PROBLEM SOLVING AND REASONING

A. Inductive and Deductive Reasoning

• Inductive Reasoning
The type of reasoning that comes up to a conclusion by examining specific
examples is called inductive reasoning. A conclusion that is made by applying
inductive reasoning is called a conjecture. Conjectures may or may not be correct.
Inductive reasoning may be used in many life situations. For illustration, we
show an example of applying inductive reasoning to predict a number in a list.

Example 1. Use inductive reasoning to predict the next number

in the lists. 1, 3, 6, 8, 11, ?
Solution:
The first two numbers differ by 2, the second and the third by 3, the third
and fourth by 2 again. It appears that when two numbers differ by 2, the next
difference would be 3, followed again by 2, then by 3. Since the difference between
8 and 11 is 3, we predict the number next to 11 to be a number 2 more than 11,
which is 13.

We used inductive reasoning when we predicted the number next to 11.

Example 2. Use inductive reasoning to make a conjecture.

Perform the following steps:

Pick a number. Multiply it by 4. Add 6 to the product. Divide the sum by 2. Subtract 3.

Use this procedure in different numbers and conjecture on the resulting number.

Solution:
We may construct a table to examine the results.
Original number Result
5 10
6 12
7 14
10 20
100 200

If you pick the number 5, the procedure will give a result of 10. For 6, it will give
12; for 7, 14; for 10, 20; and for 100, 200. We observe that the resulting numbers are
twice the original number. Thus, we conjecture that the procedure will produce a
number which is twice the original.

We used inductive reasoning in making a conjecture in the previous example.

We must take note that though it can be helpful to use inductive reasoning to arrive at
a conclusion, extra care must be observed when performing procedure. Conclusions
based on inductive reasoning may not be correct. The following example illustrates
this instance.
Example 3. Consider a circle and dots on the circle. What we do is connect each dot to all
other dots so that we draw all possible line segments. After this, we count the number of
regions formed inside the circle. The first five results are given in the figure.

Figure 1. Maximum number of regions formed by connecting dots on a circle

Results may be summarized in the following table.

Number of dots 1 23 4 5 6
Maximum number of 1 24 8 16
? regions

Using the information in the table, we see that as the number of dots increase, the
number of regions inside the circle is doubled. Thus, we expect that for 6 dots, there will be
16 ∙ 2 = 32 regions. However, if we perform the procedure, we find out the only 31 regions
are formed as shown in the succeeding figure.

Figure 2. Maximum number of regions formed by connecting 6 dots on a circle

In itself, inductive reasoning is not a valid method of proof. Just because you observe
that a pattern exists in a number of situations, it does not mean that the pattern is true for
all situations. However, it is valuable because it allows us to form ideas on what we
observed which leads us to come up with a hypothesis.
A statement is true if it is true for all cases. If you can find one case where the
statement is not true then it is considered a false statement. The instance for which the
statement becomes false is called a counter-example. One can verify that a statement is
false by using a counter-example. This is illustrated in the next example.

Example 4. If 𝑛 is an integer, then the absolute value of 𝑛 is greater than 0.

Solution:
Since 0 is an integer, we let 𝑛 = 0. Now, |𝑛| = |0| = 0 ≯ 0. We have found a counter-example.
Thus, the statement “If 𝑛 is an integer, then the absolute value of 𝑛 is greater than 0.” is a
false statement.

• Deductive Reasoning
Deductive reasoning, unlike inductive reasoning, is a valid form used in proving
observations and arriving at conclusions. It is a process by which one makes conclusions
based on previously accepted general assumptions, procedures, and principles.
To illustrate how deductive reasoning works, we will use the same procedure we had
in Example 2 and this time we use a deductive process.

Example 5. Use deductive reasoning to make a conclusion.

Procedure: Pick a number. Multiply the number by 4. Add 6 to the product. Divide the sum
by 2 then subtract 3.

Solution:

Procedure Symbolic representation

Pick a number 𝑛
Multiply by 4 4𝑛

Add 6 to the product 4𝑛 + 6

Divide the sum by 2

= 2𝑛 + 3
Subtract 3 2𝑛 + 3 − 3 = 2𝑛

If we let 𝑛 be the number, the procedure will give a result of 2𝑛. Thus, we conclude
that the procedure produces a number which is twice the original number.
Logic puzzles are best solved by deductive reasoning using a chart to display the given
information.

Example 4. Solve this puzzle using deductive reasoning.

John, Jenny, Sheila, and Jason were recently elected as new class officers (president,
vice president, secretary, treasurer) in a National High School. From the following clues,
determine which position each holds.
 1. Jason is younger than the president but older than the treasurer.
2. John and the secretary are both the same age, and they are the youngest members
of the group.
3. Sheila and the secretary are next-door neighbors.

Solution:

From clue 1, Jason is neither the president nor the treasurer. We put a mark “X” on
positions Jason do not hold.

President Vice Secretary Treasurer

President
Jason X X
Jenny
Sheila
John

From clue 2, John is not the secretary. And since he is one of the youngest in the
group, he cannot be the president. From here, we also conclude that Jason is not the
secretary since he is older than the treasurer. Thus, Jason must be the vice president and
John must be the treasurer.

President Vice Secretary Treasurer

President
Jason X  X X
Jenny X X
Sheila X X
John X X X 

From clue 3, Sheila is not the secretary which leads us to conclude that Jenny is the
secretary. Since there are no other options, we conclude that Sheila is the president.

President Vice Secretary Treasurer

President
Jason X  X X
Jenny X X  X
Sheila  X X X
John X X X 
Therefore, Sheila is the president, Jason is vice president, Jenny is the secretary, and
John is the treasurer.

Problem Solving with Patterns

Terms of a Sequence
An ordered list of numbers such as
 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, …
is called a sequence. The numbers in a sequence that are separated by commas are the
terms of the sequence. In the given sequence, 5 is the first term, 14 is the second, and so
on. The three dots indicate that the sequence continues beyond 65, which is the last term
written. The use of subscript notation is a convention to designate the nth term of a
sequence. That is,

𝑎1 represents the first term of a sequence.

𝑎2 represents the second term of a sequence.

𝑎3 represents the third term of a sequence.

𝑎𝑛 represents the nth term of a sequence.

When we examine a sequence, the following questions are often asked:

• What is the next term?

• What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?

A difference table is often used to show differences between successive terms of the
sequence. The following table is the difference table for the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, 14, …
Sequence 2 5 8 11 14
First difference 3 3 3 3

In this case, the first differences are all the same. Thus, if we the above difference
table to predict the next number in the sequence, we predict that 14 + 3 = 17 is the next
term of the sequence.

The following is the difference table for the sequence 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, … .
Sequence 5 14 27 44 65
First difference 9 13 17 21
Second difference 4 4 4

Working upward, we get

Sequence 5 14 27 44 65 90
First difference 9 13 17 21 25
Second difference 4 4 4 4

Example 5. Use a difference table to predict the next term in

the sequence. 2, 7, 24,
59, 118, 207, …

Solution:
Sequence 2 7 24 59 118 207 332
First differences 5 17 35 59 89 125
 Second differences 12 18 24 30 36
Third differences 6 6 6 6

nth-Term Formula for a Sequence

Consider the formula 𝑎𝑛 = 3𝑛2 + 𝑛. This formula defines a sequence and provides a
method for finding any term of the sequence.
Example 6. Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figure continues.

a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the
sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist exactly 320 tiles?

Solution:

a. If we count the tiles in each term, we get the sequence 2, 5, 8, 11, … . If we check
the differences, we get 3. Thus, we may consider 3𝑛 s. t. 𝑛 = 1, 2, …. However, using
this would give 3 as the first term. From 3, we subtract 1 to get 2. Hence, we may
consider the formula 3𝑛 − 1, where 𝑛 = 1,2, …. Evaluating this formula for the first 4
terms will give us 2, 5, 8, and 11, which are the terms of the sequence based on the
figure.

b. At 𝑛 = 8, we expect that there are 3(8) − 1 = 24 − 1 = 23 tiles.

c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we solve the equation
3𝑛 − 1 = 320. 3𝑛 − 1 = 320
3𝑛 = 321
𝑛 = 107

The 107th figure has 320 tiles.

B. Intuition, Proofs and Certainty

The new Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines intuition as the ability to know
things without conscious reasoning; it was a quick and ready insight. Mathematical
intuition is a reliable mathematical belief without being formalized and proven
directlyand serves as an essential part of mathematics. The word “intuition” carries a
heavy load of mystery and ambuiguity and it is also somewhat dangerous, illegitimate
substitute for a formal proof.
Intuitive is the counterpart of rigorous. Being rigorous is not completely clear
and never gives precise meaning. It can be said that intuitive means lacking in rigor,
yet the concept of rigor is defined intuitively, not rigorously. Being intuitive means
 being visual just like geometry differs from rigorous geometry in two ways. On a lighter
note, the intuitive version has a meaning, a referent in the domain of visualized curves
and surfaces, which is absent from the rigorous formal or abstract version. In some
aspects, intuitive is superior it contains a valuable quality the rigorous version lacks. On
contrary, we may be misled by visualization where obvious or selfevident statements
that are dubious or false.
Intuitive has different meanings like plausible, or convincing in the absence of
proof, incomplete, holistic or integrative as opposed to detailed or analytic. In all
different usages intuition is vague. It changes from one usage to another. Consideration
of intuition as actually experienced leads to a notion that is difficult and complex, but
not inexplicable. A realistic analysis of mathematical intuition should be a central goal of
the philosophy of mathematics.
In mathematics, a proof is an inferential argument for a mathematical
statement. In mathematical argument, statements such as theorems can only be used
if it is already proven. In principle, a proof can use axioms which are denoted as self-
evident or assumed statements along with accepted rules of inference. Axioms may be
served as conditions that must be met before the statement applies. Proofs are
examples of exhaustive deductive reasoning and inductive reasoning. A mathematical
proof demonstrates that a certain statement is always true in all possible cases. An
unproved proposition that is believed to be true is known as a conjecture.
Proof is important to mathematics, if one has a conjecture, the only way that it
can safely be sure that it is true, is by presenting a valid mathematical proof. Being able
to write down a valid proof may indicate that one has a thorough understanding of the
problem. The efforts to prove a conjecture, requires a good understanding of the theory
being tested. A mathematician that tries to prove something may gain a great deal of
understanding and knowledge, even if his efforts to prove that conjecture will end with
failure. This is evident in theorems which have been raised by well known
mathematicians, some took hundreds of years before it has been prove and some
remain unproven.
We know that the need for certainty is inherited from the ancient past, and is
religiously motivated, its validity is independent of its history and its motivation.
Mathematics has a tradition and standard point of view that it provides certainty. When
a mathematical knowledge is correctly formulated, it is forever beyond error and
correction. Any possible errors may be attributed to human error, comprising
carelessness, oversight or mis-formulation. Mathematics has no problem of being
certain, for certainty is just an essential defining attribute of mathematics and
mathematical knowledge.
REFERENCES:
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Quezon City: C & E Publishing, Inc.

2. Reyes, J. A. (2018). Mathematis in the Modern World. Intramuros Manila: Unlimited

Books Library Services & Publishing Inc.

3. Sirug, W. S. (2018). Mathematics in the Modern World. Intramuros, Manila:

Mindshapers Co., Inc.