MOTIVATION

Motivation–that which causes, channels, and sustains people’s behavior–has always been an
important and puzzling subject for managers. It is important because managers, by definition, work with
and through people. They need some understanding of why people behave as they do so that they can
influence people to perform in ways the organization finds desirable.
The term motivation refers to two different but related ideas. From the standpoint of the
individual, motivation is an internal state that leads to the pursuit of objectives. On the other hand, from
the standpoint of the manager, motivation is the process of getting people to pursue objectives.
The word motivation comes from the Latin word “movere” which means to move. Numerous
definitions are given for the term. Usually include are such words as aim, desire, end, impulse, intention,
objective, and purpose.
In motivation, needs produce motives which lead to the accomplishment of goals. Needs are
caused by deficiencies, which can be either physical or psychological. A motive is a stimulus which leads
to an action that satisfies the need. Achievement of the goal satisfies the need and reduces the motive.
When the goal is reached, balance is restored. However, other needs arise which are then satisfied by
the same sequence of events. Understanding the motivation sequence in itself offers a manager little
help in determining what motivates people.

THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

The theories of motivation help to provide a broader understanding of what motivates people.
The theories of motivation can be characterized as content or process. Distinctions are made on the
basis of content theories, which focus on the “what” of motivation, and process theories, which focus on
the “how” of motivation.

CONTENT THEORIES

The content perspective stresses understanding the factors within individuals that cause them
to act in a certain way. In this view, individuals have inner needs that they are driven, pressured, or
motivated to reduce or fulfill. That is, individuals will act or behave in ways that will lead to the
satisfaction of their needs. Content theories are also the earliest theories of motivation.

a. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

One of the most important theories of motivation is the hierarchy of needs theory postulated by
industrial psychologist Abraham W. Maslow. He stated that human needs in the form of a hierarchy
should be satisfied in order, from the lowest to the highest needs.

The physiological needs are basically the needs of the human body that must be satisfied in
order to sustain life. These needs include food, sleep, water, exercise, clothing, shelter, and so forth.
Safety needs are concerned with protection against danger, threat, or deprivation. The social needs are
the needs for love, affection, belonging—all are concerned with establishing one’s position relative to
others. Esteem needs influence the development of various kinds of relationships based on adequacy,
 5th Level
Self Actualization
4th Level
Self Esteem
3rd Level
Social Needs
2nd Level
Security
1st Level
Physiological

Figure 1: Hierarchy of Needs

independence, and the giving and receiving of indications of self-esteem and acceptance. The highest-
order need is concerned with the need for self-actualization or self-fulfillment that is, the need of
people to reach their full potential in applying their abilities and interests to functioning in their
environment.

a. Alderfer’s ERG Theory

Clayton Alderfer reorganized Abraham Maslow’s hierarchy of needs into three levels: E
(Existence needs) – includes both physiological and safety needs; R (Relatedness needs) – comprises
love and belongingness needs; and G (Growth needs) – incorporates both esteem and self-actualization
needs. This theory is very flexible; it explains needs as a range rather than as a hierarchy.

b. McClelland’s Needs Theory of Motivation

It is closely related to the need hierarchy theory, primarily developed by David McClelland. This
theory holds that all people have three needs: (1) a need to achieve, (2) a need for power, and (3) a need
for affiliation. The need for achievement is a desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has
been done before. The need for power is basically a concern for influencing people—to be strong and
influential. The need for affiliation is a need to be liked—to establish or maintain friendly relations with
others. According to this theory, it is the responsibility of managers to recognize the dominating needs
in both themselves and their employees and to integrate these differences effectively.

c. Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory

Frederick Herzberg and his associates (Bernard Mausner and Barbara Syndeman) developed this
theory of work motivation. The theory is referred to by several names: motivation-maintenance theory,
two- factor theory, dual-factor theory, or motivation-hygiene theory.
The theory contends that motivation comes from the individual, not from the manager.
Satisfiers are associated with the job itself and dissatisfiers with the context in which the job is
performed. The findings of Herzberg and his associates suggest that workers can be motivated best by
satisfying the needs of the individuals for the satisfiers.
He concluded that job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction come from two separate sets of
factors, which he called “satisfiers” (motivating factors) and “dissatisfiers” (hygiene factors). The
satisfiers included achievement, recognition, responsibility, and advancement. The dissatisfiers included
such factors as salary, working conditions, and company policy.

d. McGregor’s Theory X & Y

McGregor categorizes the assumptions upon which traditional organizations are based into
theory “X,” and the assumptions consisted with the modern organizations into theory “Y.” Theory “X”
views human beings as inherently lazy and hence must be motivated by force. On the other hand,
theory “Y” contends that external force or punishment is not the best way of motivating individuals
because they are capable of exercising self-direction and self-control.
McGregor emphasizes that motivation of employees is best achieved when management
creates an environment that encourages members involving both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, by
directing their efforts towards the goals of the organization.

PROCESS THEORIES

The process approach emphasizes how and by what goals individuals are motivated. In this
view, needs are just one element in the process through which individuals decide how to behave.

a. Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory

Reinforcement theory, associated with B. F. Skinner and others, is often called “operant
conditioning” or “behavior modification.” This theory deals with how the consequences of a past action
influence future actions in a cyclical learning process. It is based on the law of effect, which states that
behavior that has a rewarding consequence is likely to be repeated; whereas behavior that leads to a
negative, or punishing consequence tends not to be repeated.

b. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

Victor Vroom explains that motivation is a product of three factors, Valence (how much one
wants a reward), Expectancy (one’s estimate of the probability that effort will result in successful
performance) and Instrumentality (one’s estimate that performance will result in receiving the reward).

c. Adam’s Equity Theory

The equity theory states that people are motivated if they are treated equitably, and receive
what they consider fair for their effort and costs. The theory was developed by J. Stacy Adams and is
based on Social Exchange theory. In simple terms, this theory states that equity occurs when the ratio of
a person’s outcome to his inputs equals to the ratio of another person’s output to inputs. Inequity
happens when the ratios are unequal. Equity theory assumes that people assess their performance and
attitudes by comparing both their contribution to work and the benefits they derive from it to the
contributions and benefits of another person.

d. Locke’s Goal-Setting Theory

This theory by Edwin Locke, emphasizes that setting specific, challenging performance goals and
the commitment to these goals are key determinants of motivation. Goals describe a desired future, and
these established goals can drive the behavior. Achieving the goals, the goal accomplishment further
motivates individuals to perform.

ISSUES IN MOTIVATION

1. CROSS-CULTURAL CHALLENGES

Most of the theories were developed in the USA and were meant for the Americans. Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs aligns with American culture. Managers working in different cultures must
understand the local cultures. Cultures define needs, behavior, and reinforcements.

2. MOTIVATING PARTICULAR GROUPS OF WORKERS

Different employees join an organization with different skills, abilities, interests, and attitudes;
and also different needs and expectations. This difference is due to diversity of jobs and diversity of
performance. Managers must understand that people are not motivated by money only. For such
people, pats on the back and giving them due recognition shall be motivating techniques.

3. DESIGNING APPROPRIATE REWARDS PROGRAMS

Open book management – involving employees in workplace decision by opening up the

financial statements of the employer. Employees need recognition for better work performance. Pay-
for-Performance – Variable compensation plans that reward employees on the basis of their
performance–piece rates, wage incentives, and profit-sharing.

4. WORK-LIFE BALANCE

Work/life practices are those that help employees juggle their responsibilities at work with
those outside of work. Work-life balance has become a big issue for the regenerating productive
capacity and concern for the quality time for the family.
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Inigo, C. (2000). Management for Filipinos: Principles and Applications.

Stoner, J.A.F. (1982). Management. Englewood Cliffs NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Venugopalan, O. (2007). Maslow's Theory of Motivation Its Relevance and Application among Non-
Managerial Employees of Selected Public and Private Sector Undertakings in Kerala., Thesis. Department
of Commerce & Management Studies, University of Calicut, 2007.

[Online]. Available: https://www.tankonyvtar.hu/hu/tartalom/tamop412A/2011-

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