Circuit Elements

• 5 ideal basic circuit elements:

– voltage source active elements, capable of
generating electric energy
MUH 103/105 – current source
– resistor passive elements, incapable of
Electric Circuit Theory – inductor generating electric energy
– capacitor
• Many practical systems can be modeled with just
“Fundamentals and sources and resistors
Introduction to Electric Circuits” • The basic analytical techniques for solving circuits
with inductors and capacitors are similar to those for
resistive circuits

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Electrical Sources Ideal Voltage Source

• An electrical source is a device that is capable of
• Circuit element that maintains a prescribed voltage
converting non-electric energy to electric energy and vice
across its terminals, regardless of the current flowing
versa.
in those terminals.
Examples: – Voltage is known, but current is determined by the
– battery: chemical electric circuit to which the source is connected.
– dynamo (generator/motor): mechanical electric • The voltage can be either independent or dependent
(Ex. gasoline-powered generator, Bonneville dam) on a voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit, and can
be constant or time-varying.
 Electrical sources can either deliver or absorb power Device symbols:

vs +_ vs=m vx +_ vs=r ix +_

independent voltage-controlled current-controlled

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 Ideal Current Source Dependent and Independent Sources

• Circuit element that maintains a prescribed current

through its terminals, regardless of the voltage across
those terminals.
– Current is known, but voltage is determined by the
circuit to which the source is connected.
• The current can be either independent or dependent
on a voltage or current elsewhere in the circuit, and can
be constant or time-varying.
Device symbols:

is is=a vx is=b ix

independent voltage-controlled current-controlled

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Current vs. Voltage (I-V) Characteristic I-V Characteristic of Ideal Voltage Source
i
• Voltage sources, current sources, and resistors can What is a voltage source?
be described by plotting the current (i) as a function
of the voltage (v) a i
+
i Vab +
_ v i=0
s v
_
+ Vs>0
v b
_
1. Plot the I-V characteristic for vs > 0. For what values of
i does the source absorb power? For what values of i
does the source release power?
Passive? Active? Vs>0  i<0 release power; i>0 absorb power

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 I-V Characteristic of Ideal Voltage Source I-V Characteristic of Ideal Voltage Source
i i i i
a a
+ +
Vab +
_ vs Vab +
_ vs
_ _
b v b v
Vs<0

2. Plot the I-V characteristic for vs < 0. For what values of 3. What is the I-V characteristic for an ideal wire?
i does the source absorb power? For what values of i
does the source release power?
Vs<0  i>0 release power; i<0 absorb power Do not forget Vab=-Vba

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I-V Characteristic of Ideal Current Source I-V Characteristic of Ideal Resistor

i i i
What is a current source? a
i +
v R
+ _
v is v b v
_

1. Plot the I-V characteristic for R = 1 kW. What is the slope?

a a
1. Plot the I-V characteristic for is > 0. For what values of +
v does the source absorb power? For what values of v Vab
does the source release power? Vab R R
_
V>0 absorb power; V<0 release power b b
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 Electrical Resistance Electrical Resistance

• Resistance: the ratio of voltage drop and current. The circuit

element used to model this behavior is the resistor.

Circuit symbol: R

Units: Volts per Ampere ≡ ohms (W)

• The current flowing in the resistor

is proportional to the voltage
across the resistor:
Georg Simon Ohm
v=iR (Ohm’s Law) 1789-1854

where v = voltage (V), i = current (A), and R = resistance (W)

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Electrical Resistance Electrical Conductance

• v(t) = i(t) R - or - V=IR • Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance. (İletkenlik-kondüktans)

• p(t) = i2 (t) R = v2 (t)/R [+ (absorbing)] Symbol: G
i(t)
W
Units: siemens (S) or mhos ( )
The +
Rest of R v(t)
the Werner von Siemens
Circuit – 1816-1892

Example:
• If the voltage across a 25W bulb is 120V, what is its resistance?
Consider an 8 W resistor. What is its conductance?
R = V 2/P = (120V)2/25W = 576 W
1 1
• What is the current flowing through the 25W bulb? G   0.125 siemens
R 8
I = V/R = 120V/576 W = 0.208 A
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 Effect of Temperature Effect of Temperature

Material resistance changes with temperature For copper resistors: R1 T1  235


T  T0 R2 T2  235
R2  2 R1 R2  R11 aT2  T1
T1  T0
100 20  235
R1  100W  R2  131.2W
R2 100  235

In general;

R2  R11 aT2  T1 Where alpha is temperature coefficients of the

resistance in 10-3 / oC

R2  1001 0.0039100  20

R2  131.2W

R R1  R2
 aT  aT1  T2  R2  R11 aT2  T1
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Terminology: Nodes and Branches Notation: Node and Branch Voltages

Node: A point where two or more circuit elements are • Use one node as the reference (the “common” or
connected “ground” node) – label it with a symbol
• The voltage drop from node x to the reference node is
called the node voltage vx.
• The voltage across a circuit element is defined as the
difference between the node voltages at its terminals

Branch: A path that connects two nodes Example:

– v1 +
a R1 b
+ +
va _+ vs R2 vb
_ _
c  REFERENCE NODE
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 Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL)

• Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) (Charge stored in node is zero.)

– sum of all currents entering a node is zero • Sum of currents entering node = sum of currents leaving node
– sum of currents entering node is equal to sum of • Algebraic sum of currents entering node = 0.
currents leaving node – Currents leaving are included with a minus sign.
• Algebraic sum of currents leaving node = 0
i1(t) i5(t) – Currents entering are included with a plus sign.
i2(t) i4(t)
Gustav Robert Kirchhoff
i3(t) 1824-1887 • KCL tells us that all of the elements in a single branch
carry the same current.
The sum of currents entering the node is zero: • We say these elements are connected in series.
n

 i (t )  0
j 1
j
Current entering node =
Current leaving node

i1 = i2
Analogy: mass flow at pipe junction
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KCL Example Example 1: KCL

Q: How much is the current Io ?

Currents entering the node: A: io = 2.5 mA + 4 mA = 6.5 mA
-10 mA
i
5 mA Currents leaving the node: 2.5 mA
4 mA

io
15 mA i4 i2 i3

50 mA • Note that a “node” need not be a discrete point

5mA • The dotted circle is a node with 2.5 mA entering
KCL Examples:
• Hence i2 = 2.5 mA exits the “node”.
2mA i Similarly, i3 = 4 mA.
• From KCL, i4 = i2 + i3 = 6.5 mA, and Io = i4
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 Example 2: KCL KCL Summary

Q: How much are the currents i1 and i2 ?

A: i2 = 10 mA – 3 mA = 7 mA Review: Different ways to state KCL:

i1 = 10 mA + 4 mA = 14 mA
 The sum of all currents entering a node must be zero.
 The net current entering a node must be zero.
10 mA
node  Whatever flows into a node must come out.
i1 3 mA i2
4 mA

+
_

4 mA + 3 mA + 7 mA = 14 mA

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Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL)

• Consider a branch which forms part of a loop:
The algebraic sum of all the voltages around any loop in a
circuit equals zero.
+ –
loop v1 loop v2
+ – + _
+ v2(t) +
v1(t) – v3(t)
– Moving from + to -, add V1 Moving from - to +, subtract V1

• The sum of voltages around a loop is zero: • Use reference polarities to determine whether a voltage is dropped
n • No concern about actual voltage polarities

v j 1
j (t )  0 • Sum of voltage drops around loop = sum of voltage rises around
loop
• Algebraic sum of voltage drops around loop = 0
• Analogy: pressure drop thru pipe loop – Voltage rises are included with a minus sign.
• Algebraic sum of voltage rises around loop = 0
– Voltage drops are included with a minus sign.
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 A Major Implication of KVL KVL Example

• KVL tells us that any set of elements which are connected Three closed paths:
at both ends carry the same voltage.
+ v2  v3
b
 +
• We say these elements are connected in parallel. a c

1 2
+ + +
+ + va vb vc
va vb  - 
_ _
Path 1: 3

Applying KVL in the clockwise direction, Path 2:

starting at the top: Path 3:
vb – va = 0  vb = va
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Example 1: KVL Example 2: KVL

Q: If v1 = 10 V and v5 = 2 V, what are v2, v3, and v4?
Q: How much is the voltage Vo ?
A: Vo = 3.1 V + 6.8 V A: v2 = 10 V
v3 = 10 V – 2 V = 8 V
v4 = 2 V
+ 3.1V – + v3 –
+ +
+ 6.8 V
_ Vo v4
– _ + + + +
v1 = 10 V + v2 v4 v5 = 2 V
– _
Q: How much is the voltage v4 ? – – –

A: v4 = 6.8 V

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 KVL and KCL Summary Resistors in Series
Consider a circuit with multiple resistors connected in series.
1. Find their “equivalent resistance”.

The sum of all the currents entering a node is zero. I

• KCL tells us that the same
current (I) flows through every
R1 resistor
R2 • KVL tells us
2. VSS +
 R3
The sum of voltages around a closed loop is zero.
R4

Equivalent resistance of resistors in series is the sum

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Voltage Divider When can the Voltage Divider Formula be Used?

I I
I
+ KVL: R1 R1
R1
– V1 R2 + R2
+
R2 Vss  R1I  R2 I  R3 I  R4 I  0 + – V2 VSS +
V
– 2
VSS
VSS +  R3  R3
+
 R3
– V3 R4 R4 R5
Vss
R4 I
R1  R2  R3  R4 
R R
V  2 V V ≠ 2 V
2 SS 2 SS
R R R R R R R R
1 2 3 4 1 2 3 4
Correct, if nothing else Why? What is V2?
is connected to nodes
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 Resistors in Parallel General Formula for Parallel Resistors
What single resistance Req is equivalent to three resistors in parallel?
Consider a circuit with two resistors connected in parallel.
Find their “equivalent resistance”. I I
+ +
eq
x • KVL tells us that the
V R1 R2 R3  V Req
 
same voltage is dropped
I1 I2 across each resistor
ISS R1 R2 Vx = I1 R1 = I2 R2 1 1 1 1 1
   Req 
• KCL tells us Req R1 R2 R3 1 1 1
 
• Illustration: Req = R1 // R2
R1 R2 R3
V
I
Req

Equivalent conductance of resistors in parallel is the sum

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Generalized Current Divider Formula Short Circuit and Open Circuit

x • Short circuit
I1 I2 Vx = I1 R1 = ISS Req – R = 0  no voltage difference exists
ISS R1 R2
– all points on the wire are at the same potential.
– Current can flow, as determined by the circuit
• Open circuit
– R =   no current flows
Consider a current divider circuit with >2 resistors in parallel: – Voltage difference can exist, as determined by the circuit
+
I1 I2 I3 V i(t) = v(t)/R = 0
I R1 R2 R3
v(t) = R i(t) = 0
i(t) i(t)=0

The + The +
I Rest of v(t)=0 Rest of v(t)
V
 1   1   1  V  1/R 3  the the
      I3   I  – –
 R1   R 2   R 3  R3  1
1/R  1/R 2  1/R 3
Circuit Circuit
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 Units Units

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Measuring Voltage and Current Measuring Voltage

• Keep in mind that:
– Both Ampmeters and voltmeters have internal resistances
– Voltameters have large internal resistance because of parallel
connection
– Ampmeters have small internal resistance because of series
connection
To measure the voltage drop across an element in a real
circuit, insert a voltmeter (digital multimeter in voltage
mode) in parallel with the element.
Voltmeters are characterized by their “voltmeter input
resistance” (Rin). Ideally, this should be very high (typical
value 10 Mohms)

Ideal
Voltmeter

Rin

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 Effect of Voltmeter Measuring Current
undisturbed circuit circuit with voltmeter inserted
To measure the current flowing through an element in a real
circuit, insert an ammeter (digital multimeter in current mode) in
R1 R1 series with the element.
+ + Ammeters are characterized by their “ammeter input resistance”
VSS +
_ +
VSS _
R2 V2 R2 Rin V2′ (Rin). Ideally, this should be very low (typical value 1W).
– –
Ideal
Ammeter
 R2   R2 || Rin 
V2  VSS   V2  VSS  
R1  R2  R2 || Rin  R1 
Rin
Example: VSS  10 V, R2  100K, R1  900K  V2  1V
Rin  10M , V2  ?
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Effect of Ampmeter Using Equivalent Resistances

Measurement error due to non-zero input resistance: Simplify a circuit before applying KCL and/or KVL:
undisturbed circuit circuit with ampmeter inserted
Example: Find I
I Imeas
ampmeter I
R1 R1 R1 R1 = R2 = 3 kW
Rin R3 R3 = 6 kW
R2
V1 +
_ V1 +
_ +
R2 7V R4

R2 R4 = R5 = 5 kW
R6
R5 R6 = 10 kW
V1 V1
I Imeas 
R1  R2 R1  R2  Rin
Example: V1 = 1 V, R1= R2 = 500 W, Rin = 1W
1V
I  1mA, I meas  ?
500W  500W
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 Using Equivalent Resistances Using Equivalent Resistances

Find the equivalent resistance of the circuit: Find the current of the source by finding the equivalent resistance
of the following circuit:
I
R1
R3 (R1 +R2)//R3 = 3 kW
R2
+
7V R4


R6 (R4 +R5)//R6 = 5 kW
R5

7V
+ Res Res = 8 kW


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Using Equivalent Resistances The Wheatstone Bridge

• Circuit used to precisely measure resistances in the range

from 1 W to 1 MW, with ±0.1% accuracy
 R1 and R2 are resistors with known values
 R3 is a variable resistor (typically 1 to 11,000W)
 Rx is the resistor whose value is to be measured

battery R1 R2
V 12V
i   8A
Req 1.5ohm +
V
current detector
–
R3 Rx
variable resistor

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 Finding the value of Rx Identifying Series and Parallel Combinations
Some circuits must be analyzed (not amenable to simple inspection)
• Adjust R3 until there is no current in the detector
R1
R2 R1 R2
Then, Rx = R3 + R3 I
Derivation: V
R1 
+ R2 R3
V -
R4 R5

R4

R1 R2
i1 i2 Special cases:
+ R3 = 0 OR R3 = 
V R5
i3 ix
–
R3 Rx

Typically, R2 / R1 can be varied

from 0.001 to 1000 in decimal steps
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KCL KCL

1. Find the voltage Vo across 40 ohm resistor in the following resistive circuit. First, label nodes currents and voltages

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KCL KVL

2. First, Vo using mesh currents.

We need to use KVL here to apply mesh currents to the following circuit

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KVL KVL and KCL

3. Determine the voltage V in the following resistive circuit

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 KVL and KCL KVL and KCL

4. Find V1 in the following circuit

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KVL and KCL Dependent Sources

5. Find V and I in the following circuit 6. Determine the VX and i in the following resistive circuit

Source current of 40mA flows into parallel resistors. So, by current division
20
I x 40  32mA
20  5

By KVL V  900  32 (5)  740V

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Dependent Sources Voltage Divider

7. First, Vo if R1=5ohms and R2=1ohms. Assume Vs=24V

V  Vs  IR1  IR2  0 V  Vs  IR1  IR2  0

Vs
I
R1  R2

 Vs   R2 
Vo  IR2    R2  Vs  
 R1  R2   R1  R2 

 1 
Vo  24   4V
 5  1

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Current Divider Current Divider

8. Find i1, i2 and i3 in the

following circuit.

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 Open circuit Power

9. Find the open circuit voltage below 10. Calculate I and P absorbed by the dependent source

Apply Ohm law to 4 ohm resistor V1  4 I

60
Using voltage division; V1  x100  60V
60  40 So voltage rise across the dependent source 4.5(4I )  18I

Applying KVL to the right hand half; V10  30  Vab  10  V1  0 Now applying KVL; 4I  2I  18I  24 I  2 A

0  30  Vab  10  60  0  Vab  80V

Power absorbed by the source P  4.5V1I  18I 2  72W

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Power Power

11. Find Vo and i 12. Find Vo, power supplied

by the source, power
dissipated by each resistor.

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 Power

13.

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