understanding of
various causes of occurrence of cracks. For investigating the causes it is necessary
to observe carefully the location, shape, size, depth, behavior and other
characteristics of the cracks, and to collect information about specifications of the
job and time of construction. It is also necessary for the engineer to keep track of
when the cracks first came to notice. This paper talks about how visual inspection
of cracks can be helpful in order to identify and categorize them with respect to
various parameters by taking case study of an institutional building.

EXPERIMENTAL STUDY AND NUMERICAL ANALYSIS OF CRACK

OPENING IN CONCRETE Dept Of Civil Engineering | Syed Yasir Alam

It is commonly accepted that there is a size effect on the nominal resistances of

quasi-brittle materials such as cementitious materials. This effect must be taken into
account in the design of the ultimate behaviour of concrete structures in order to
avoid damage and crack openings. These parameters are frequently sed to study the
behaviour of concrete and to characterize the durability of structures. Different
theories exist in the literature to describe the size effect. Among them, we find the
deterministic theory of Bazant where fracture energy is considered independent of
the size and it is assumed that at peak load, the crack length is proportional to the
size of the specimen.
 18

THE FORMATION OF EQUILIBRIUM CRACKS DURING BRITTLE

FRACTURE. GENERAL IDEAS AND HYPOTHESES AXIALLY-
SYMMETRIC CRACKS Dept Of Civil Engineering Journal Vol.3, 1999 | G.
Babenblatt

A large number of investigations has been devoted to the problem of the formation
and the development of a crack during brittle fracture of solids. The first of these
was the well-known work of Griffith [l] de-voted to the determination of the critical
length of a crack at a given load, i.e. the length of a crack at which it begins to
widen catastrophic-ally. Assuming an elliptical form of a crack forming in an
infinite body subjected to an infinitely homogeneous tension, Griffith obtained an
ex-pression for the critical length of a crack as that corresponding to the total.of the
full increase in energy (equal to the sum of the surface energy plus the elastic
energy released due to the formation of the crack). In recent years, in connection
with the numerous technical applica-tions regarding the problem of cracks, the
number of investigations has increased, among the first of which we ought to name
the works of Orowan and Irwin, general izing and refining Griffith’s theory. A
bibliography and a short &urn6 of these works can be found in the recent works
of Orowan [ 2 f , Irwin [ 3 1 , and Bueckner [ 4 1. The development of cracks in
brittle materials can be depicted in the following fashion. In the material there are
a large number of micro-cracks. Upon an increase in load in a given spot of the
body, a stress is reached sufficient for the development of the micro-crack existing
at that spot to a certain size. The beginning of the development of the micro-crack
is determined by some condition, because in view of the fact that usually the size
of the micro-crack is small in ComParison with the characteristic linear dimension
of the stress change, the state of stress in the surrounding area of the micro-crack
can be represented in accord-ance with Griffith’s scheme in the form of a uniform
infinite tension.
 19

REPAIR USING EPOXY RESIN INJECTIONS EFFECTIVENESS OF RC

BEAM-COLUMN CONNECTION Dept Of Civil Engineering Vol.2 2002 |
C.G.Karanyannis, C.E.ChAaioris, K.K.Sideris

The effectiveness of a technique for the repair of reinforced concrete beam column
connections, damaged due to cyclic loading, is experimentally investigated. The
applied technique is mainly based on the use of thin epoxy resin infused under
pressure into the crack system of the damaged joint body. Special attention is given
to the examination of the repair efficiency with reference to the shear reinforcement
of the joint. To achieve this purpose, the test program included 17 exterior
connection specimens covering all commonly used joint reinforcing practices.
Specimens were initially subjected to increasing full cyclic imposed deformation
until the cycle maximum load decreased to 40% of the yield load level measured
in the first cycle. After repair, all specimens were retested in the same way.
Conclusions concerning the effectiveness of the applied repair technique, based on
maximum cycle toads, loading stiffness, and hysteretic energy absorption
capabilities of the tested specimens, are drawn and commented upon. Remarks
concerning the influence of different design reinforcement arrangements on the
behaviour of the joints are also included. The examined repair technique can be
considered to be satisfactory, since all repaired joints exhibited equal or higher
response load values and loading stiffness compared to the virgin ones, and tended
to undergo more full loading cycles without a significant loss strength.

2.2 CASE STUDY

For a better and thorough understanding a case study was carried out at a Private
Apartment in Chennai near Perambur railway station although being a fairly new
 20

building having started in 2014, most of the structure already have started
showing deep cracks at various locations all across the building which will lead
to the decrease in the durability of structure. Most of the structures in the building
are composite structures where columns are of structural steel slabs being RCC.
This combination has led to occurrence of cracks at all the major juncture points
of steel and concrete. The use of improper design mix, Improper curing along
with many other reasons has led to different structural and Non- structural cracks.
For the cracks all the prominent cracks were identified and classified on its
possible causes. Subsequently remedial measures for each of those cracks have
been identified and listed. In the month of nov 2021, the main building and as
well as all the internal rooms were inspected carefully and each type of cracks
were photographed and recorded for further observations. The cracks have been
categorized on the basis of

(a) Thin— less than 1 mm in width,

(b) Medium — 1 to 2 mm in width, and
(c) Wide — more than 2 mm in width.
 21

Fig. 2.1 Cracks below window sill level

Width - Above 3mm
Type -Wide crack
Probable causes -Settlement of soil, Shrinkage or Overloading

Fig.2.2 Cracks at Juncture of slab and steel beam

Width-above 2mm
Type-Non-structural, Wide crack
Probable causes - Due to joint, contraction occur between two walls
 22

Fig.2.3 Cracks at juncture of brickwork & steel column

Width-Below 1mm,
Type-Thin crack, Non-structural
Probable causes - Less bonding between cement
and steel, Improper Curing, Shrinkage of slab & thermal variation

Fig.2.4 Vertical cracks in wall

Width-Between 1mm to 2mm
Type-Non-structural, Medium
Probable causes - Temperature Variation,
Shrinkage, & Moisture Changes
 23

Fig. 2.5 Cracks at corner of sunshade

Width-Above 5mm,
Type-Gap crack
Probable causes- Improper cantilevering, Due to joint
& Heavy exposure to water.

Fig.2.6 Cracks below a beam

Width-Above 2mm
Type-Structural, Medium cracks
Probable causes: - Due to Overloading
& Improper Design.
 24

Fig.2.7 Cracks above window

Width-more than 2mm
Type-Non-structural, Gap crack
Probable causes - Thermal variation, Moisture & Overloading.

Fig.2.8 Crack in RCC column

Width- Between 1 to 2mm
Type- Structural cracks
Probable cause- Less bonding between cement and steel, Improper curing, thermal variation
 25

CHAPTER 3
METHODOLOGY
3.1 DETAILED METHODOLOGY
The following flowchart represents the detailed methodology of the experimental process of the
repairing the cracked cube using epoxy injection method and retrofitting method.

Literature Review

Selection and collection of

materials
materials
Trial mixes

Curing process

UPV testing

Crack formation using

compression machine

Repairing of cracks using

compression
epoxy injection mac
and retrofitting

Result and discussion

Fig. 3.1 Methodology of the project

 26

3.1.1 Literature Review

Literature study is the reference study related to the project, from the journal papers reference
remarks were taken to do experimental study of the project. With collection of literatures the first
part of the project work starts

3.1.2 Selection and Collection of Materials

After the detailed theoretical study about the project selection, availability and collection of
materials is done in an economical manner. Materials such easily available cement, coarse
aggregate, fine aggregate, and reinforcement mesh is gathered.

3.1.3 Trial Mix

With the reference in Indian standard method (IS10262-2009) the design mix for M20 grade
concrete is been calculated.

3.1.4 Curing

Curing is the maintaining of an adequate moisture content and temperature in concrete at early
ages. So, that it can develop properties the mixture was designed to achieve placement and
finishing so that the concrete may develop the desired strength and durability.

3.1.5 UPV testing

An ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) test is an in-situ, nondestructive test to check the quality of
concrete and natural rocks. In this test, the strength and quality of concrete or rock is assessed by
measuring the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse passing through a concrete structure or natural rock
formation.
 27

3.1.6 Crack formation using compression machine

For the formation of cracks in the concrete, the concrete is placed in the compression machine
and the load is gradually increased until the required crack formation is obtained.

3.1.7 Repairing of cracks using epoxy injection and retrofitting methods

Epoxy injection is an economical method of repairing non-moving cracks in concrete walls, slabs,
columns and piers and is capable of restoring the concrete to its pre-cracked strength.
Retrofit is the process of adding some new features that were not there before. retrofitting is the
construction industry refers to the re-strengthening of the existing structure to make them seismic
resistant. Retrofitting is the economic approach to increase the life span of an existing structure
rather than redeveloping it.

3.1.8 Result and discussion

After testing and crack formation, the crack in the concrete is repaired using epoxy injection and
retrofitting method. Then the repaired concrete is tested to check whether the concrete has
regained its existing strength.
 28

CHAPTER 4
EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS

4.1 GENERAL

This chapter potrays the information regarding the materials such as cement, fine
aggregates,coarse aggregates,water,steel wire and polymer meshes used for making ferrocement
panels and also a simple mix design procedure, the various workability tests conducted on
ferrocement panels mix, the details about the size and the number of specimens casted are
presented elaboratetly.

4.2 MATERIAL INVESTIGATION

4.2.1 Cement

Cement is a building material used for making any type of concrete and structures. Among the
various types of cement available in the market,Portland pozzolona cement is used in this work.
This type of cement is manufactured by inter-grinding well burnt OPC clinker with gypsum and
pozzolanic materials like fly ash or silicious earths. The table below shows the physical properties
of cement.
Table.4.1 Physical properties of cement
S.NO PROPERTY VALUE
1 Standard consistency 29.5%
2 Initial setting time 30 minutes
3 Final setting time 6 hours
4 Specific gravity 2.90
 29

4.2.1.1 Specific Gravity of Cement

Specific gravity of cement is generally required for calculations in cement concrete design work
for determination for moisture content and calculation of volume yield of concrete. The specific
gravity of Pozzolona cement is found 2.90.

4.2.2 Fine aggregate

Good quality river sand free from silt and other impurities is used in this study. The physical
properties of the fine aggregate are shown in below

Table. 4.2 Physical Properties of The Fine Aggregate

DESCRIPTION VALUE

Specific gravity 2.74

Water absorbence(%) 3.70%

4.2.2.2 Specific Gravity Test and Water Absorption Test

Specific gravity for an aggregate is defined as the ratio of the of a given volume of sample to the
weight of equal volume of water at the same temperature. Specific gravity of fine aggregate is
generally required for calculation.
 30

Table.4.3 Specific gravity of fine Aggregate

S.NO DESCRIPTION 1(gm) 2(gm) 3(gm)

1 Weight of empty of 650 650 650

pycnometer, W1
2 Weight of pycnometer 1450 1450 1450
+Water, W2
3 Weight of Pycnometer 850 850 850
+FA, W 3
4 Weight of 1580 1577 1576
Pycnometer+FA+Water,W4
5 Weight of sand 200 200 200

6 Specific gravity of FA 2.85 2.74 2.67

Specific gravity of fine Aggregate =(W3-W1)/(W2-W1) -(W4-W3)

Average specific gravity of fine Aggregate=2.74

Table.4.4 Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate

S.NO DESCRIPTION VALUE

1 Weight of empty bin, 90

W1(gm)
2 Weight of bin+ saturated 230
FA, W5(gm)
3 Weight of bin+ oven dry 225
FA, W6(gm)
4 % Water Absorption 3.70%

% Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate= ((W5-W6)/(W6-W1) X100%

Average %Water Absorption of Fine Aggregate = 3.70%
 31

4.2.3 Water
Water should be free from oils, acids, alkalies, vegetables or any other organic impurities. Soft
water also produces weaker concrete. Water has two function in a concrete mix. First it reacts
chemically with the cement to form the cement paste in which the inert aggregates are held in
suspension until the cement paste has harderned . Secondly,it serves as a lubricant in the mixture
of fine aggregate and cement.

4.2.4 Coarse aggregate

Good quality of coarse aggregate which is free from impurities and passing through 6.3mm sieve
and retained on 4.74mm sieve is used in this study. The physical properties of the coarse aggregate
are shown below.

4.2.4.1 Physical Properties of The Coarse Aggregate

Table.4.5 Physical Properties of The Coarse Aggregate

DESCRIPTION VALUE

Specific gravity 2.54

Water absorbence(%) 1.5%

Size of the aggregate 6mm

4.2.4.2 Specific Gravity Test and Water Absorption Test

Specific gravity for an aggregate is defined as the ratio of the weight of a given volume of sample
to the weight of equal volume of water at the same temperature.Specific gravity of coarse
aggregate is generally requires for mix design calculation. Table gives the specific gravity of fine
aggregate.
 32

Table.4.6 Specific gravity of coarse aggregate

S.NO DESCRIPTION 1(gm) 2(gm) 3(gm)
1 Weight of pycnometer, W1 650 650 650

2 Weight of 1450 1450 1450

pycnometer+Water, W2
3 Weight of pycnometer + 850 850 850
CA, W3
4 Weight of 1569 1572 1575
pycnometer+CA+Water,W4
5 Weight of sand 200 200 200

6 Specific gravity of CA 2.40 2.56 1.66

Specific Gravity Aggregate =(W3-W1)/(W2-W1)-(W4-W3)

Average specific gravity of coarse Aggregate=2.54

Table.4.7 Water Absorption of Coarse Aggregate

S.NO DESCRIPTION VALUE

1 Weight of empty bin, 90

W1(gm)
2 Weight of bin+ 294
saturated CA, W5(gm)
3 Weight of bin + oven 291
dry CA, W6(gm)
4 % Water Absorption 1.50%

% Water Absorption of Coarse Aggregate = ((W5-W6)/(W6-W1))X100%

Average % Water Absorption of Coarse Aggeragate = 1.50%
 33

4.2.5 Epoxy

crack as narrow as 0.05 mm can be bonded by the injection of epoxy. Non-moving, dry cracks
were repaired by first sealing the face of the crack with a gel and then injecting epoxy resin into
the crack by following the procedure as laid down by the manufacturer.

4.2.5.1 Manufacturing Process of Epoxy

Epoxy resins are created by mixing BPA and epichlorohydrin (ECH), which are then reacted so
as to create the basic monomer unit of epoxy resin called BADGE or DGEBA. The properties of
the cured epoxy resins are determined by a chemical process called curing or hardening. It involves
mixing the resin with (poly)amines, aminoamides, phenolic compounds or other reactive
substances. This curingprocess will determine many properties of the cured epoxy resin, like, its
adhesion to other materials, durability, resistance and versatility. The ratios of BPA and ECH
alsocontribute to determine the epoxy’s final properties.

Residual BPA content: Epoxy can be used either in solid (SsER) or liquid (LER) form depending
on the applications. Thus, the amount of unreacted BPA in final applications would also depend
on the type of epoxy resin used. Although lots of factors indicate that the values usually are much
lower, according to literature LER can contain a maximum of 10 ppm of residual (unreacted) BPA.
For SsER the maximum amount is 65 ppm of BPA. This analysis assumed the highest estimate
for both type of epoxy resins; hence the final amount of residual epoxy per step of the life cycle
of epoxy resin is likely to be lower in reality. Unreacted BPA could potentially leave the epoxy
matrix and enter the environment but there are no available scientific studies specifying in what
quantities and how it would be further degraded in the environment.

4.2.5.2 Mix Proportion

In present work Indian standard method (IS456:2000) is used for mix design of concrete. Mix
proportions are shown in the table below
 34

Table.4.8 Mix Proportion

CEMENT FINE COARSE W/C RATIO
AGGREGATE AGGREGATE
1 1.5 3 0.55
575kg/m3 740kg/m3 1480kg/m3 0.55

4.2.5.3 Concreting
The throughly mixed concrete is poured carefully and slowly without causing much disturbances.
The concrete is filled in smaller or thinner layers and is agitated with the help of vibrating tables
to avoid the void formation.

Fig.4.1 concreting
 35

4.2.5.4 Casting
The mixed concrete is poured in the 15X15X15 CM mould for the formation of the cube structure
and is agitated with the help of tamping rod for vibration to avoid the void formation.

Fig.4.2 Tamping and Casting

4.2.5.5 Curing
As previously mentioned, the amount of water included in the concrete mix is usually enough
for the initial hydration of the cement. However, the water that is not immediately used up in the
chemical reaction can evaporate, particularly in hot climates, leaving insufficient water for the
complete hydration of the cement. This continuing hydration, which takes place over a long
period of time leads to the increase in strength already mentioned. It is therefore important to
reduce the water loss due to the sun, wind and heat of hydration. Providing the best conditions
continued strength gain is known as 'curing. The strength of un-cured concrete can be only 50%
of that of concrete properly cured for 14 days. Rapid drying of fresh concrete can cause shrinkage
cracks. The 8 specimens required been casted and kept for curing in water for about 28
days(4cubes) and 14 days(4cubes) till attaining the age of for testing.
 36

Fig.4.3 Curing of concrete cubes

4.2.5.6 UPV Testing

The ultrasonic methods refers to transmission and reflection of mechanical stress waves through
a medium in the frequency range of 20kHz to 2 MHz. Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity technique gives
relationship between the quality
of concrete and the velocity of an ultrasonic pulse that passes through the material. The velocity
of the ultrasonic waves in an isotropic medium is a function of the elastic modulli and the density
of the material. The ultrasonic
pulse velocity method involves measurement of travel time over a known path length of a pulse
of ultrasonic waves.
 37

CHAPTER 5
RESULT AND DISCUSSION

5.1 UPV Testing

This test is done to assess the quality of concrete by ultrasonic pulse velocity method as per IS:
13311 (Part 1) – 1992. The underlying principle of this test is The method consists of measuring
the time of travel of an ultrasonic pulse passing through the concrete being tested. Comparatively
higher velocity is obtained when concrete quality is good in terms of density, uniformity,
homogeneity etc.

Fig.5.1 Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity Test

Table.5.1 UPV Test For 28 days Cube

M20 grade Cube Pulse velocity (Km/s) Actual compressive
( 28 days curing) strength (N/mm^2)
Cube A 3.8 21.3
Cube B 3.63 20.1
Cube C 3.57 20.9
Cube D 3.7 20.4
 38

Table.5.2 UPV Test For 14 days Cube

M20 grade Cube Pulse velocity (Km/s) Actual compressive
(14 days curing) strength (N/mm^2)
Cube E 3.2 15.4
Cube F 3.68 16.3
Cube G 3.52 16.1
Cube H 3.8 16.5

5.2 CRACK FORMATION

The built concrete cube is made to get cracked under compression testing machine, flaws such as
pores and voids are present in cement paste, and thereforein concrete. These flaws acts as stress
raiser and cause the initiation of cracks in the compressive stress field.Gradually increasing the
load until the required crack formation occurs and after the investigation of the formation of the
cracks the suitable method for repairing the crack is selected.

Fig.5.2 Crack Formation Process

 39

Fig.5.3 Crack Formation in The Concrete Cubes

Fig.5.4 Crack Formation in The Concrete Cubes

5.3 Repairing of cracks using epoxy injection

The crack in every cube formed approximately from the centre line and the edges and corners at
the region of maximum moment.

Fig.5.5 Applying of Epoxy Mortar

 40

The crack is cleaned using the wire brush to allow the epoxy to bond to sound concrete for placing
the paste over epoxy. Under pressure of injection these materials may lift and cause a leak. If the
surface coating is covering the crack, it may be necessary to route out the opening of the crack in
a "V" shape using a grinder in order to get past the surface contamination.

Fig.5.6 Attachment of Injection Ports

To adhere the port to the concrete a small amount of epoxy around the bottom of the port base is
applied. The port is placed at one end of the crack and repeated until the entire crack is ported.

Fig.5.7 Injection of The Epoxy Resin In Port

The injected epoxy resins are made to dry for 3days, so that the resins will get filled in the cracks
effectively, thus regaining old existing strength of the cube.
 41

5.4 UPV Testing After Repairing of Cracks

After repairing the cracks, the cube is again tested using ultrasonic pulse velocity machine to
check its quality and strength, therefore the result is predicted to be the same before the crack
formation and after repairing it.

Table.5.3 UPV Test For Repaired Concrete

M20 grade Cube Pulse velocity (Km/s) Actual compressive
(14 days curing) strength (N/mm^2)
Cube E 3.13 15.1

Cube F 3.34 15.9

Cube A 3.65 20.8

Cube B 3.42 19.7

5.5 Rebound Hammer Test (Epoxy injection method)

Rebound hammer test is done to find out the compressive strength of concrete by using rebound
hammer as per IS: 13311 (Part 2) - 1992. The underlying principle of the rebound hammer test
is: The rebound of an elastic mass depends on the hardness of the surface against which its mass
strikes. When the plunger of the rebound hammer is pressed against the surface of the concrete,
the Spring-controlled mass rebounds and the extent of such a rebound depends upon the surface
hardness of the concrete. The surface hardness and therefore the rebound is taken to be related to
the compressive strength of the concrete.
 42

Fig.5.8 Rebound Hammer Testing For Cubes

 43

Table.5.4 Rebound Hammer Test Results For Cube

Rebound Compressive Compressive Original
Α
Cube value strength strength Compressive
(kg/cm^2) (N/mm^2) strength

E 0° 30 210 21.0 21.0

F 0° 28 180 18.0 18.6
A 0° 27 165 14.0 16.0
B 0° 29 190 19.0 20.0

5.6 Repairing of cracks by Retrofitting method

Retrofitting work includes changing or repairing the structure system of a building after its
construction and occupation. This work result in increased safety and durability of the structure.
Retrofitting of structural members is carried out to regain the strength of deteriorated structural
concrete elements. The strength deficiency of concrete structural members can be due to poor
workmanship, design errors, and deterioration due to the aggression of harmful agents.
In this method the 15x15x15 cm cube were made to get cracked using the compression machine
and the cracked cube placed inside the 20x20x20 cm mould and the concrete of M20 grade is
poured into the mould consist of a 15x15x15cm cube, thus making the cube packed with concrete
for 2.5cm cover on all the sides.
 44

Fig.5.9 Cube Mould Size 20x20x20 cm

Fig.5.10 20x20x20 cm Cube Consisting of 15x15x15 cm Cube

 45

5.7 Rebound Hammer Test (Retrofitting method)

Rebound test for retrofitted cube of 15x15x15 cm in 20x20x20 cm size cube.
Table.5.5 Rebound Hammer Test Results
Rebound Compressive Compressive Original
Α
Cube Value strength strength Compressive
(kg/cm^2) (N/mm^2) strength
(N/mm^2)
G 0° 29 190 19.0 19.5
H 0° 28 180 18.0 18.2
C 0° 29 190 19.0 19.5
D 0° 30 210 21.0 19.4

5.8 Graph On Epoxy Injection Method And Retrofitting Method

X-axis is the strength regained and Y-axis is the number of curing days of the concrete cube. The
graph below clearly shows that the regaining strength is mostly achieved in epoxy injection
method.

21.5

21

20.5
(compressive strength)

20

19.5

19
Epoxy injection
18.5 Retrofitting
18

17.5

17

16.5
14 days 14 days 28 days 28 days
(age of testing)

Fig.5.11 Graph on Epoxy Injection and Retrofitting Method

 46

CHAPTER 6
CONCLUSION
This study gives insight to types of cracks, causes of cracks and prevention of cracks and also
about the various methods to get them repaired especially using epoxy injection method and
Retrofitting method. Various techniques for treatment of cracks are discussed in this study and
from results it is clear that the regaining strength in epoxy injection method is many times efficient
than retrofitting method. And also, not all type of crack requires same level of consideration. The
probable causes of crack can be controlled if proper consideration is given to construction material
and technique to be used. In case of existing cracks, after detailed study and analysis of crack
parameters, most appropriate method of correction should be adopted for effective and efficient
repair of crack.
 47

REFERENCES
[1] Rajveer Singh Narwaria, Archana Tiwari, “Development of cracks in concrete, preventive
measures and treatment methods: A review” .International Research Journal of Engineering and
Technology (IRJET), Volume: 03 Issue: 09, pp.671-677, Sep -2016
[2] Rishabh Pathak, Deepak Rastogi, “Case Study on Cracks in Public Buildings and their
Remedies”, International Journal of Science and Research

(IJSR), Volume 6 Issue 5, pp. 325-329, May 2017

[3] Prasad S. Barve, Dr. Lalit S. Thakur, Ruchi P. Barve, Jaimin K. Shah, Neha P. Patel,
“Detection and sizing study of Cracks: a Case study”, International Journal of Advance Research
in Engineering,Science & Technology(IJAREST), Volume 2, Issue 8, pp.84-91, August-
2015
[4] Grishma Thagunna,”Building cracks – Causes and Remedies”, International Journal of
Advanced Structures and Geotechnical Engineering ISSN 2319- 5347, Vol. 04, No. 01, pp.16-
20, January 2015
[5] SP 25-1984: “Handbook on Causes and Prevention of Cracks in Buildings”
[6] IS 456-2000: “Indian Standard Plain and Reinforced concrete - Code of
Practice”
[8] ACI Committee 224 (2007) Causes, evaluation, and repairs of cracks in concrete structures
(224.1R-07). American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills,
[9] ACI Committee 546R-96 (1996) Concrete repair guide. American Concrete Institute,
Michigan
[10] ACI Committee E706 (2003) Structural crack repair by epoxy injection (ACI RAP bulletin
1). American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, p 5
 48

MEENAKSHI SUNDARARAJAN ENGINEERING COLLEGE

Arcot Road, Kodambakkam, Chennai 600 024
(Approved by AICTE and Accredited by NBA)
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
CO-PO MAPPING

Course Outcomes

At the end of the course, the student will be able to

Take up challenging practical problems and solve problems by formulating proper
C410.1
methodologies

Gain knowledge of the civil engineering field and gain knowledge and be up to date with the
C410.2
latest technology.

C410.3 Find solutions for complex civil engineering problems.

Program Outcome:

1. Engineering Knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem Analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences and Engineering sciences.
3. Design/Development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineeringproblems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with
appropriate consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and
environmental considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of
data,and synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
 49

5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent
responsibilities relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional
engineering solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the
knowledge of, and need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities
and norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend
and write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and
give and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering management principles and apply these to one's own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for and have the preparation and ability to
engage in independent and lifelong learning in the broadest context of technological
change.

Program specific outcomes:

PSO1: Able to apply the engineering fundamentals to analyze and design various Civil
Engineering Structures.
PSO2: Catering to the changing industrial needs and adapting green concepts for different
applications.
PSO3: Understand the civil engineering solutions in the social context.
 50

CO-PO Mapping

CO PO1 PO2 PO3 PO4 PO5 PO6 PO7 PO8 PO9 PO10 PO11 PO12

C410.1

C410.2

C410.3

AVERAGE

CO-PSO Mapping

CO PSO1 PSO2 PSO3

C410.1

C410.2

C410.3

AVERAGE

Signature of Internal Guide