Week 7- VIRTUE ETHICS OF ARISTOTLE

Hello! Before we begin with the lessons, I think you deserve a pat on the back for going
through and completing the Prelim lessons and activities. Let’s keep that energy and
desire to learn as we move to the next phase of the course.

In the previous lesson, we learned about the importance of having and using ethical
frameworks in understanding and solving ethical dilemmas. We can now go deeper into
that process and explore ethical theories. An ethical theory is a claim comprised of
statements of what we ought to do or how we ought to act when faced with moral
dilemmas. Philosophers have always been curious about how we ought to act. Several
philosophers from different periods in the history of philosophy have formulated their
ethical theories. One example of an ethical theory is Virtue Ethics. To have a clear
understanding of Virtue Ethics, let us consider how it answers the question of how we
ought to act. Virtue ethics claims that we ought to choose the action which would
contribute to developing a virtuous character. This view can be traced back to the works
of the ancient Greek philosophers, Plato and Aristotle although much of the
development of the theory can be found in Aristotle’s work. Aristotle claimed that virtue
is a form of excellence. It is an action not based on deficiency or excess. A rough
equivalent of this in Filipino is “walang labis, walang kulang”. As long as a person
practices habituation or keeps on choosing and doing the right thing, then he is not
simply doing the right thing, but also forming a virtuous character through practice or
habit. The person would always have this question at the back of his head whenever
faced with a dilemma: Would my action be coming from and lead me further to a
virtuous character?

To appreciate this theory better, here is an interactive resource you can download for
free. This resource is known as Ethikomiks. You can find and download it at this link:

https://sites.google.com/dlsu.edu.ph/ethikomiks/home?fbclid=IwAR0YCyiKsHbWp6UM
UL2W8Y5RYprw7oDqehY9F0d24tOrpHOHRpgFqung-JI

We thank and give credit to the Philosophical Association of the Philippines, De La Salle
University, and the United Board for Christian Higher Education I Asia for providing us
with this free resource.

A part of the Ethikomiks is dedicated to a discussion on Virtue Ethics. It is entitled “The

Bag from Nowhere”. Below are screenshots and some notes of the Ethikomiks to aid us
in comprehending and appreciating virtue ethics. Have fun learning!
This is Linda. She is a public school teacher.

In her own private life, she takes care of her sick mother.
One day while walking, she chanced upon a bag full of money.

Linda is now faced with the ethical dilemma of what she ought to do.
Now, what would you do?

If you were Linda and used the money for your sick mother, then you made a personal
decision.
But if you surrendered the bag of money to the authorities for them to find the rightful
owner, then you made a virtuous decision.
Let’s think about the moral implications of the alternatives.

Plato (Aristotle’s teacher) gave an interesting question on doing the right thing. He
posed this question by telling the story of the Ring of Gyges.
If you had a ring (Ring of Gyges) that made you invisible whenever wanted to, would
you choose to do the right or the wrong course of actions?
According to virtue ethics, a virtuous person would always choose the right course of
action no matter the circumstances.

In Linda’s case, the circumstances of her sick mother may influence her action. What do
you think should she do? Let’s talk about it.
Week 8- KANT'S ETHICAL THEORY
Hi! Welcome to the second topic on Ethical Theories. I’m pretty sure you enjoyed
Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics and somehow had already a grasp of his teachings. We can
actually start practicing his theory by simply habitually do things which are virtuous.
Again an ethical theory is a claim comprised of statements of what we ought to do
or how we ought to act when faced with moral dilemma. Let’s keep that energy and
desire to learn as we move to the next topic.

Let us start with Mang Reggie’s Story

During the flag ceremony of that Monday morning, January 24, 2017, the mayor of
Baguio City awarded a certificate from the City Government that commended Reggie
Cabututan for his “extraordinary show of honesty in the performance of their duties or
practice of profession.” Reggie is a taxi driver who, just three days before the awarding,
drove his passenger, an Australian named Trent Shields, to his workplace. The
foreigner, having few sleep and was ill the previous day, left his suitcase inside the taxi
cab after he reach his destination. The suitcase contained a laptop, passport, and an
expensive pair of headphones, which Trent claimed amounted to around 260,000.00
pesos.

Let us consider the time when Mang Reggie found that Trent had left a suitcase in his
taxi cab. If he were to return the suitcase, then there was no promise of an award from
the owner and from the City Government. What if he decided to took the suitcase and
sold its contents? That could surely help him supplement his daily wages considering
that he is just a taxi driver. Yet, Mang Reggie decided to returned the suitcase without
the promise of a reward. Why? Maybe, he had previously returned lost luggage to
passengers. Perhaps, it was his first time to do so. Or maybe, he received a reward
before, or maybe he knows some fellow taxi drivers who did or did not receive rewards
from passengers after they returned lost luggage. However, the point is that there was
no promise of reward.

Why did Mang Reggie return the suitcase? For now, let us suppose his main reason
was simply because it was right to return lost property to the rightful owner, no matter
how tempting it is to keep it for oneself. “It is simply the right thing to do.”

To hold a moral conviction means believing that it is one’s duty to do the right
thing. What is duty? Why does one choose to follow his duty even if doing
otherwise may bring him more benefits?

Duty as Good Will

The moral theory that evaluates actions that are done because of duty is called
deontology. Deontology comes from the Greek word deon, which means “being
necessary.” Hence, deontology refers to the study of duty and obligation. For
deontologists, an action is right so long as it is done because it is required by a moral
law; that is, it is right so long as it is done out of a sense of duty to that moral law.
Different versions of deontology depend on different ways of characterizing what these
moral laws are. For example, religious people who believe that obeying their religion's
moral precepts are deontologists in this regard.

The most famous deontologist is Immanuel Kant (1724-1804). He was a German

Enlightenment Philosopher who wrote one of the most important works on moral
philosophy, Groundwork towards a Metaphysics of Morals (1975). For Kant, moral laws
should not be based on specific purposes or inclinations since these are fleeting and
contingent. Moral laws should be grounded on maxims (subjective imperatives) that are
universalizable.

Kant formulates this idea as the categorical imperative: "Act only on that maxim
through which you can at the same time will that it should be a universal law." According
to Kant, only a universalizable maxim could be a moral law. In turn, it is our duty to obey
such moral law. Thus, it is not right for one to make false promises because if everyone
does so, then the institution of promising would not make sense. It follows then that it is
one's duty not to make false promises.

William David Ross advances this Kantian view by suggesting that "several different
fundamental rules or principles are prima facie duties." Prima facie duties "specify
factors or features of a situation that speak in favor of or against, morally speaking, an
act or what to set ourselves to do." These obligations are called for by specific situations
and are immediately recognized by any rational person.

Ross identifies seven distinct prima facie duties:

1. Fidelity. We should strive to keep promises and be honest and truthful.

2. Reparation. We should make amends when we have wronged someone else.
3. Gratitude. We should be grateful to others when they perform actions that
benefit us and we should try to return the favor.
4. Non-injury (or non-maleficence). We should refrain from harming others either
physically or psychologically.
5. Beneficence. We should be kind to others and to try to improve their health,
wisdom, security, happiness, and well-being.
6. Self-improvement. We should strive to improve our own health, wisdom,
security, happiness, and well-being.
7. Justice. We should try to be fair and try to distribute benefits and burdens
equably and evenly.
To appreciate this theory better, here is an interactive resource you can download for
free. This resource is known as Ethikomiks. You can find and download it in this link:

https://sites.google.com/dlsu.edu.ph/ethikomiks/my-brothers-keeper?authuser=0

We thank and give credit to the Philosophical Association of the Philippines, De La Salle
University, and the United Board for Christian Higher Education I Asia for providing us
with this free resource.

A part of the Ethikomiks is dedicated to a discussion on Kant’s Ethical Theories. It is

entitled “My Brother’s Keeper”. Below are screenshots and some notes of the
Ethikomiks to aid us in comprehending and appreciating virtue ethics. Have fun
learning!
Meet Alvin, senior member of Alpha Beta Gamma fraternity, one of the most prestigious
Fraternities in Kalayaan University. And tonight their neophytes will be initiated into the
frat through hazing but Alvin has having a second thoughts about it.

Alvin suddenly thinks of another way to initiate neophytes in a less painful way. His
brothers did not agree and preceded with the ritual.

What do you think Alvin should do? Alvin should prevent the hazing. Alvin should go
along with the hazing ritual.
Let’s think about it!

If you choose A and you think, there’s something wrong with the hazing. (A)

But if you choose B then you think, Alvin should fulfill his duty to the frat. (B)
TIME FOR MORAL MINUTE

Everybody knows that inflicting harm is wrong but other factors can alter Alvin’s decision
like his duty to his fraternity.

According to the moral philosopher W.D. Ross, there are PRIMA FACIE Duties that we
have to fulfill whatever the circumstance.

PRIMA FACIE Duties cancel out all other duties so that duty of preventing harm will
always thorn to one’s duty to his fraternity.

Our target in this lesson is to show how moral principles and moral standards justify our
actions.

In Alvin’s case we must distinguish PRIMA FACIE moral principles from NON-PRIMA
FACIE ones so that we can find solutions whenever there are conflicts and duties.

So what do you think Alvin should have done?

Let’s talk about it!

Kinds of Rights
Let us continue our learning, by presenting to you the concept of Rights. We hear
people uttering moral rights mostly from priests or legal rights from the lawyers while we
hear human rights mostly from the activists or certain civic groups. So our question now
is “What are Rights?” What are the reasons why we need to respect individual rights or
the right of a particular group?

What is Right?

A right is described as an entitlement or justified claim to a certain kind of positive and

negative treatment from others, to support from others or non-interference from others.
In other words, a right is something to which every individual in the community is
morally permitted, and for which that community is entitled to disrespect or compulsorily
remove anything that stands in the way of even a single individual getting it.

Rights are those important conditions of social life without which no person can
generally realize his best self. These are the essential conditions for health of both the
individual and his society. It is only when people get and enjoy rights that they can
develop their personalities and contributes their best services to the society.

In simple words, rights are the common claims of people which every cultured
society recognizes as essential claims for their development, and which are
therefore enforced by the state.

Main features of Rights:

1. Rights exist only in society. These are the products of social living.
2. Rights are claims of the individuals for their development in society.
3. Rights are recognized by the society as common claims of all the people.
4. Rights are rational and moral claims that the people make on their society.
5. Since rights are here only in society, these cannot be exercised against the
society.
6. Rights are to be exercised by the people for their development which really
means their development in society by the promotion of social good. Rights
can never be exercised against social good.
7. Rights are equally available to all the people.
8. The contents of rights keep on changing with the passage of time.
9. Rights are not absolute. These always bear limitations deemed essential for
maintaining public health, security, order and morality.
10. Rights are inseparably related with duties. There is a close relationship
between them “No Duties No Rights. No Rights No Duties.” “If I have rights it
is my duty to respect the rights of others in society”.
 11. Rights need enforcement and only then these can be really used by the
people. These are protected and enforced by the laws of the state. It is the
duty of a state to protect the rights of the people.

Moral Rights vs. Legal Rights

MORAL RIGHTS LEGAL RIGHTS

● Moral Rights are based on human
consciousness. They are supported
by moral force of human mind.
These are based on human sense
of goodness and justice. These are
not assisted by the force of law.
Sense of goodness and public
opinion are the sanctions behind
moral rights.
● If any person disrupts any moral
right, no legal action can be taken
against him. The state does not
enforce these rights. Its courts do
not recognize these rights. Moral
Rights include rules of good
conduct, courtesy and of moral
behavior. These stand for moral
perfection of the people.
● Legal rights are those rights which are
accepted and enforced by the state. Any
defilement of any legal right is punished
by law. Law courts of the state enforce
legal rights. These rights can be
enforced against individuals and also
against the government. In this way,
legal rights are different from moral
rights. Legal rights are equally available
to all the citizens. All citizens follow legal
rights without any discrimination. They
can go to the courts for getting their
legal rights enforced.

Concept of Human Rights:

Human rights are those moral rights that are morally important and basic, and that are
held by every human being because they are possessed in virtue of the universal moral
status of human beings. Human rights are one of the significant aspects of human
political reality. It is the moral rights of highest order. Human Rights are evolved out of
self-respect. It is intrinsic to all humans without any discrimination of race, sex,
nationality, ethnicity, language, religion and color etc. It received new shape when
human beings began to think themselves. Each and every human being are entitled to
these rights without any discrimination. Human rights comprise of civil and political
rights, such as the right to life, liberty and freedom of expression; and social, cultural
and economic rights including the right to participate in culture, the right to food, and the
right to work and receive an education.
Week 9- MILL'S UTILITARIANISM
John Stuart Mill said, “It is better to be a human being dissatisfied than a pig satisfied;
better to be Socrates dissatisfied than a fool satisfied. And if the fool, or the pig, are a
different opinion, it is because they only know their own side of the question”.

Hello guys! Hoping that you are still doing fine! Today we will talk about Utilitarianism.
And we’ll have it presented again using our Ethikomiks.
Now, let’s have fun!
Meet Anna, Ben and Jomar. They’ve been friends since elementary. The three are
currently part of the Buzz Club, which aims to restore the bee population needed for the
environment. Their project this year is to provide equipment and training to rural
beekeepers. Anna and Ben decided to give a part of their daily allowance for this
project. Jomar wants to help the beekeepers too. But he’s saving up for his and his
girlfriend’s third year anniversary and he has been planning for this for the last two
months. If you’re Jomar will you still donate a part of your daily allowance for the club,
despite of your current situation? “I will donate a part of my allowance to help the bees
and the beekeepers”. “I will not donate a part of my allowance to save up for me and my
girlfriend’s anniversary”.
Let’s think about it!

If you choose A you’re doing your duty for the Buzz Club and you’re helping the
beekeepers and future generations. GREATER NUMBER.
If you choose B you put the needs of your relationship first. LESSER NUMBER.
TIME FOR MORAL MINUTE

According to J.S Mill, one of the founders of Utilitarianism, an action is right so long as it
promotes the greatest happiness of the greatest number. UTILITARIANISM =
HAPPINESS OF GREATER NUMBER. If an action benefits more people, then you
should do it regardless of the inconvenience it might incur to a few.
We have learned in this lesson what utility based ethics imply. It tells us that an action is
right as long as it benefits the greater number. However, Jomar’s personal relationship
is important to him.
Week 10- JUSTICE AND FAIRNESS
Did you enjoy our Ethikomics? I certainly hope you did! Now, as we are about to end the
second module, let us discuss Justice and Fairness.

The nature of the theory

Justice is one of the most important moral values in the spheres of law and politics. It is
the legal or philosophical theory by which fairness is administered. Fairness is the
quality of making judgments that are free from discrimination.

John Rawls (1921-2002) was an American political philosopher in the liberal tradition.
His theory of justice as fairness describes a society of free citizens holding equal basic
rights and cooperating within an egalitarian economic system. “Citizens are free and
equal and that society should be fair.”

His theory of political liberalism explores the legitimate use of political power in a
democracy, and envisions how civic unity might endure despite the diversity of
worldviews that free institutions allow. His writings on the law of peoples set out a liberal
foreign policy that aims to create a permanently peaceful and tolerant international
order. (https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/rawls/

Distributive justice is a concept that addresses the ownership of goods in a society. It

assumes that there is a large amount of fairness in the distribution of goods. Equal work
should provide individuals with an equal outcome in terms of goods acquired or the
ability to acquire goods. Distributive justice is absent when equal work does not produce
equal outcomes or when an individual or a group acquires a disproportionate amount of
goods.

The economic, political, and social frameworks that each society has—its laws,
institutions, policies, etc.—result in different distributions of benefits and burdens across
members of the society. These frameworks are the result of human political processes
and they constantly change both across societies and within societies over time. The
structure of these frameworks is important because the distributions of benefits and
burdens resulting from them fundamentally affect people’s lives. Arguments about which
frameworks and/or resulting distributions are morally preferable constitute the topic of
distributive justice. Principles of distributive justice are therefore best thought of as
providing moral guidance for the political processes and structures that affect the
distribution of benefits and burdens in societies, and any principles which do offer this
kind of moral guidance on distribution, regardless of the terminology they employ,
should be considered principles of distributive justice.

Technical Terms:
Egalitarian believing in the principle that all people are equal and deserve equal rights
and opportunities.

Capitalist a wealthy person who uses money to invest in trade and industry for profit in
accordance with the principles of capitalism.

Socialist is an economic and political system based on the public ownership (also
known as collective or common ownership) of the means of production. Those means
include the machinery, tools and factories used to produce goods that aim to directly
satisfy human needs.