Battery testing guide

„ Why backup batteries are needed

„ Battery types
„ Failure modess
„ Maintenance philosophies
„ Practical battery testing
„ Frequently asked questions
„ Megger products overview
Contents
Stationary battery testing 4
Why perform impedance testing? 4
Why perform discharge testing? 5
Why backup batteries are needed 6
Why test battery systems 6
Why batteries fail 6
Battery types 7
Lead-acid overview 7
Nickel-Cadmium Overview 7
Battery construction and nomenclature 8
Configurations 8
Single post batteries 8
Multiple post batteries 8
Failure modes 9
Lead-acid (flooded) failure modes 9
Lead-acid (VRLA) failure modes 9
Nickel-Cadmium failure modes 10
Maintenance philosophies 11
How to maintain the battery 11
Standards and common practices 11
IEEE 450 11
Inspections 11
Capacity test (discharge test) should be done 11
IEEE 1188 12
Inspections 12
Capacity test (capacity test) should be done 12
Battery replacement criteria 12
IEEE 1106 12
Inspections 12
Capacity test (discharge test) should be done 12
Summary of best way to test and evaluate
your battery 12
Test intervals 12
Practical battery testing 13

2 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

 Contents
Capacity test 13 Ground fault tracing equipment 27
Battery testing matrix – IEEE recommended Battery Ground Fault Tracer (BGFT) 27
practices 13
Battery Ground-fault Locator (BGL) 28
Procedure for capacity test of vented lead acid
Digital Low Resistance Ohmmeters (DLRO®) and
battery 14
Microhmmeters (MOM) 28
Impedance test 15
DLRO200 and DLRO600 28
Impedance theory 15
DLRO 247000 series 28
Intercell connection resistance 16
DLRO10 and DLRO10X 29
Testing and electrical paths 17
MJÖLNER 200 and MJÖLNER 600 29
Voltage 17
MOM200A and MOM600A 29
Specific gravity 17
MOM690 29
Float current 18
Insulation Resistance Test Equipment 30
Ripple current 18
MIT400/2 series insulation resistance testers 30
Temperature 18
PowerDB™ 31
Data analysis 19
Acceptance & Maintenance Test Data
Locating ground faults on DC systems without Management Software 31
sectionalizing 22
Test forms 31
Overview 22
Current test methods 22
A better test method 22
Frequently asked questions 23
Battery technology summary 23
Megger products overview 24
Impedance test equipment 24
BITE 3 24
®

BITE®2 and BITE®2P 24

BITE® accessories 25
BITE 3 Accessories
®
25
BITE®2 and BITE®2P Accessories 25
TORKEL 860 26
BVM 26
TORKEL 900 27

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Stationary battery testing
The stationary backup batteries are the life line in any safety
system, a life line that simply cannot fail. In order to ensure safe
operation it is recommended to implement a sound and solid
battery maintenance program.

Each of the various standards (IEEE 450, IEEE 1188, IEEE 1106) have
their own best practices for battery maintenance, which we have
summarized into the following:

� Perform a capacity test when the battery is new as part of

the acceptance test.

� Perform an impedance test at the same time to establish

baseline values for the battery.

� Repeat the above within 2 years for warranty purposes.

� Perform an impedance test every year on flooded cells and

quarterly on VRLA cells.
The AC impedance measurement has a distinct advantage over the
� Perform capacity tests at least for every 25% of expected DC resistive measurement.
service life.
Batteries are not resistors. They have capacitance due to a double
� Perform a capacity test annually when the battery has
layer effect that occurs when liquids come in contact with solids
reached 85% of expected service life or if the capacity has
(plates and electrolyte). This value changes earlier in the battery
dropped more than 10% since the previous test or is below
90% of the manufacturer‘s rating. aging process. DC testing ignores this parameter.

� Perform a capacity test if the Impedance value has changed
significantly.
� Follow a given practice (preferably from the IEEE standard)
for all temperature, voltage, gravity measurements etc. and
fill in a report. This will be a great help for trending and
fault tracing.
VLA batteries are typically large batteries with low impedance. You
need adequate current to test these large low impedance batteries.
Small hand-held testers do not have the current. The BITE2 tests
with a full 10 A of current. More than enough to get reliable
repeatable measurements on large flooded cells.
VRLA batteries typically fail in an open state due to dry-out. This

This is an example of the tests included in a good maintenance

program for stationary batteries. However, some critical locations
might need more attention, and some rural environments less, the
condition of the environment of the battery and the condition of
the battery itself are important parameters to set up a suitable and
solid maintenance program.

1 = 1 + 1 1 = 1 + 1
Why perform impedance testing? R T
R R 1 2
R1
R R T 2

Batteries can fail between discharge tests. This quick easy test will
increase reliability for your critical loads.

Not only will this inform you about chemical changes in your
batteries but it will also test your inter-cell connections, the battery
charge balance as well as the state of health of the charger.

4 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

Why perform discharge
testing?

Capacity test is the only way to get an

accurate value on the actual capacity of the
battery. When used regularly it can be used
for tracking the battery’s health and actual
capacity and estimate remaining life of the
battery. During the test it is measured how
much capacity (current x time expressed
in Ah) the battery can deliver before
the terminal voltage drops to the end of
discharge voltage x number of cells. The
current shall be maintained at a constant
value. If the battery reaches the end of
discharge voltage at the same time as the
specified test time the battery’s actual
capacity is 100% of the rated capacity. If
it reaches the end of discharge at 80% (8
h) or before the specified 10 h, it shall be
replaced.

It is important to measure the individual

cell voltages. This has to be made a
couple of times during the test. It is most
important to measure the cells at the end
of the discharge test in order to find the
weak cells. It is also very important that
the time OR the current during a discharge
test is adjusted for the temperature of the
battery. A cold battery will give less Ah
than a warm one. Temperature correction
factors and methods are described in the
IEEE standards.

Batteries can also be tested at a shorter

time than their duty cycle, for instance
at 1 hour. Then the current rate has to
be increased. The advantage is that less
capacity is inconvenient and quite possibly
very expensive in time, resources and
money to rectify.

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 Why backup batteries are needed
Batteries are used to ensure that critical electrical equipment is
always on. There are so many places where batteries are used – it
is nearly impossible to list them all. Some of the applications for
batteries include:
� Electric generating stations and substations for protection
and control of switches and relays
� Telephone systems to support phone service, especially
emergency services
� Industrial applications for protection and control
� Back up of computers, especially financial data and
information
� “Less critical” business information systems
Without battery back-up hospitals would have to close their doors
until power is restored. But even so, there are patients on life
support systems that require absolute 100% electric power. For
those patients, as it was once said, “failure is not an option.”
Just look around to see how much electricity we use and then to
see how important batteries have become in our everyday lives.
The many blackouts of 2003 around the world show how critical
electrical systems have become to sustain our basic needs. Batteries
are used extensively and without them many of the services that
we take for granted would fail and cause innumerable problems.
Why test battery systems
A battery is two dissimilar metallic materials in an electrolyte. In
fact, you can put a penny and a nickel in half of a grapefruit and
you now have a battery. Obviously, an industrial battery is more
sophisticated than a grapefruit battery. Nonetheless, a battery, to
work the way it is supposed to work must be maintained properly.
A good battery maintenance program may prevent, or at least,
reduce the costs and damage to critical equipment due to an AC
mains outage.
Even though there are many applications for batteries, standby
batteries are installed for only two reasons:
� To protect and support critical equipment during an AC
outage
� To protect revenue streams due to the loss of service
The following discussion about failure modes focuses on the
mechanisms and types of failure and how it is possible to find
weak cells. Below is a section containing a more detailed discussion
about testing methods and their pros and cons.
Why batteries fail
In order for us to understand why batteries fail, unfortunately a little
bit of chemistry is needed. There are two main battery chemistries
used today – lead-acid and nickel-cadmium. Other chemistries are
coming, like lithium, which is prevalent in portable battery systems,
but not stationary, yet.

There are three main reasons to test battery systems:
� To insure the supported equipment is adequately
backed-up
� To prevent unexpected failures by tracking the battery’s
health
� To forewarn/predict death
And, there are three basic questions that battery users ask:
Volta invented the primary (non-rechargeable) battery in 1800.
Planté invented the lead-acid battery in 1859 and in 1881 Faure
first pasted lead-acid plates. With refinements over the decades,
it has become a critically important back-up power source. The
refinements include improved alloys, grid designs, jar and cover
materials and improved jar-to-cover and post seals. Arguably,
the most revolutionary development was the valve-regulated
development. Many similar improvements in nickel-cadmium
chemistry have been developed over the years.

� What is the capacity and the condition of the battery now?

� When will it need to be replaced?

� What can be done to improve / not reduce its life?

Batteries are complex chemical mechanisms. They have numerous

components from grids, active material, posts, jar and cover, etc. –
any one of which can fail. As with all manufacturing processes, no
matter how well they are made, there is still some amount of black
art to batteries (and all chemical processes).

6 title
6 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com
 Battery types
There are several main types of battery technologies with subtypes: and allows them to migrate so that they react back to form water.
This is why VRLA never needs water added compared to flooded
� Lead-acid (wet, vented) lead-acid batteries.

� Flooded (wet): lead-calcium, lead-antimony A battery has alternating positive and negative plates separated
� Valve Regulated Lead-acid, VRLA (sealed): by micro-porous rubber in flooded lead-acid, absorbed glass matte
lead-calcium, lead-antimony-selenium in VRLA, gelled acid in VRLA gel batteries or plastic sheeting in
NiCd. All of the like-polarity plates are welded together and to the
� Absorbed Glass Matte (AGM) appropriate post. In the case of VRLA cells, some compression of
the plate-matte-plate sandwich is exerted to maintain good contact
� Gel
between them. There is also a self-resealing, pressure relief valve
� Flat plate (PRV) to vent gases when over-pressurization occurs.

� Tubular plate
Nickel-Cadmium Overview
� Nickel-cadmium
Nickel-Cadmium chemistry is similar in some respects to lead-acid
� Flooded in that there are two dissimilar metals in an electrolyte. The basic
� Sealed reaction in a potassium hydroxide (alkaline) electrolyte is:

� Pocket plate 2 NiOOH + Cd +2 H2O Ni(OH)2 + Cd(OH)2

� Flat plate
Lead-acid overview
The basic lead-acid chemical reaction in a sulphuric acid electrolyte,
where the sulphate of the acid is part of the reaction, is:
However, in NiCd batteries the potassium hydroxide (KOH) does
not enter the reaction like sulphuric acid does in lead-acid batteries.
The construction is similar to lead-acid in that there are alternating
positive and negative plates submerged in an electrolyte. Rarely
seen, but available, are sealed NiCd batteries.

PbO2 + Pb + 2H2SO4 2PbSO4 + 2H2 + 1⁄2 O2

The acid is depleted upon discharge and regenerated upon

recharge. Hydrogen and oxygen form during discharge and float
charging (because float charging is counteracting self-discharge).
In flooded batteries, they escape and water must be periodically
added. In valve-regulated, lead-acid (sealed) batteries, the hydrogen
and oxygen gases recombine to form water. Additionally, in VRLA
batteries, the acid is immobilized by an absorbed glass matte (AGM)
or in a gel. The matte is much like the fibre-glass insulation used in
houses. It traps the hydrogen and oxygen formed during discharge

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Battery construction and nomenclature
Now that we know everything there is to know about battery
chemistry, except for Tafel curves, ion diffusion, Randles equivalent
cells, etc., let’s move on to battery construction. A battery must
have several components to work properly: a jar to hold everything
and a cover, electrolyte (sulphuric acid or potassium hydroxide
solution), negative and positive plates, top connections welding all
like-polarity plates together and then posts that are also connected
to the top connections of the like-polarity plates.
All batteries have one more negative plate than positive plate.
That is because the positive plate is the working plate and if there
isn’t a negative plate on the outside of the last positive plate, the
whole outer side of last positive plate will not have anything with
which to react and create electricity. Hence, there is always an odd
number of plates in a battery, e.g., a 100A33 battery is comprised
of 33 plates with 16 positive plates and 17 negative plates. In this
example, each positive plate is rated at 100 Ah. Multiply 16 by 100
and the capacity at the 8-hour rate is found, namely, 1600 Ah.
Europe uses a little different calculation than the US standards.
In batteries that have higher capacities, there are frequently four
or six posts. This is to avoid overheating of the current-carrying
components of the battery during high current draws or lengthy
discharges. A lead-acid battery is a series of plates connected to
top lead connected to posts. If the top lead, posts and intercell
connectors are not sufficiently large enough to safely carry the
electrons, then overheating may occur (i2R heating) and damage
the battery or in the worst cases, damage installed electronics due
to smoke or fire.
Figure 1 Battery construction diagram
8 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com
To prevent plates from touching each other and shorting the
battery, there is a separator between each of the plates. Figure 1 is
a diagram of a four-post battery from the top looking through the
cover. It does not show the separators.
Configurations
Batteries come in various configurations themselves. Add to that
the many ways that they can be arranged, the number of possible
configurations is endless. Of course, voltage plays the biggest part
in a battery configuration. Batteries have multiple posts for higher
current draws. The more current needed from a battery, the bigger
the connections must be. That includes posts, intercell connectors
and buss bars and cables.
Single post batteries
Smaller battery systems are usually the simplest battery systems and
are the easiest to maintain. They usually have single post batteries
connected with solid intercell connectors. Frequently, they are
quite accessible but because they are small and can be installed in a
cubby hole occasionally, they may be quite inaccessible for testing
and maintenance.
Multiple post batteries
Batteries with multiple posts per polarity start to become interesting
quickly. They are usually larger and frequently are more critical.

Lead-acid (flooded) failure modes
� Positive grid corrosion
� Sediment (shedding) build-up
� Top lead corrosion
� Plate sulphation
� Hard shorts (paste lumps)
Each battery type has many failure modes, some of which are
more prevalent than others. In flooded lead-acid batteries, the
predominant failure modes are listed above. Some of them
manifest themselves with use such as sediment build-up due
to excessive cycling. Others occur naturally such as positive grid
growth (oxidation). It is just a matter of time before the battery
fails. Maintenance and environmental conditions can increase or
decrease the risks of premature battery failure.
Positive grid corrosion is the expected failure mode of flooded
lead-acid batteries. The grids are lead alloys (lead-calcium, lead-
antimony, lead-antimony-selenium) that convert to lead oxide over
time. Since the lead oxide is a bigger crystal than lead metal alloy,
the plate grows. The growth rate has been well characterized and is
taken into account when designing batteries. In many battery data
sheets, there is a specification for clearance at the bottom of the jar
to allow for plate growth in accordance with its rated lifetime, for
example, 20 years.
At the designed end-of-life, the plates will have grown sufficiently to
pop the tops off of the batteries. But excessive cycling, temperature
and over-charging can also increase the speed of positive grid
corrosion. Impedance will increase over time corresponding to the
increase in electrical resistance of the grids to carry the current.
Impedance will also increase as capacity decreases as depicted in
the graph in figure 2.
Sediment build-up (shedding) is a function of the amount of cycling
a battery endures. This is more often seen in UPS batteries but can
be seen elsewhere. Shedding is the sloughing off of active material
from the plates, converting to white lead sulphate. Sediment build-
up is the second reason battery manufacturers have space at the
bottom of the jars to allow for a certain amount of sediment before
it builds-up to the point of shorting across the bottom of the plates
rendering the battery useless. The float voltage will drop and the
amount of the voltage drop depends upon how hard the short is.
Shedding, in reasonable amounts, is normal.
Some battery designs have wrapped plates such that the sediment
is held against the plate and is not allowed to drop to the bottom.
Therefore, sediment does not build-up in wrapped plate designs.
The most common application of wrapped plates is UPS batteries.
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Failure modes
Corrosion of the top lead, which is the connection between the
plates and the posts is hard to detect even with a visual inspection
since it occurs near the top of the battery and is hidden by the
cover. The battery will surely fail due to the high current draw
when the AC mains drop off. The heat build-up when discharging
will most likely melt then crack open and then the entire string
drops off-line, resulting in a catastrophic failure.
Plate sulphation is an electrical path problem. A thorough visual
inspection can sometimes find traces of plate sulphation. Sulphation
is the process of converting active plate material to inactive white
lead sulphate. Sulphation is due to low charger voltage settings
or incomplete recharge after an outage. Sulphates form when
the voltage is not set high enough. Sulphation will lead to higher
impedance and a lower capacity.
Lead-acid (VRLA) failure modes
� Dry-out (Loss-of-Compression)
� Plate Sulphation (see above)
� Soft and Hard Shorts
� Post leakage
� Thermal run-away
� Positive grid corrosion (see above)
Dry-out is a phenomenon that occurs due to excessive heat (lack
of proper ventilation), over charging, which can cause elevated
internal temperatures, high ambient (room) temperatures, etc. At
elevated internal temperatures, the sealed cells will vent through
the PRV. When sufficient electrolyte is vented, the glass matte no
longer is in contact with the plates, thus increasing the internal
impedance and reducing battery capacity. In some cases, the PRV
can be removed and distilled water added (but only in worst case
scenarios and by an authorized service company since removing
the PRV may void the warranty). This failure mode is easily detected
by impedance and is one of the more common failure modes of
VRLA batteries.
Soft (a.k.a. dendritic shorts) and Hard shorts occur for a number of
reasons. Hard shorts are typically caused by paste lumps pushing
through the matte and shorting out to the adjacent (opposite
polarity) plate. Soft shorts, on the other hand, are caused by deep
discharges. When the specific gravity of the acid gets too low, the
lead will dissolve into it. Since the liquid (and the dissolved lead)
are immobilized by the glass matte, when the battery is recharged,
the lead comes out of solution forming threads of thin lead metal,
known as dendrites inside the matte. In some cases, the lead
dendrites short through the matte to the other plate. The float
voltage may drop slightly but impedance can find this failure mode
easily but is a decrease in impedance, not the typical increase as in
dry-out. See figure 2, Abnormal Cell.
Thermal run-away occurs when a battery’s internal components
melt-down in a self-sustaining reaction.
Failure modes
Normally, this phenomenon can be predicted by as much as four
months or in as little as two weeks. The impedance will increase
in advance of thermal run-away as does float current. Thermal
run-away is relatively easy to avoid, simply by using temperature-
compensated chargers and properly ventilating the battery room/
cabinet. Temperature-compensated chargers reduce the charge
current as the temperature increases. Remember that heating is
a function of the square of the current. Even though thermal run-
away may be avoided by temperature-compensation chargers, the
underlying cause is still present.
Nickel-Cadmium failure modes
NiCd batteries seem to be more robust than lead-acid. They are
more expensive to purchase but the cost of ownership is similar
to lead-acid, especially if maintenance costs are used in the cost
equation. Also, the risks of catastrophic failure are considerabllower
than for VRLAs.
The failure modes of NiCd are much more limited than lead-acid.
Some of the more important modes are:
� Gradual loss of capacity
� Carbonation
� Floating effects
� Cycling
� Iron poisoning of positive plates
Figure 2 Changes in impedance as a result of battery capacity
10 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com
Gradual loss of capacity occurs from the normal aging process. It is
irreversible but is not catastrophic, not unlike grid growth in lead-
acid.
Carbonation is gradual and is reversible. Carbonation is caused by
the absorption of carbon dioxide from the air into the potassium
hydroxide electrolyte which is why it is a gradual process. Without
proper maintenance, carbonation can cause the load to not be
supported, which can be catastrophic to supported equipment. It
can be reversed by exchanging the electrolyte.
Floating effects are the gradual loss of capacity due to long periods
on float without being cycled. This can also cause a catastrophic
failure of the supported load. However, through routine
maintenance, this can be avoided. Floating effects are reversible by
deep-cycling the battery once or twice.
NiCd batteries, with their thicker plates, are not well-suited for
cycling applications. Shorter duration batteries generally have
thinner plates to discharge faster due to a higher surface area.
Thinner plates means more plates for a given jar size and capacity,
and more surface area. Thicker plates (in the same jar size) have
less surface area.
Iron poisoning is caused by corroding plates and is irreversible.

There are different philosophies and ambition levels for maintaining
and testing batteries. Some examples:
� Just replace batteries when they fail or die. Minimum or no
maintenance and testing. Obviously, not testing batteries
at all is the least costly with considering only maintenance
costs but the risks are great. The consequences must be
considered when evaluating the cost-risk analysis since the
risks are associated with the equipment being supported.
Batteries have a limited lifetime and they can fail earlier
than expected. Time between outages is usually long
and if outages are the only occasions the battery shows
its capability risk is high that reduced or no back-up is
available when needed. Having batteries as back-up of
important installations without any idea of their current
health spoils the whole idea of a reliable system.
� Replace after a certain time. Minimum or no maintenance
and testing. This might also be a risky approach. Batteries
can fail earlier than expected. Also it is waste of
capital if the batteries are replaced earlier than needed.
Properly maintained batteries can live longer than the
predetermined replacement time.
� A serious maintenance and testing program in order to
ensure the batteries are in good condition, prolong their life
and to find the optimal time for replacement.
A maintenance program including inspection, impedance
and capacity testing is the way to track the battery’s state
of health. Degradation and faults will be found before they
become serious and surprises can be avoided. Maintenance
costs are higher but this is what you have to pay for to get
the reliability you want for your back-up system.
The best testing scheme is the balance between maintenance costs
and risks of losing the battery and the supported equipment. For
example, in some transmission substations, there is upwards of $10
million per hour flowing through them. What is the cost of not
maintaining battery systems in those substations? A $3000 battery
is fairly insignificant compared to the millions of dollars in lost
revenues. Each company is different and must individually weigh
the cost-risk of battery maintenance.
How to maintain
the battery
Standards and common practices
There are a number of standards and company practices for
battery testing. Usually they comprise inspections (observations,
actions and measurements done under normal float condition) and
capacity tests. Most well-known are the IEEE standards:
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Maintenance philosophies
� IEEE 450 for flooded lead-acid
� IEEE 1188 for sealed lead-acid
� IEEE 1106 for nickel-cadmium
IEEE 450
IEEE 450, “IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance, Testing
and Replacement of Vented Lead-acid Batteries for Stationary
Applications” describes the frequency and type of measurements
that need to be taken to validate the condition of the battery.
The standard covers Inspections, Capacity test, Corrective actions,
Battery replacement criteria etc.
Below is a summarized description for the maintenance, for the full
instructions see the IEEE450 standards.
Inspections
� Monthly inspection include appearance and measurements
of string voltage, ripple voltage, ripple current, charger
output current and voltage, ambient temperature,
voltage and electrolyte temperature at pilot cells, battery
float charging current or specific gravity at pilot cells,
unintentional battery grounds etc.
� Quarterly inspections include same measurements as
monthly inspection and in addition, voltage of each cell,
specific gravity of 10% of the cells of the battery and float
charging current, temperature of a representative sample of
10% or more of the battery cells.
� Once a year a quarterly inspection should be extended
with, specific gravity of all cells of the battery, temperature
of each cell, cell-to-cell and terminal connection resistance
are performed on the entire string.
Capacity test (discharge test) should be done
� At the installation (acceptance test)
� Within the first two years of service
� Periodically. Intervals should not be greater than 25% of
the expected service life.
� Annually when the battery shows signs of degradation or
has reached 85% of the expected service life. Degradation
is indicateds when the battery capacity drops more than
10% from its capacity on the previous capacity test or is
below 90% of manufacturers rating. If the battery has
reached 85% of service life, delivers 100% or greater of
the manufacturer's rated capacity and has no signs of
degradation it can be tested at two-year Intervals until it
shows signs of degradations.
Maintenance philosophies
IEEE 1188
IEEE 1188, “IEEE Recommended Practice for Maintenance,
Testing and Replacement of Valve-Regulated Lead-Acid Batteries
for Stationary Applications” defines the recommended tests and
frequency.
Below is a summarized description for the maintenance, for the full
instructions see the IEEE1188 standards.
Inspections
� Monthly inspection include battery terminal float voltage,
charger output current and voltage, ambient temperature,
visual inspection and DC float current per string.
� Quarterly same measurements as for monthly inspection
shall be done and additionally cell/unit impedance value,
temperature of negative terminal of each cell and voltage
of each cell. For applications with a discharge rate of one
hour or less, resistance of 10% of the intercell connections
shall be measured.
� Semi-Annual same measurements as for quarterly
inspection shall be done and additionally a check and record
of voltage of each cell/unit, cell/unit internal ohmic values,
temperature of the negative terminal of each cell/unit of
battery.
� Yearly and Initial above measurements should be taken and
in addition, cell-to-cell and terminal connection resistance of
entire battery and AC ripple current and/or voltage imposed
on the battery.
Capacity test (capacity test) should be done
� At the installation (acceptance test)
� Periodically. Intervals should not be greater than 25% of
the expected service life or two years, whichever is less.
� Where impedance values has changed significantly between
readings or physical changes has occurred
� Annually when the battery shows signs of degradation or
has reached 85% of the expected service life. Degradation is
indicated when the battery capacity drops more than 10%
from its capacity on the previous capacity test or is below
90% of manufacturers rating.
Battery replacement criteria
Both IEEE 450 and IEEE 1188 recommend replacing the battery
if its capacity is below 80% of manufacturer’s rating. Maximum
time for replacement is one year. Physical characteristics such as
plate condition or abnormally high cell temperatures are often
determinants for complete battery or individual cell replacements.
12 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com
IEEE 1106
IEEE 1106, “IEEE Recommended Practice for Installation,
Maintenance, Testing and Replacement of Vented Nickel-Cadmium
Batteries for Stationary Applications”.
Below is a summarized description for the maintenance, for the full
instructions see the IEEE1106 standards.
Inspections
� Inspection at least once per quarter include battery terminal
float voltage, appearance, charger output current and
voltage, pilot-cell electrolyte temperature.
� Semi-annually general inspection and measurement of
voltage of each cell shall be done.
Capacity test (discharge test) should be done
� Within the first two years of service
� At 5-year intervals until the battery shows signs of
excessive
capacity loss.
� Annually at excessive capacity loss
Summary of best way to test and evaluate your
battery
Test intervals
1. Make a capacity test when the battery is new as part of the
acceptance test.
2. Make an impedance test at the same time to establish
baseline values for the battery.
3. Repeat the above within 2 years for warranty purpose.
4. Make an impedance test every year on flooded cells and
quarterly on VRLA cells.
5. Make capacity tests at least for every 25% of expected
service life.
6. Make capacity test annually when the battery has reached
85% of expected service life or if the capacity has dropped
more than 10% since the previous test or is below 90% of
the manufacturers rating.
7. Make a capacity test if the Impedance value has changed
significantly.
8. Follow a given practice (preferably from the IEEE standard)
for all temperature, voltage, gravity measurements etc. and
fill in a report. This will be a great help for trending and for
fault tracing.

The Battery testing matrix below may help guide even the
most skilled battery testing technician and will help simplify the
recommended practices.
The following is a description of some of the tests or maintenance
parameters.
Practical battery testing
Capacity test
Capacity test is the only way to get an accurate value on the actual
capacity of the battery. While used regularly it can be used for
tracking the battery’s health and actual capacity and estimating
remaining life of the battery. When the battery is new its capacity
might be slightly lower than specified. This is normal.

There are rated capacity values available from the manufacturer.

All batteries have tables telling the discharge current for a specified
time and down to a specific end of discharge voltage. Table below
is an example from a battery manufacturer

8h Nominal rates at 25º C (77º F)

End Volt. Amperes (includes connector voltage drop
Model Ah
/Cell
Ratings 1h 2h 3h 4h 5h 6h 8 h 10 h
DCU/DU-9 100 52 34 26 21 18 15 12 10
1.75 DCU/DU-11 120 66 41 30 25 21 18 15 13
DCU/DU-13 150 78 50 38 31 27 23 19 16

Common test times are 5 or 8 hours and common end of discharge

voltage for a lead acid cell is 1.75 or 1.80 V.
During the test it is measured how much capacity (current x time
expressed in Ah) the battery can deliver before the terminal voltage
drops to the end of discharge voltage x number of cells. The current
shall be maintained at a constant value. It is recommended to select
a test time that is approximately the same as the battery’s duty
cycle.

Battery testing matrix – IEEE recommended practices

Instrument BITE3 BITE2 DLROs MOM/ BGFT BGL DMA35 TORKEL Visual
Parameter Mjölner

Capacity „

Internal ohmic value „ „

Intercell connection resistance „ „ „ „

Voltage of each cell / pilot cell „ „

Spec. grav. and temp. of each cell / pilot cell „

Corrosion at Terminals „ „ „

DC Float Current „ „

Unintentional Battery Grounds „ „ „

Battery ripple current „ „

Charger DC float current „

Cycling of Ni / Cd batteries „

Structural integrity of rack / cabinet „

Spectrum Analyzer „

www.megger.com 13
Practical battery testing
Common test times are 5 or 8 hours and common end of discharge
voltage for a lead acid cell is 1.75 or 1.80 V. It is recommended
to use the same testing time during the battery’s lifetime. This will
improve accuracy when trending how battery’s capacity changes.
If the battery reaches the end of discharge voltage at the same time
as the specified test time the battery’s actual capacity is 100% of
the rated capacity. If it reaches the end of discharge at 80% (8 h)
or before of the specified 10 h it is shall be replaced. See figure 3.
Procedure for capacity test of vented lead acid
battery
1. Verify that the battery has had an equalizing
charge if specified by the manufacturer
2. Check all battery connections and ensure all
resistance readings are correct
3. Record specific gravity of every cell
4. Record the float voltage of every cell
5. Record the temperature of every sixth cell in order
to get an average temperature
6. Record the battery terminal float voltage
7. Disconnect the charger from the battery
8. Start the discharge. The discharge current should
be corrected for the temperature obtained at point
5 (not if capacity is corrected afterwards) and
maintained during the entire test.
9. Record the voltage of every cell and the battery
terminal voltage in the beginning of the discharge
test
10. Record the voltage of every cell and the battery
terminal voltage one or several times at specified
intervals when the test is running
Figure 3 If the battery reaches the end of discharge at 80%
(8 h) or before of the specified 10 h it is shall be replaced.
14 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com
11. Maintain the discharge until the battery terminal
voltage has decreased to the specified end of
discharge voltage (for instance 1.75 x number of
cells)
12. Record the voltage of every cell and the battery
terminal voltage at the end of the test. The
cell voltages at the end of the test have special
importance since weak cells are indicated here.
13. Calculate the actual battery capacity
It is important to measure the individual cell voltages. This has to
be made a couple of times during the test. Most important is to
measure the cells at the end of the discharge test in order to find
the weak cells.
It is also very important that the time OR the current during a
discharge test is adjusted for the temperature of the battery. A
cold battery will give less Ah than a warm. Temperature correction
factors and methods are described in the IEEE standards.
Manufacturers can also specify their batteries at constant power
discharge. This is used where the load has voltage regulators. Then
the current will increase when the voltage drops. Procedure for
testing these batteries is the same but the load equipment must be
able to discharge with a constant power.
Batteries can also be tested at a shorter time than their duty cycle,
for instance at 1 hour. Then the current rate has to be increased.
Advantage is that less capacity is drained from the battery (valid for
lead-acid) and it requires less time to recharge it. Also less man-
hour is needed for the test. Contact your battery manufacturer for
more information. At higher rates it is more important to supervise
the battery’s temperature.
Between load tests, impedance measurement is an excellent
tool for assessing the condition of batteries. Furthermore, it is
recommended that an impedance test be performed just prior
to any load test to improve the correlation between capacity and
impedance.
Figure 4 Replacement of battery is recommend-
ed when the capacity is 80% of rated.
 Practical battery testing

Batteries can also be tested at a shorter time than their
duty cycle, for instance at 1 hour. Then the current rate has
to be increased. Advantage is that less capacity is drained
from the battery (valid for lead-acid) and it requires less time
to recharge it. Also less man-hour is needed for the test.
Contact your battery manufacturer for more information.
At higher rates it is more important to supervise the battery’s
temperature.
Between load tests, impedance measurement is an excellent
tool for assessing the condition of batteries. Furthermore, it is
recommended that an impedance test be performed just prior
to any load test to improve the correlation between capacity and
impedance.
Impedance test
Impedance, an internal ohmic test, is resistance in AC terms. With
regard to DC battery systems, impedance indicates the condition
of batteries. Since it tests the condition of the entire electrical path
of a battery from terminal plate to terminal plate, impedance can
find weaknesses in cells and intercell connectors easily and reliably.
in a battery that are additive (subtractive). Other AC currents are
present from the charger system. The test is performed by applying
an AC test signal to the terminal plates. Then measure both the total
AC current in the string and the voltage drop of each unit in the
string by measuring each cell and intercell connector consecutively
until the entire string is measured. The impedance is calculated,
displayed and stored. As the cells age, the internal impedance
increases as depicted in figure 2. By measuring impedance, the
condition of each cell in the string can be measured and trended
to determine when to replace a cell or the string which helps in
planning for budgetary needs.
The impedance test is a true four-wire, Kelvin-type measurement
that provides excellent reliability and highly reproducible data on
which to base sound decisions with regard to battery maintenance
and replacement. Impedance is able to find weak cells so that
proactive maintenance can be performed. After all, the battery is a
cost but it is supporting a critical load or revenue stream. If a single
cell goes open.

Basically, impedance test is determined by applying an AC current

signal, measuring the AC voltage drop across the cell or intercell
connector and calculating the impedance using Ohm’s Law. In
practice, not only is the AC voltage drop measured but so is the AC
current. The AC current is measured because of other AC currents

Figure 5 Ascending impedance with corresponding end voltage

www.megger.com 15
Practical battery testing
Specific gravity traditionally has not provided much value in There are two types of DC current on a battery: recharge
determining impending battery failure. In fact, it changes very little current which is the current applied to recharge a battery after a
after the initial 3 to 6 months of a battery’s life. This initial change discharge and float current which is the current used to maintain
is due to the completion of the formation process, which converts a battery in a fully charged state. If there is a difference between
inactive paste material into active material by reacting with the the charger setting and the battery’s voltage, that difference will
sulphuric acid. A low specific gravity may mean that the charger cause a current to flow. When the battery is fully charged [1], the
voltage is set too low causing plate sulphation to occur. only current flowing is the float current which counteracts the
self-discharge of the battery (<1% per week). Since the voltage
In a lead-acid battery the sulphate is a closed system in that the differential between the charger and the battery is small, the float
sulphate must be either on the plates or in the acid. If the battery current is small. When there is a large voltage difference such as
is fully charged then the sulphate must be in the acid. If the battery after a discharge the current is high and is limited by the charger
is discharged, the sulphate is on the plates. The end result is until the voltage difference becomes less. When the current is on
that specific gravity is a mirror image of voltage and thus state- the plateau in the graph below, this is called current limit. When
of-charge. Specific gravity readings should be taken when things the voltage differential becomes less, the charge current is reduced
are amiss in the battery to obtain as much information about the as depicted on the downward sloping charge current line on the
battery as possible. graph shown in figure 8. The charge voltage is the voltage of the
battery, not the charger setting which is why it is increasing.
Different battery applications and geographies have varying specific
gravities to accommodate rates, temperature, etc. Following is a Float current will vary with battery size. The larger the battery is,
table that describes some applications and their specific gravities. the more float current it will take to keep it fully charged. Float
current can increase for a couple of reasons: ground faults on
Specific gravities and their applications floating battery systems and internal battery faults. Ground faults
Specific gravity Percent acid Application are discussed later. As a battery’s internal impedance increases, it
1.170 25 Tropical stationary takes more current to pass through that higher impedance. The
1.215 30 Standard stationary increase in float current can be an indicator of battery faults. In lieu
1.250 35 UPS/high rate of measuring float current, many of the same conditions are found
1.280 38 Automotive with impedance.
1.300 40 VRLA stationary
1.320 42 Motive power In VRLA batteries, float current[2,3] seems to be an indicator of
1.400 50 Torpedo battery problems, namely thermal runaway. Thermal runaway is the
Float current result of a battery problem, not the cause. Some of the causes that
can lead to thermal runaway are shorted cells, ground faults, dry-
Another leg of the Ohm’s Law triangle is current. The charger out, excessive charging and insufficient heat removal. This process
voltage is used to keep a battery charged but voltage is really the takes anywhere from two weeks to four months to occur once the
vehicle to get current into the battery (or out of it during discharge). float current starts its increase. By measuring float current, it may
It is current that converts the lead sulphate back to active material be possible to avoid catastrophic failure of the battery and damage
on the grids. to connected and nearby equipment. Impedance will find many of
these same errors.

Ripple current
Batteries, as DC devices, prefer to have only DC imposed on them.
The charger’s job is to convert AC into DC but no charger is 100%
efficient. Frequently, filters are added to chargers to remove the
AC current from the DC output. The AC current on the DC is called
ripple current. Battery manufacturers have stated that more than
about 5 A rms of ripple for every 100 Ah of battery capacity can
lead to premature failure due to internal heating. Ripple voltage
is not a concern since it is the heating effect of the ripple current
Figure 8 Constant-voltage Constant-current charge that damages batteries. The 5% ripple current figure is a rough
characteristics estimate and depends also on the ambient temperature. Ripple
current can increase slowly as the electronic components in the

[1] Cole, Bruce, et al., Operational Characteristics of VRLA Batteries Configured in Parallel Strings, GNB Technologies
[2] Brown, AJ, An Innovative Digital Flat Current Measurement Technique - Part Two, Proceedings of BattConn® 2000
[3] Boisvert, Eric, Using Float Charging Current Measurements to Prevent Thermal Runaway on VRLA Batteries, Multitel
[4] Ruhlmann, T., Monitoring of Valve Regulated Lead Acid Batteries, Proceedings of BattConn® 2000

16 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com


charger age. Also if a diode goes bad, the ripple current can
increase more dramatically leading to heating and premature death
without anyone knowing it. Although impedance is not a measure
of ripple current, ripple current is measured because of the way
Megger designs its impedance instruments.
There is anecdotal evidence[4] that low frequency ripple (<10Hz)
may charge and discharge a battery on a micro-scale. More
research is necessary to prove this hypothesis. Excessive cycling can
lead to premature death of a battery regardless of the reasons for
the cycling, be they outages, testing or maybe micro-cycling. One
thing is true: the lower the AC is on the battery system, the less
the damage is that can occur. VRLA batteries seem to be more
sensitive to ripple current than their flooded counterparts. It is then
advisable to filter their chargers for ripple current/voltage.
Temperature
It is well known that low temperatures slow up the internal chemical
reactions in any battery; the degrees of reduced performance vary
according to the technology. For example, at temperatures around
freezing, a VRLA may need capacity compensation of 20%. The
lead-calcium cell using 1.215 specific gravity acid will require
a doubling of capacity, while the Ni-Cd will need about 18%
increased capacity.
At the other end of the temperature range, high temperature is the
killer of all batteries. There will be no surprise to find out that this
impact varies from one technology to another. Lead acid at 95˚F
will experience a 50% shortened life, while Ni-Cd will have a 16-
18% shortening of life.
By applying what Arrhenius learned about chemical reactions,
for every 18º F (10º C) increase in battery temperature, battery
life is halved, battery life can start to be managed. The increased
temperature causes faster positive grid corrosion as well as other
failure modes. By holding a lead-acid battery at a temperature
of 95º F (35º C) instead of the designed 77º F (25º C), a 20-year
battery will last only ten years, a ten-year battery only five years and
so on. Increase the temperature by another 18º F to 113º F (45º C),
a 20-year battery will last only five years!
A battery is rarely held at a certain temperature for its entire life.
A more realistic scenario is for a battery to heat during the day
and cool down at night with higher average temperatures in the
summer and lower average temperatures in winter. It is unfortunate
but cooling the battery off to below 77º F (25º C) will not gain back
the life that was lost. Once the positive grid corrodes, it cannot be
converted back again. Furthermore, positive grid corrosion occurs
at all temperatures, it is merely a matter of speed of the corrosion
rate. The end result is to control, as best as possible (back to cost
versus risk), the temperature of the batteries in the network.
IEEE 450, Annex H offers a method for calculating the impact of
high temperatures on a lead acid battery.
www.megger.com 17
Practical battery testing
Data analysis
The essence of any testing methodology is how to interpret the
data to make some sense of it all. The same is true of battery
testing. If the data are to be hand-written and filed or if a printout
from an instrument is reviewed then filed, then there is no useful
analysis except if there is an emergency at that very moment. The
real value in battery testing lies in the trending of data to determine
if problems are imminent or a little farther out. Trending of battery
data, especially impedance and capacity, is an excellent tool for
budgetary planning. By watching the batteries degrade over time,
a decision can be made as to when to replace a battery. With
trending, emergency replacements decrease dramatically.
Like any other form of maintenance, battery testing and
maintenance over the years has typically been recorded on some
sort of data sheet. The data sheet was possibly reviewed and then
filed away, probably not reviewed again until a problem arose,
if it could be found. If you think back to the late 80’s and early
90’s the 386 and 486 computers were just making their way to
the market and not everyone was using one. With the use of the
PC today that same data which is filed away can be converted to
information which is useful and much easier to interpret. New data
collected can be easily stored in digital format rather than on paper.
It’s interesting to note that many maintenance programs still use
paper with and without a PC. Still others are filling out the same
old data sheets in digital format on the PC and then just filing it
electronically. It seems almost the same as the paper method just a
different filling cabinet. The key to making data useful is the ability
to graph and manipulate the data. Do you think anyone in the
stock market could make money if they did not have all the charts
and trends to view? Do you think we could put anything into orbit
without plotting the orbit? Could you imagine looking at all the
numbers associated with an orbit and try to make sense of it with
out some sort of graphics? This point is illustrated in Figure 9.
The data is not complete due to space limitations but it is the actual
data of each sinusoid. It would be close to impossible to see a
difference between the two sets of data or the notching going on
in the bottom waveform when only the data is viewed, but without
the data the waveform could not be plotted. So now the question
is what do we do with the data from battery tests? To begin with
whether the data is from one test or from several tests on the same
battery string the data should be trended. Now for some values
like ambient temperature it will be difficult to trend the data from
one test because it is only one point. So let us review what types of
things could be plotted that would make some sense with respect
to batteries. Table below lists the types of measurements with
respect to single tests or multiple tests from the same string.
When looking at data from a single test, the data is plotted against
itself. Ideally when a string of batteries is installed they are installed
at the same time and are all of the same vintage and should be
somewhat homogenous. As the batteries age
Practical battery testing

Figure 9 Waveform data vs. Waveform chart.

they may all age the same but most likely there will be some
cells which begin to fail early. In either case new or old we are
looking for the differences. Below in the table are strap resistance
measurements of a 60 cell string. It is easy enough to look through
the data and see a few numbers which do not seem correct, but
when you look at the graph of the same data it is a lot clearer what
needs to be looked at and what does not.

When looking at impedances whether from a single test or multiple

tests it is often advantageous to plot the percent deviation from
average or the baseline. Figure 11 which show the impedance
plotted as percent deviation of average allows the user to quickly
identify which cells are near limits which have been predetermined.
In this example cells 1 and 3 which are both greater than ten
percent above the average should be investigated further. You may
also want to further investigate why the first seven cells are above Inter-cell Resistance Measurements
average and the rest are not. Any time you have a grouping

Single test of any stringMultiple tests of same string

Discharge Discharge
Internal impedance Internal impedance
Strap resistance Strap resistance
Cell voltage Cell voltage
Cell temperature Cell temperature
Cell specific gravity Cell specific gravity
Ambient temperature
Charger output voltage
Charger output current
Ripple current
Float current
Battery measurements that can be plotted
Figure 10 Inter-cell resistance graph

18 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

 Practical battery testing
of measurements which corresponds to the physical location of the
cells it should be a cause for further investigation.

Below are some suggested percentages to use as flags in impedance

testing. Over time, users will establish their own percentage
deviation warning values.

Single Test Multiple Tests* Trending**

% Deviation from

Cell’s % change

Cell’s % change

Cell’s % change

Cell’s % change
from last test

from last test

string avg

overall

overall
Figure 11 Impedance percent deviation from average
Lead-acid, Flooded 5 2 15 2 20

Lead-acid, VRLA,
10 3 30 3 50
AGM
Lead-acid, VRLA,
10 3 30 3 50
Gel
NiCd, Flooded 15 10 50 10 100
NiCd, Sealed 15 5 35 5 80

Another method which should be used is trending of historical

data. For example, if you perform tests every quarter on the same
cells, then you will want to chart the information with respect to
time. Figure 12 shows the impedance measurements trended for
one cell which were taken every quarter. The first ten or eleven
measurements seemed to be fine and then a steady upward trend Figure 12 Single cell trending

is very noticeable. This type of trend in impedance should warrant

further investigation as to the cause. This method of trending over
time can be used in all the data that is measured.

All of the data presented thus far has been presented using a
standard Excel spreadsheet. Spreadsheets are very useful and have
been around almost as long as computers. There are software
packages presently available such as PowerDB that automatically
chart and trend the data for you. The important step is to use
graphics to help in the analysis of data that is newly measured and
possibly with data still contained in a paper or electronic file.

www.megger.com 19
Locating ground faults on DC systems
without sectionalizing
Overview
The main objective of a battery system is to provide standby and
emergency power to operate industrial, consumer, commercial
or protective devices. Some of these devices include emergency
lighting units, uninterruptible power supplies, continuous process
systems, operating controls, switchgear components and protective
relays.
In emergency situations, it is essential that these devices be in
proper operating condition. Failure of a DC system or the battery
can result in operational failure of the devices connected to that
system. System failure can lead to loss of revenue, damage to
equipment and/or injured personnel.
It is a common situation for a floating DC system to develop grounds
within it. When a battery system is partially or completely grounded,
a short circuit is formed across the battery and consequently may
cause the protective device to fail to operate when needed.
Current test methods
Traditionally utilities and industrial complexes have gone to great
lengths to find ground faults within their battery systems. However,
locating these battery grounds proves to be a very elusive and time-
consuming process. The current ground-fault location method
involves sectionalizing, or interruption, of DC branches to isolate
the ground fault. Sectionalizing disables the system protection and
has been known to cause inadvertent line and generator tripping.
For this reason, many utilities have banned sectionalizing. Until
more recently, though, this had been the only method available to
locate ground faults.
20 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com
A better test method
Developments have led to a better test method; injecting a
low-frequency AC signal and using that AC signal to locate the
ground in the DC system. This method can be performed without
sectionalizing the DC system and it reduces the fault locating time
from days to hours. Furthermore, it allows for system protection to
be present at all times.
The AC injection method measures single or multiple ground faults
by first injecting a low-frequency, 20 Hz AC signal between the
station ground and the battery system. Second, the resulting current
is then measured by using a clamp-on sensing current transformer.
From this, the resistance value can be calculated using the in-phase
component of the circulating current, thus rejecting the effect of
capacitive loads. Therefore, if the signal is injected at the battery
terminal and the clamp-on CT is connected to the outgoing lead,
the instrument will measure the total ground resistance present
on the battery system. If the CT is clamped on a feeder, then the
instrument will measure the ground resistance on that feeder.
Faults can be traced easily regardless of the number of distribution
panels or circuits because the “tracer” is merely following the
strength of the AC signal. System integrity is maintained because it
is an on-line AC test and is designed to prevent system trips.
After injection of a low-frequency AC waveform, a resistive fault
on a branch of the battery system will be indicated by a low-
resistance value. For example, if the total resistance of a battery
system showed 10 kΩ, this would indicate a resistive fault on the
battery system. The resistive fault can be located by clamping on
each individual circuit until a resistive value of 10 kΩ is found.
It is easy to see that this method can be adapted in a straight
forward manner to locate multiple faults by using the theory of
parallel paths. For example, if the total system resistance indicates
1 kΩ and an individual branch indicates 10 kΩ resistive fault, the
user would know that the system has a second fault because the
total system resistance and the branch resistance do not match. By
using the AC injection method, ground faults on ungrounded DC
systems is easy, straight-forward and safe.

What does float voltage of a cell tell me?
Float voltage indicates that the charger is working, that is, state-
of-charge. It does not indicate the state-of-health (condition) of
the cell. It indicates that the cell is fully charged, but don’t confuse
fully charged with full capacity. There have been many times that
the float voltage is within acceptable limits and the battery fails. A
low float voltage may indicate that there is a short in the cell. This
is evident by a float voltage at about 2.06 or below for lead-acid (if
the charger is set for 2.17 V per cell)
In some cases, a cell floats considerably higher than the average.
This may be caused by the high float voltage cell compensating
for another cell that is weak and is floating low. It is possible that
one cell floats much higher to compensate for several cells floating
a little low. The total of all cells’ voltages must equal the charger
setting.
What are the recommended maintenance practices for
the different types of batteries?
IEEE Recommended (Maintenance) Practices cover the three main
types of batteries: Flooded Lead-acid (IEEE 450), Valve-Regulated
Lead-acid (IEEE 1188) and Nickel-Cadmium (IEEE 1106). Generally
speaking, maintenance is essential to ensure adequate back-
up time. There are differing levels of maintenance and varying
maintenance intervals depending upon the battery type, site
criticality and site conditions. For example, if a site has an elevated
ambient temperature, then the batteries will age more quickly
implying more frequent maintenance visits and more frequent
battery replacements.
How important is intercell connection resistance?
Our experience has found that many battery failures are due to
loose intercell connections that heat up and melt open rather than
from cell failure. Whether a cell is weak or an intercell connector is
loose, one bad apple does spoil the whole bushel.
When lead acid batteries are frequently cycled, the negative terminal
may cold flow, thus loosening the connection.
The proper sequence of measuring multiple post batteries is critical.
Not all instruments provide valid intercell connection resistances
due to their method of testing. Megger instruments provide valid
data.
What are some common failure modes?
Failure mode depends upon the type of battery, the site conditions,
application and other parameters. Please refer the summary on
pages 7-8 or to the “Battery Failure Modes,” which can be found
on the Megger website. Look under the Battery Test Equipment
product section. In the upper right-hand column under “Documents
click for Application Guides, Articles and FAQs.
How often should impedance readings be taken?
The frequency of impedance readings varies with battery type,
site conditions and previous maintenance practices. IEEE 1188
www.megger.com 21
Frequently asked questions
Recommended Practices suggests that a baseline shall be taken six
months after battery has been in operation and then semi-annual
quarterly. With that said, Megger recommends that VRLA batteries
are measured quarterly due to their unpredictable nature and
semi-annually for NiCd and flooded lead-acid. Impedance reading
should also be taken prior to every capacity test.
At what point should I stop changing cells and replace
the entire battery?
In shorter strings (less than 40 cells/jars), the entire should be
replaced when three to five units have been replaced. In longer
strings, a similar percentage that is replaced is the criterion.
How can I predict when I need to change a cell?
Even though there is not a perfect mathematical correlation
between battery capacity and impedance (or any other battery test
except a load test), the amount of increase in impedance is a strong
indicator of battery health. Megger has found that a 20 percent
increase in impedance for flooded lead-acid generally correlates to
80% battery capacity. In VRLA, that increase is closer to 50% from
the battery’s initial impedance or from the manufacturer’s baseline
values.
Will capacity testing destroy my battery?
The battery system is designed to provide back-up power during
all outages that appear during its lifetime. Performing a capacity
test is nothing else than simulating one outage but in a controlled
way. Batteries can normally be deep discharged (discharged
to manufacturer’s end-of discharge voltage) 100 - 1000 times
depending on type of battery. Using a few of these cycles has
no real impact on the battery’s lifetime. On the other hand there
is no reason to test more frequently than recommended by the
standards.
Can I make a discharge test while my battery is still
connected to the load (on-line)?
Yes it is possible to do. Megger has test equipment that automatically
senses and regulate the discharge current even when the batteries
are connected to the ordinary load. Most users choose to make a
80% discharge test when on-line in order to still have some backup
time at the end of the test.
Battery technology summary
As you can see, there is a lot to a battery. It is a complex electro-chem-
ical device. There is much more information available that goes further
into the details of Tafel curves and depolarization but that is beyond
this scope. Essentially, batteries need maintenance and care to get
the most of them which is the main reason people spend so much on
batteries – to support far more expensive equipment and to ensure
continuous revenue streams.
Megger products overview
Megger offers solutions to ensure system performance with BITE3
� Determines the condition
its comprehensive line of Battery Test Equipment, Low Resistance
of lead-acid batteries
Ohmmeters and Micro-ohmmeters, Insulation Testers, and
Multimeters. � On-line testing with Pass/
Warning/Fail calculations
An overview of the various products available is described
below. For more information on these and many other Megger � Measures impedance,
products, visit our web site www.megger.com for the most intercell connection
up-to-date news, product and service information. resistance, cell voltage

� Windows CE¨ Operating

Impedance test equipment
Regardless of whether you are testing flooded lead-acid, VRLA
or Ni-Cd cells, Megger has the right equipment for your battery
maintenance requirements. The products and associated
accessories provides meaningful data on battery health without
significant expense or any reduction in remaining battery capacity.
Interruption in service can cause disaster to supported equipment
and facilities. Consequently, a dependable backup power system is
critical so that when AC mains fail, costly service interruptions can
be avoided. The battery impedance test helps to identify weak cells
before they cause problems.
System with more than 16
MB of memory
� Measures float and ripple
currents
The BITE3 is a compact, battery-operated, instrument with powerful
on-board data analysis tools. It is the first of its kind instrument in
that the ProActiv can download all previous data to provide the
best in on-site data analysis like no other instrument of its kind.
The menus are easy to navigate with a bright, backlit LCD. The
data display includes the normal numeric arrangement but adds
two graphical displays to help analyze weak cells.

Taking the battery off-line for testing is time consuming and adds BITE2 and BITE2P
risk to the process. This process is unnecessary with the on-line
testing capabilities of the Megger family of battery test products.
The highly repeatable instruments help reduce downtime.

� Determines the condition of lead-acid and nickel-cadmium

batteries up to 7000 Ah

� On-board Pass/Warning/Fail indications

� On-line testing

� Robust, reliable instruments

� Built-in printer (BITE2P)

The BITE2 and BITE2P Battery Impedance Test Equipment work by

applying a test current across the battery string while on-line, then
measuring the impedance, cell voltage and intercell connection
resistance. They also measure ripple current which indicates
the condition of the charger. The instruments help evaluate the
condition of the entire string from terminal plate to terminal plate
and even the charger.

22 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

 BITE2 and BITE2P Accessories

BITE® accessories Bar Code Scanner: Scan

your battery strings, no
� Enhances the capabilities of the BITE line programming required.

� Full line of accessories

� Designed for unique situations

� Great for non-standard installations Flex CT: Measure ripple

currents around large
buss bars.
Megger offers a complete line of accessories to enhance the
capabilities of the BITE product line. There are extension cables,
calibration shunts, etc. Even though we have many accessories, we
are continually evaluating additional products as interest arises.
Extension Probes: Ideal for
BITE3 Accessories those tight areas.

Kelvin Leads: Easily Hydrometer: Measure

connect to terminal lugs. specific gravity of flooded
cells and import directly into
your Power DB database.
Flex CT: Measures escape
current on parallel strings.
NO NEED TO SEGMENT
Mini CT: Measure ripple and
test current in tight locations.

Lighted Extension Probes:

Ideal for those tight dark
areas.

Expanded Duplex Pistol

Probes. Perfect for rooms
with split battery strings.
(6’ between pistols)

AC Power Supply. Operate

your BITE3 off of an AC
source.

The Current Transformer

kit for the BITE3 is for
measuring the current
in noisy battery systems
and to measure “escape
current” in parallel battery
strings.

www.megger.com 23
Capacity testing
TORKEL 860
� Batteries can be tested “in service”
� Unit adjusts to include load currents in the test parameters
� User adjustable alarm and shutdown points to avoid excessive
discharge
Batteries in power plants and transformer substations must provide
the equipment they serve with standby power in the event of a
power failure. Unfortunately, however, the capacity of such
batteries can drop significantly for a number of reasons before their
calculated life expectancy is reached. This is why it is so important
to check batteries at regular intervals, and the only reliable way of
measuring battery capacity is to conduct a discharge test.
The TORKEL instruments are used for discharge testing. Tests
can be conducted at constant current, constant power, constant
resistance or in accordance with a pre-selected load profile. For
extra discharge capacity there are auxiliary load units available.
TORKEL 860 is designed for users who travel from place to place
to maintain battery systems having different voltages. It features
excellent discharging capacity plus a broad voltage range and
outstanding portability. The TORKEL 860 is used for systems
ranging from 12 to 480 V.
24 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com
BVM
� Automates battery voltage measurement during
capacity tests
� Up to 2x120 units can be used (Daisy-chain)
The Megger BVM is a battery voltage measurement device that
is used for the capacity testing of large, industrial battery banks
commonly found in electrical power substations, telecom facilities
and computer data center UPS systems. When used in conjunction
with a TORKEL unit and PowerDB and TORKEL Win, the BVM
enables the TORKEL to perform a completely automated battery
bank capacity test according to IEC test methods. The test also
meets NERC/FERC requirements. The BVM is designed in modular
form where one BVM device is used for each battery or “jar” in the
string to be tested. One BVM for each battery connects to the next
in a “daisy-chain” fashion, thereby providing easy and economical
expandability to meet the testing requirements for small-to-large
battery bank systems.
Setup is fast and easy using the BVM. Each BVM is identical and
can be connected in any battery test position, thus providing
maximum flexibility and interchangeability of the BVMs. Up to
120 BVMs can be daisy chained in a single battery bank under
test. The BVM “Auto Discovery” feature enables the host device
to automatically determine the number of batteries under test and
provide sequential identification of each BVM in the test string.

TORKEL 900
� Discharge testing for full insight into battery capacity
� Enhanced safety features including spark free connection and
emergency safety fuse
� Ability to test the battery without disconnecting it from
the system
� High discharge capacity shortens the test time
� A complete stand-alone discharge test system
The TORKEL900 series is used to perform load/discharge tests
which are the only way to determine battery systems actual
capacity. Together with the cell voltage logger, BVM, connected
directly to the TORKEL900, it becomes a complete, stand-alone,
discharge test system.
TORKEL930 is used for battery systems ranging from 12 to 300 V –
often encountered in switchgear and similar equipment. The high
discharge capacity of TORKEL gives the opportunity to shorten the
test time. Discharging can take place at up to 220 A, and if higher
current is needed, two or more TORKEL units or extra load units,
TXL, can be linked together. Tests can be conducted at constant
current, constant power, constant resistance or in accordance with
a pre-selected load profile. Testing can be carried out without
disconnecting the battery from the equipment it serves. Via a DC
clamp-on ammeter, TORKEL measures total battery current while
regulating it at a constant level.
TORKEL910 is very much the same as the TORKEL930 but has lower
charging current and some other limitations. See table below.
Model Overview
Torkel910 Torkel930
Current (max) 110 A 220 A
BVM functionality n transients on the DC buss and applies the AC signal into the DC
Charging measurement n
Full report functionality n
www.megger.com 25
Ground fault tracing equipment
There are two ground fault locating instruments from which to
choose, the Battery Ground Fault Tracer (BGFT) and the Battery
Ground-Fault Locator (BGL). The BGFT has superior noise elimination
while the BGL has an automatic bridge to differentiate between
high capacitance and low resistance. Here is a brief description of
each instrument.
Battery Ground Fault Tracer (BGFT)
� Easily locates ground faults in ungrounded
DC battery systems
� Operates in high electrical noise environment
� Simplifies fault tracing by identifying fault characteristic
(resistive and capacitive) magnitudes
The Battery Ground-Fault Tracer is an economical, manually
balanced instrument that identifies, tracks and locates ground
faults in ungrounded DC battery systems - on-line. It is particularly
effective in high electrical noise environments, as the strength of
the test current can be adjusted up to 80W. The BGFT is particularly
useful in any industry where supply of power for operating
measurement, communication and control equipment is critical.
The Battery Ground-Fault Tracer accelerates fault location by
eliminating trial-and-error procedures and because faults can be
located without going off-line. It is line operated and has a manual
bridge. The manual bridge is used to differentiate between true,
resistive faults and phantom, capacitive faults by using a feedback
cable to null the capacitance. But the manual bridge is not required
in order to trace faults.
The BGFT works by converting line frequency to 20 Hz. It then
pushes the AC signal through some coupling capacitors to prevent
system while on-line. Using the hand-held tracer, follow the signals
with the highest readings until the fault is found.
Ground fault tracing equipment
Battery Ground-fault Locator (BGL) Digital Low Resistance Ohmmeters (DLRO®) and
Microhmmeters (MOM)

Many times batteries fail not because of weak cells but due to weak
intercell connections. Torquing is a mechanical method to ensure
that the electrical path resistances is very low. But it does not truly
indicate the quality of the electrical path resistance. The only true
method is to measure each intercell connection resistance.

Megger has several DLROs and MOMs that are appropriate for
intercell connection resistance. The portability of the instruments
allows effortless mobility around battery strings.

� Ground faults in ungrounded DC battery systems The instruments are built into strong, lightweight cases that are
are easily located
equally at home in the field or in the laboratory.
� Features an automatic bridge
DLRO200 and DLRO600
� Battery operated

� Simplifies fault tracing by identifying fault characteristic � Small and weighs less than
(resistive and capacitive) magnitudes 15kg (33 lbs)

� Test currents from 10A to

The Battery Ground-Fault Locator was developed to detect, track 200 or 600 A DC
and locate ground faults on battery systems, without resorting to
sectionalizing! The BGL tracks and locates ground faults on live or � 0.1 μΩ best resolution
dead battery systems. To save hours of unnecessary troubleshooting,
the BGL readily differentiates between the resistive fault currents
Megger DLRO200 measures
and capacitive charging currents. This feature allows the instrument
resistances between 0.1 µΩ and 1 Ω, at high currents.This versatile
to detect and track leakage paths, even in the presence of surge-
instrument can provide test currents from 10 amps up to 200 amps
suppression capacitors.
subject to the load resistance and supply voltage. A large liquid
The BGL works by filtering and applying an AC signal to the crystal display provides all the information needed to perform a
DC buss on-line. The low level output of the BGL allows it to be test.
battery-operated but is more sensitive to system noise. It has a
built-in automatic bridge to differentiate between real (resistive) DLRO 247000 series
and phantom (capacitive) faults so only the real faults are traced.
The 247000 Series of DLROs are a family of highly accurate
The BGL is moved from panel to panel to continue the tracing
instruments that provide a simple, practical and reliable means
process until the fault is found. Since it has an
automatic bridge it is very easy to trace faults and as
such is better designed for the novice user. � Resolution to 0.1µΩ on
599.9 µΩ range

� Standard inaccuracy of ±0.25%

� Large, digital LED readout

of making low-resistance tests in the field. They also are ideal

for production quality control. They operate on the four-wire
measurement principle, thus eliminating lead and contact
resistances. With basic accuracies of ±0.25% and resolution down
to 0.1 µΩ, they are nonetheless designed to be rugged and portable
for use at the job site.

26 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

 Ground fault tracing equipment
DLRO10 and DLRO10X MOM200A and MOM600A

� Accurate results in under

� Resolution 1µΩ on 1999 μΩ range
three seconds
� Standard inaccuracy of ±1%
� Fuse protected to 600 V

� Automatically detects continuity MOM200A/600A are ideal for finding

in potential and current
poor connections since they can put
connections
out 100 A for extended periods. Its
� Alpha-numeric keypad for range extending up to 20 milliohms
entering test notes (DLRO10X) makes it ideal for measuring many
different types of connections.
� User configurable high and low limits (DLRO10X)

� Printer output and memory (DLRO10X) MOM690

The DLRO10 and DLRO10X are fully automatic instruments, � Resolution 1µΩ on 200 mΩ range
selecting the most suitable test current, up to 10 A DC to measure
resistance from 0.1 µΩ to 2000 Ω on one of seven ranges. � Standard inaccuracy of ±1%

For users who desire more control over the measurement process, � MOMWin™ software

DLRO10X uses a menu system to allow manual selection of the test
current. DLRO10X also adds real-time download of results and on-
board storage for later download to a PC.
� True DC ripple free current
� AC output
In addition to high current capacity, MOM690™ features
microprocessor-based measurement, storage and reporting. The
built-in software enables you to carry out an individual test or an
entire series of tests and store the results.

� Inaccuracy ±0.3 μΩ With the optional MOMWin™ software you can also
export the test results to a PC for further analysis and reporting.
� Two displays LED and LCD
Ranges are set automatically, resistances are measured continually
for visibility
and test results can be automatically captured at a preset test
in all conditions
current.
� Low weight, 8.8 kg (19.4
lbs) and 13.8 kg (30.4 lbs)

� Fully automatic testing

MJÖLNER 200 and MJÖLNER 600

MJÖLNER is designed to measure the resistance of circuit breaker
contacts, bus-bar joints, contact elements in bus-bars and other
high-current links. The product has been designed with safety, ease
of use and versatility in mind. There are two models, one 200 A
output current and one 600 A.

With MJÖLNER it is possible to make measurements according to

the DualGround™ method. This means that the test object will be
grounded on both sides throughout the test giving a safer, faster
and easier workflow.

www.megger.com 27
Insulation resistance test equipment

Batteries are supposed to be well insulated from adjacent MIT400/2 series insulation
equipment and metallic objects. The insulation provides several resistance testers
benefits: 1) keeps the charge in the battery rather than letting it
leak, 2) provides for normal float current, and 3) reduces energy � Choice of 4 models for commercial
losses. If a battery is leaking electrolyte, then there may be a path and plant applications: MIT Models
to ground. When a path exists, the current needed to keep the 400/2, 410/2, 420/2 and 430/2
battery fully charged increases. It also shortens the length of back-
� Choice of 2 models for telecom
up time of the battery depending upon the severity of the leak. An
applications:
insulation resistance test can identify whether there are leaks. The
MIT Models 480/2 and 481/2
insulation resistance is measured across one of the terminals of the
battery to some ground, presumably the battery rack or tray. It is a
very easy test to perform and provides for a lot of confidence in the
overall state of electrical insulation.

This test applies a DC voltage, say 500 Vdc, between the buss,
The series consists of six instruments
off-line and the rack. Then measures the DC leakage current to
calculate resistance in MΩ or GΩ. The higher the resistance is the MIT400/2 250 V, 500 V and 1000 V
better. This test is recommended at installation and whenever a MIT410 /2 50 V, 100 V, 250 V, 500 V and 1000 V plus
leak may be suspected (from tell-tale signs such as salt build-up.) PI, DAR and timed
MIT420/2 Same as Model 410/2 plus result storage
Megger offers the MIT400/2 Series insulation and continuity and download
testers designed for electrical testing by power utilities, industrials,
MIT430/2 Same as Model 420/2 plus Bluetooth®
telecommunication companies, commercial/ domestic electricians download
and anyone with unique test voltage requirements. The wide range
MIT480/2 50 V, 100 V, 250 V, 500 V
of features also makes the MIT400/2 Series ideal for maintenance
MIT481/2 50 V, 100 V, 250 V, 500 V, result storage and
technicians and engineers. Bluetooth®
These instruments are available from as low as 50 V to as high as
1 kV. For analytical applications, multiple test voltages are desired.

28 Battery Testing Guide www.megger.com

 PowerDBT
Acceptance & maintenance test data management softwarem

� Windows-based PC software available in three versions
� Interfaces to instruments via either Serial RS232, Ethernet,
or USB flash drive (depending on instrument)
Test forms are designed for the majority of the electrical apparatus
on the market today. PowerDB currently supports the following
devices:

� Allows user to set up test routines in advance of testing � Batteries � Insulation fluids

� Allows analysis, comparison and trending of data � Cables � Loadbreak switches

� User can customize the User Interface (test form view) with � Circuit breakers � Motor control centers
the ONBOARD and Full versions
� Coordination data � Power Ffactor tests

� Disconnects � Relays
PowerDB is a powerful software package providing data
management for each of your acceptance and maintenance testing � Generators � Switchboards
jobs. Data can be imported from various sources, acquired directly
from test instruments, or entered manually. Test results for all � Ground fault tests � Transfer switches
electrical apparatus are synchronized to your company’s central � Ground Mat/Grid tests � Watthour meters
database. Result and summary reports can be easily generated.
� Instrument transformers � transducers
PowerDB Lite is free software allowing you to use standard
PowerDB test forms with Megger instruments. It provides a � Power transformers
simple and consistent user interface to many Megger instruments
including the Delta3000 power factor test set, 3-Phase TTR, earth
The software will perform extensive information processing
testers and 5 and 10kV insulation testers.
including equation calculations, temperature correction factors
PowerDB ONBOARD runs directly on the Megger test instrument, and charting. Data trending for predictive failure analysis is
and the forms are the instrument’s user interface. Test results are accomplished by charting historical results, stored in PowerDB or
transferred with a standard USB drive and can then be read into imported from other party’s proprietary database software, for any
PowerDB or PowerDB Lite. piece of equipment.

PowerDB provides a powerful editor to create or customize forms.

Test forms
No database knowledge is required. Simply drag-and-drop tables,
Designed from a ground up approach, PowerDB utilizes over 200 text boxes, images, charts, and more into a form. VBScript® can be
industry standard test forms that have been developed and used used to define calculations, use lookup tables, and even interface
over 20 years by industry specialists. with other applications. Sections common to multiple forms, such
as logos, headers and footers, can be defined once and included in
Test data entry screens and printed forms are identical allowing many forms. Also, one change updates all forms where it is used.
intuitive operation. What you see on the screen is what is printed in
the reports. Entire test documentation packages consisting of test
reports, comment & deficiency summaries, table of contents and field
service reports are created with a single step. Once created, reports
can be delivered electronically via email, CD-ROM, web server or
Adobe® Acrobat®.

www.megger.com 29
Megger Limited
Archcliffe Road
Dover CT17 9EN
United Kingdom

www.megger.com
BatteryTesting Guide_EN_V02
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