Professional Documents
Culture Documents
External Memory: William Stallings, Computer Organization and Architecture, 9 Edition
External Memory: William Stallings, Computer Organization and Architecture, 9 Edition
External Memory: William Stallings, Computer Organization and Architecture, 9 Edition
Cylinders
+
+ The head mechanism
provides a classification of
Disk Classification
disks into three types
Seek time
On a movable–head system, the time it takes to position the
head at the track
+ Disk Performance
Parameters
Rotational delay (rotational latency)
The time it takes for the beginning of the sector
to reach the head
Access time
The sum of the seek time and the rotational delay
The time it takes to get into position to read or write
Transfer time
Once the head is in position, the read or write operation is
then performed as the sector moves under the head
This is the data transfer portion of the operation
+ Consists of 7 levels
Characteristics Performance
Makes use of a parallel access An error-correcting code is calculated
technique across corresponding bits on each data
disk and the bits of the code are stored
In a parallel access array all
in the corresponding bit positions on
member disks participate in
multiple parity disks
the execution of every I/O
request Typically a Hamming code is used,
which is able to correct single-bit
Spindles of the individual
errors and detect double-bit errors
drives are synchronized so
that each disk head is in the The number of redundant disks is
same position on each disk at proportional to the log of the number of
any given time data disks
Data striping is used Would only be an effective choice in an
Strips are very small, often as environment in which many disk errors
small as a single byte or word occur
+ RAID Level 3
Performance
Redundancy
In the event of a drive failure, the parity drive
is accessed and data is reconstructed from
Requires only a single
the remaining devices
redundant disk, no matter
how large the disk array Once the failed drive is replaced, the
missing data can be restored on the new
Employs parallel access,
drive and operation resumed
with data distributed in
small strips In the event of a disk failure, all of the data
are still available in what is referred to as
Instead of an error
reduced mode
correcting code, a simple
parity bit is computed for Return to full operation requires that the
the set of individual bits in failed disk be replaced and the entire
the same position on all of contents of the failed disk be regenerated on
the data disks the new disk
Can achieve very high data In a transaction-oriented environment
transfer rates performance suffers
+ RAID Level 4
Characteristics
Characteristics Characteristics
A memory device
made with solid state Two distinctive
components that can
be used as a Flash memory types of flash
replacement to a hard memory:
disk drive (HDD) A type of
semiconductor NOR
memory used in many •The basic unit of access is a bit
consumer electronic •Provides high-speed random
access
products including •Used to store cell phone
smart phones, GPS
The term solid devices, MP3 players,
operating system code and on
Windows computers for the
state refers to digital cameras, and BIOS program that runs at
start-up
electronic USB devices
circuitry built NAND
with • The basic unit is 16 or 32 bits
Cost and
semiconducto performance has
• Reads and writes in small
blocks
rs evolved to the point • Used in USB flash drives,
memory cards, and in SSDs
where it is feasible to • Does not provide a random-
use to replace HDDs access external address bus so
the data must be read on a
block-wise basis
Flash Memory Operation
+
+
SSD
Organization
+ Practical Issues
There are two practical issues peculiar to SSDs
that are not faced by HDDs:
Flash memory becomes
SDD performance has a
unusable after a certain number
tendency to slow down as the
of writes
device is used
Techniques for prolonging life:
The entire block must be read
from the flash memory and Front-ending the flash with a
cache to delay and group write
placed in a RAM buffer
operations
Before the block can be Using wear-leveling algorithms
written back to flash memory, that evenly distribute writes
the entire block of flash across block of cells
memory must be erased Bad-block management
The entire block from the techniques
buffer is now written back to Most flash devices estimate their
the flash memory own remaining lifetimes so
systems can anticipate failure
and take preemptive action
+ 6.4- Optical Memory
Compact Disk Read-Only Memory
Audio CD and the CD-ROM share a similar technology
The main difference is that CD-ROM players are more rugged and
have error correction devices to ensure that data are properly transferred
Production:
The disk is formed from a resin (nhựa nhân tạo) such as polycarbonate
Digitally recorded information is imprinted as a series of microscopic pits
(hố) on the surface of the polycarbonate. This is done with a finely focused,
high intensity laser to create a master disk
The master is used, in turn, to make a die to stamp out copies onto
polycarbonate
The pitted surface is then coated with a highly reflective surface, usually
aluminum or gold
This shiny surface is protected against dust and scratches by a top
coat of clear acrylic
Finally a label can be silkscreened onto the acrylic
Table 6. 6: Optical Disk Products
+
CD Operation
+
CD-ROM Block Format
+
CD-ROM is appropriate for the distribution of CD-ROM
large amounts of data to a large number of users
Serial recording
Data are laid out as a sequence of bits along each track
6.7 Define the terms seek time, rotational delay, access time,
and transfer time.
+
Exercises
6.7 Define the terms seek time, rotational delay, access time,
and transfer time.
Chapter 6
RAID
Magnetic disk
RAID level 0
Magnetic read and write
mechanisms RAID level 1
Data organization and RAID level 2
formatting
RAID level 3
Physical characteristics
RAID level 4
Disk performance parameters
RAID level 5
Solid state drives RAID level 6
Flash memory
SSD compared to HDD Optical memory
SSD organization Compact disk
Practical issues
Digital versatile disk