Mekelle University

The School of Graduate Studies

Faculty of Dry Land Agriculture and Natural Resources

IMPACT OF HUMAN AND LIVESTOCK INTERFERENCE ON

THE DYNAMICS OF VEGETATION STRUCTURE AND

SOIL CARBON

The case of northern part of Bale Mountains National Park,

south-eastern highlands of Ethiopia

By

Akele Molla Demissie

A Thesis

Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the

Master of Science Degree

In

Tropical Land Resources Management

Advisors: Kindeya Gebrehiwot (PhD)

Mulugeta Lemenih (PhD)

June, 2007
 Declaration
This is to certify that this thesis entitled ``Impact of Human and Livestock

Interference on the Dynamics of Vegetation Structure and Soil Carbon: The case of

northern part of Bale Mountains National Park, south-eastern highlands of

Ethiopia`` submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of degree of

MSc., in ``Tropical Land Resources Management`` to the School of Graduate Studies,

Mekelle University, through the Department of Land Resources Management and

Environmental Protection, done by Mr. Akele Molla Demissie, ID. No. GS/S039/96 is an

authentic work carried out by him under our guidance. The matter embodied in this

project work has not been submitted earlier for award of any degree or diploma to the

best of our knowledge and belief.

Name of student: Akele Molla Demissie; Signature_____________ & date _______

Name of supervisors: Kindeya Gebrehiwot (PhD); Signature_______ & date_______

Mulugeta Lemenih (PhD); Signature________ & date________

 Dedication

This thesis is dedicated to my late father Molla Demissie Gebre who

showed me the light of education that he could not offer for himself. Even

though every thing is in the will of God, it would have been impossible for

me to be at this stage with out my father’s initial effort. I remember him

throughout my life.

iii
Abstract
Land is an essential natural resource, both for the survival and prosperity of humanity,
and for the maintenance of all terrestrial ecosystems. However, land and its biodiversity
resources are at higher risk because of human and livestock activities. The situation is not
different in the study area Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) located in south-
eastern highlands of Ethiopia. This study was conducted with objectives of assessing the
extent of land cover/land use changes and the consequent impact that humans and
livestock are causing on vegetation composition and structure as well as the associated
changes in soil carbon stock. The three isolated forest patches and their adjacent
agricultural and grazing lands (which were originally under forests) were used for
vegetation survey and soil carbon analysis. Systematic sampling techniques were selected
and nine representative 450m long and 500m apart transect lines established. Total of 90
circular plots of 500m2 within 50m gap were laid. Diameter and height of trees and
shrubs, and ground cover of herbs in each plot were recorded. Soil samples of 0-20, 20-
40, 40-60 & 60-80cm of increasing depths with three replications of each land use system
were taken and analyzed for soil carbon content and stock. Satellite images from two
different periods were also acquired and classified for land cover/land use change
detection.

Vegetation data was analyzed for species composition, diversity, frequency, abundance,
dominance, importance value index and construction of population structures. The
laboratory result for soil samples was analyzed by one way ANOVA. Furthermore, socio-
economic data was collected through interview and qualitatively and quantitatively
analyzed. The result of vegetation study showed that density per hectare 911, 79 and 163
and species richness per total plots of trees and shrubs; 17, 7 and 7 with diversity indexes
of 2.1, 1.5 and 1.6 in the forest, grazing and agricultural land use systems respectively.
Degradation was observed increasing at large in all land use systems. However, forest
sites had relatively better diversity than agricultural and grazing lands while agricultural
lands showed a slight higher diversity than grazing lands. Tree species diversity in
grazing and agricultural lands was much less than that of forestland. The diversity of
herbs was 47 species in forest, 49 species in agricultural and 33 species in grazing lands.

iv
On the other hand climbers, epiphytes, lianas and ferns were totally restricted to forest
sites indicating ecological variation due to advanced human and livestock interference
which revealed also by distressed population structures of trees and shrubs. Result of
Landsat image classification showed reduction of forest and grazing lands by (-12.8%)
and (-2.43%) while an increment of cultivated and bare lands by (+12.86%) and
(+2.47%) respectively. The results of soil samples in 0-20cm top layer illustrated
statistically significant difference on soil carbon content in percent (12.2±0.52) for
forestland while (7.8±1.34) for grazing and (6.3±0.76) for cultivated lands at ( p<0.01).
There was no statistical difference in carbon content for the lower depths and for all
depths in bulk density. The average soil carbon stock in natural forest was greater by
(11%) than grazing and only by (5%) than cultivated lands. People perception based on
closed and open ended questionnaire revealed that the absence of alternatives as life
support forced them to be persistent on depletion of park resources.

Key words: Human and livestock interference, vegetation structure, soil carbon stock,
Landsat imagery, land cover/land use change, Bale Mountains National Park, Ethiopia.

v
Acknowledgements

First and foremost, I would like to thank the Almighty God who does all excellent
belongings every time for me. This final write up result had not been at the stage with out
the help that rendered from various sources. I am very grateful to my advisors Dr.
Kindeya Gebrehiwot and Dr. Mulugeta Lemenih for their guidance and unlimited support
from the very beginning to the end. I have authentic appreciation to Dr. Kindeya
Gebrehiwot who invested his time on each and every part of the thesis and gave it better
appereance. Unreserved professional and humanity support with true love that I offered
from Dr. Mulugeta Lemenih obliged me to thank him again and again. Fieldwork
ambiguities and progressive write ups made life easy with his friendly advice with out
feeling of tiredness and time limit. I am also indebted to W/ro Sarah Tewolde-Berhan for
her unrestricted guidance, trouble-free and constructive comments and material support
from research proposal writing to thesis editing.

Good friendship, moral support and straightforward understanding of my friends

Tekeleab Serekebrhan, Takele Wolkaro, Muluneh Tekleberhan, and Dawit Getahun at
Agarfa College are really acknowledgeable. Habtamu Temesgen, Mengiste Kindu,
Worku Zewude, Tibebu Kasawmar and Lemlem Abriha are highly significant in
simplifying the remote sensing difficulties. I would like also to thank Mr. Belay Wordofa
for his dedicated help in translating the English version questionnaire in to the local
language (Afaan Oromoo). Mr. Tilahun Chibsa (at Sinaanaa Agricultural Research
Centre) and his soil laboratory assistants are highly acknowledged for their fast,
cooperative and sociable activities in determining soil bulk density and soil organic
carbon. My heartfelt thanks goes to Dr. James Malkom and Mr. Alastair Nelson of Bale
Mountains National Park project technical advisors and Dr. Bob Waltermire (USGS-GIS
& Remote Sensing Team Leader). The most important research materials that could not
be afforded with limited research budget like GPS, Landsat Satellite Imageries, digital
camera and continuous communication were provided to me by these working conscious
people without any ups and downs and time limit. I would also like to thank the A. T. V.
E. T. Colleges project under the Agricultural Extension Department of the MoARD for

vi
offering me the MSc opportunity and financial support of my stay at Mekelle University
and for covering research expenses. Mr. Oumer Wabe, Abera Worku and Tolla Negawo
(heads of Agarfa A.T.V.E.T College at various levels) are acknowledged for their most
excellent understanding throughout my leave for thesis write up.

Many thanks also goes to W/ro Shitaye Desalegn, W/t Ethimebet Mehmmed, Mr.
Aramde Feten together with his family, Mohammed Sanni, Addisu Assefa, Abdurhaman
Wario, Mohammed-Nur Jemal, Zegeye Kibret, Adefires Werku, Dagnew Yebeyen, field
assistants (Nuri Teha, Jeelan Aman and Awol Abdishu), Tiruwork Bekele (EWCO
librarian), Agarfa Agricultural T.V.E.T College staff, Wondo Genet College of Forestry
librarians, Mekelle University staff, Bale Mountains National Park staff, Dinsho Wereda
Administration staff and Addis Ababa National Herbarium staff for their unlimited
contribution in many ways which made this work successful. Ultimately, I have no word
to thank my astonishing and lovely friends at Mekelle: Zenebe Belachew, Abebe
Gebrehawaria, Getachew Chibsa, Habtamu Temesgen, Shimelis Girma, Solomon Lukas,
Solome Habtu, Semaynesh Alem, Hailu Berhe, and Zemicael Bogale together with his
lovely family and enduring car service and Lemlem W/Giorgis for their suitable and
unforgettable hospitability they provided to me at the time of course work, thesis write up
and bind up. Last of all, I would like to deserve special thanks to my families who have
been taking care of me in all aspects.

vii
 Table of Contents page

Declaration...................................................................................................... ii

Dedication ...................................................................................................... iii

Abstract .......................................................................................................... iv

Acknowledgements........................................................................................ vi

Table of Contents......................................................................................... viii

List of Abbreviations and Acronyms............................................................ xii

List of Tables ...............................................................................................xiii

List of Figures ..............................................................................................xiii

Chapter 1: Introduction.................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Statement of the problem .......................................................................................... 3
1.3 Significance of the study........................................................................................... 4
1.4 Objectives of the research ......................................................................................... 5
1.5 Hypothesis................................................................................................................. 6

Chapter 2: Literature Review........................................................... 7

2.1 History of Ethiopian natural forests depletion and present status............................. 7
2.2 LCLU changes and RS and GIS for natural resources development........................ 9
2.2.1 Land cover /land use changes: spatial and temporal scales ............................... 9
2.2.2 Satellite RS and GIS for natural resources development................................. 10
2.3 LCLU change verses changes of soil organic carbon stock…….. ......................... 11
2.4 Biodiversity............................................................................................................. 14
2.5 Vegetative communities, their structures and biological values............................. 15
2.6 People and wildlife conflict .................................................................................... 18
2.7 Problems in BMNP related to competition of land use types.…….........................20

viii
 2.7.1 Deforestation, grazing and agricultural land expansion in BMNP .................. 21
2.8 Land scapes and the need of sustainable land management in BMNP................... 24
2.9 Opportunity of Tourism in Bale Mountains National Park .................................... 25

Chapter 3: Materials and Methods................................................. 27

3.1 Site selection and description.................................................................................. 27
3.2 Methodologies used in the research ........................................................................ 32
3.3 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................... 37

Chapter 4: Results and Discussions............................................... 40

4.1 Results................................................................................... 40
4.1.1 Species composition, density, diversity and IVI.............................................. 40
4.1.2 Vegetation population structure of trees and shrubs........................................ 43
4.1.3 Species area curves of the three LCLU types .................................................. 48
4.1.4 Regeneration status .......................................................................................... 49
4.1.5 LCLU changes between 1986 and 2000 in BMNP.......................................... 50
4.1.6 Soil organic carbon contents, bulk density and carbon stocks......................... 52
4.1.7 Household characteristics and perception on the Park .................................... 54
4.1.8 Community perception on vegetation covers change ...................................... 55

4.2 Discussions ........................................................................... 58

4.2.1 Species composition, abundance and diversity of the three LCLU systems ... 58
4.2.2 Population structure of trees and shrubs in three LCLU systems .................... 59
4.2.3 Regeneration status .......................................................................................... 61
4.2.4 Ground cover estimation of herbs.................................................................... 63
4.2.5 LCLU changes between 1986 and 2000 in the northern BMNP ..................... 64
4.2.6 Soil carbon stock estimation in three LCLU systems ...................................... 65
4.2.7 Household characteristics and perception towards the park ............................ 69
4.2.8 Community perception on vegetation covers change.......................................70

ix
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations ............................ 73
5.1 Conclusions............................................................................................................ 73
5.2 Recommendations ................................................................................................. 74

6. References................................................................................................. 77

7. Annexes..................................................................................................... 88

x
 List of Abbreviations and Acronyms

ANOVA: Analysis of Variance

ATVET: Agricultural Technical Vocational and Educational Training College
BD: Bulk Density of soil samples
BMNP: Bale Mountains National Park
DBH/DSH: Diameter at Breast Height/Diameter at Stump Height
EFAP: Ethiopian Forestry Action Plan.
EIS-SSA: Environmental Information Systems in Sub-Saharan Africa.
EPA: Environmental Protection Authority
ETM: Enhanced Thematic Mapper
EWCO: Ethiopian Wildlife Conservation Organization
EWCP: Ethiopian Wolf Conservation Program.
FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations
FIS: Forest Information System
FZS: Frankfurt Zoological Society
GIS: Geographic Information System
GPS: Global Positioning System
Ha: Hectare
HQ: Head Quarter
IVI: Importance Value Index
LCLU: Land Cover/Land Use
MoARD: Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
MSS: Multi-Spectral Scanner
NDVI: Normalized Difference Vegetation Index
RS: Remote Sensing
SOM/SOC: Soil Organic Matter/Soil Organic Carbon
SPSS: Statistical Package for Social Sciences
TM: Thematic Map per
UTM: Universal Transeverse Mercator
WWF: World-Wide Wildlife Fund

xi
List of Tables page

Table 1: Livestock population data of six Kebeles in and around the northern part of
BMNP ................................................................................................................ 23
Table 2: Wildlife Census results of August (2003) at northern part (Gaysay area) of
BMNP adapted from B & M Development Consultants (2003)........................ 26
Table 3: The Braun-Blanquet and Domin cover scales for ground cover estimation of
herbs adapted from Kent & Cooker (1992) ....................................................... 34
Table 4: Description of each land use types for the study area ........................................ 35
Table 5: Summarized species composition by life-form and Shannon Wiener diversity
indexes in the northern part of BMNP ............................................................... 40
Table 6: Summarized stem density and relative abundance of trees and shrubs in northern
BMNP ................................................................................................................ 41
Table 7: Samples of species composition, frequency%, ground cover%, and rank by
cover% of herbs, climbers, ferns and lianas in forest lands............................... 42
Table 8: Samples of species composition, frequency%, ground cover%, and rank by
cover% of herbs in grazing lands....................................................................... 42
Table 9: Samples of species composition, frequency%, ground cover%, and rank by
cover% of herbs in agricultural lands ................................................................ 43
Table 10: Summery of LCLU area statistics for 1986 and 2000 and their changes in
between .............................................................................................................. 50
Table 11: Mean (±SEM) soil organic carbon content (%) of soils under natural forest,
grazing land and cultivated fields in BMNP...................................................... 52
Table 12: Mean ((±SEM) soil bulk density (g/cm3) of soils under natural forest, grazing
land and cultivated fields in BMNP................................................................... 53

xii
List of Figures page

Figure 1: Deforestation rates in Ethiopia (EIS-SSA, 1999)................................................ 8

Figure 2: Hagenea abysinica and Juniperous procera dominated forest ecosystems and
their rate of deforestation in BMNP................................................................... 18
Figure 3: Forestlands are already changing in to grazing, agricultural & bare lands in all
parts of BMNP ................................................................................................... 22
Figure 4: Livestock grazing is one of the most frustrating & potent issues for natural
resources degradation at every spot of BMNP .................................................. 23
Figure 5: Land use change decision based on user`s perception and desire ..................... 24
Figure 6: Location of the study area (northern part of BMNP, Ethiopia)......................... 27
Figure 7: Sampling design for vegetation assessment ...................................................... 32
Figure 8: Soil profile at four height classes of the pit....................................................... 35
Figure 9: Population structure of trees in forestland......................................................... 44
Figure 10: Population structure of shrubs in forestland.................................................... 44
Figure 11: Population structure of trees in grazing land................................................... 45
Figure 12: Population structure of shrubs in grazing land ................................................ 46
Figure 13: Population structure of trees in agricultural land ............................................ 46
Figure 14: Population structure of shrubs in agricultural land ......................................... 47
Figure 15: Vegetation area curves of forest, grazing and agricultural land use types ...... 48
Figure 16: Regeneration of trees and shrubs encountered per hectare in BMNP............. 49
Figure 17: LCLU map of the Northern Part of BMNP, using Landsat images for 1986..51
Figure 18: Average soil carbon stock of three land cover/land use systems in BMNP .... 53

xiii
 Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Background
Global change refers to the complex of environmental changes that is occurring around
the world as a result of human activities. Some scientists refer to it as a huge human
experiment on the Earth, for which we have little idea of the ultimate outcome, limited
ways of finding out a prior, and perhaps no way of reversing. Global change is occurring
across a wide range of fields, and those changes affect almost every aspect of human
societies (Population Reference Bureau, 1991; Wilson & Bryant, 1997 cited in Sileshi,
2000; Sutherst, 2004).

Degradation of tropical land is a physical, chemical, and biological process set in motion
by activities that reduce the land's inherent productivity (Mohammed, 1993; Taffa, 2002).
Land degradation may be defined as the loss of utility or potential utility or the reduction,
loss or change of features or organisms which can not be replaced (World Commission
on Environment and Development, 1987). All countries, rich or poor, arid or humid, cool
or tropical, suffer by land degradation. Some developing countries appear to be trapped in
a `downward` spiral of interlinked ecological and economic decline (World Commission
on Environment and Development, 1987). Deforestation in mountainous regions is one of
the most acute and serious ecological problems today. Disturbance of vegetative cover on
montane areas with shallow soil and steep slopes results in land instability (e.g.
landslides) and soil erosion. Conversion of tropical moist forest into farm or grazing land
commonly results in rapid depletion of the soil's plant nutrient supply and accelerated soil
erosion and biodiversity degradation. In some places, the degradation process leads to
takeover by persistent, aggressive weed species of low nutritive value (Mohammed,
1993; Muys et al., 2004).

Ethiopia is one of those countries in the world that posses a unique characteristic fauna
and flora with a high level of endemism (Tewoldeberhan, 1989; Mohammed, 1993;
EFAP, 1994; EWCP, 2000; Taye et al., 2001; The Murulle Foundation, 2005). The

1
natural conditions of the Ethiopian highlands generally offer a favourable environment
for agriculture and human settlement. However, its population densities and herd-sizes
are now the highest in Africa and continue to grow rapidly (Mohammed, 1993). These
severe pressures on the land results in widespread soil degradation mainly caused by
sever soil erosion, which is the consequence of deforestation (Leykun, 1991; Mohammed,
1993; EFAP, 1994; Sonneveld, 2002; Mitku, et al,. 2006).

According to Reusing (1998 cited in Mulugeta & Demel, 2004) habitat loss, degradation
and fragmentation due to agricultural expansion are probably the major threats to the
biodiversity resources of Ethiopia. Today in Ethiopia, ensuring sustainable food and
biomass supply while maintaining ecological integrity requires two imperative efforts:
first the sustainable use of productive land resources, and second effective regeneration
of degraded ecosystems (Mulugeta, 2004). Environmental degradation, deforestation and
accelerated soil erosion are among the serious problems in Ethiopia threatening
agriculture, which is the mainstay of the economy of the country (Badege, 2001; Muys et
al., 2004; Mulugeta, 2004). Ecosystems within forest regions are undergoing dramatic
changes and are impacted by human and livestock activities from economic, land use and
resource development. Habitats for wildlife in many areas are being threatened by some
or interrelated of these human and livestock activities, as well as possible natural hazards.
In addition, biodiversity and wildlife resources in such habitats can be altered by changes
in global climate (Chavez, 2002). Wildlife habitat destruction is not only manifested by
expanding and shifting cultivation, stress from livestock but also by deliberate
deforestation for timber, firewood and charcoal (Amdeberhan, 1982; Robinson and
Bolen, 1989; Befekadu, 2001; Deresse, 2003).

The principal concerns of ecologists and conservationists over the last decade have been
focussing on the loss of biodiversity and the global environmental change (Osher et al.,
2003). Changes in land use and land use conflicts around protected areas remain crucial
problems that protected areas face at the moment. Settlements, expansion of agricultural
practices, deforestation, and over stocking of livestock/ overgrazing in protected areas
have caused habitat destruction and fragmentation. As a result, wildlife in certain

2
protected areas has lost much of their grazing areas and is found confined within limited
spots of these parks (Leykun, 1991; Almaz, 2001; Osher et al., 2003). All these causes
extended their effect on the quality and quantity of soil nutrients like soil carbon stock by
eliminating their vegetation cover which act as source of soil organic matter (SOM). It is
well stated by Osher et al., (2003) that land use changes such as forest clearing,
cultivation and pasture introduction are known to result in changes in soil carbon content
yet the sign and magnitude of these changes varies with land cover and land
management. Agricultural cultivation is known to decrease carbon storage and result in a
net flux of carbon to the atmosphere. Changes in soil carbon after conversion of forests to
pasture vary greatly from one site to another (Osher et al., 2003).

Ethiopia has about nine national parks and Bale Mountains National Park is one of these
and many other protected conservation areas. These areas have a greater contribution in
natural resources conservation and as a remarkable source of tourism, which is a basic
need to the local people and to the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of the country.
Unfortunately, human and livestock interferences in various forms are the most potent
factors in destructing or deteriorating of natural resources in general and wildlife habitats
in particular (e.g. Flintan, 2000; Befekadu, 2001; Mekbeb, 2003; Bezawork, 2004).

1.2 Statement of the problem

Studies of the magnitude, rates, patterns, causes, and biophysical and socio-economic
implications of land cover dynamics at the local level help to design more effective
natural resources management strategies and policies (Desta, 2001; Weldeamlak, 2002).
The future of Ethiopia is linked with the judicious and efficient management of its natural
resources and restoration of its environment (Yeshanew, 2004). However, in Ethiopia it is
a challenge to conserve the existing natural vegetation, to reforest the degraded lands and
to curtail migration of endemic precious mammals and birds to neighbouring countries
(Desta, 2001). There is urgency for a lasting solution to this age-old problem at all levels.
It is well explained by Groombridge & Jenkins (2002) that any area contributes to global
biodiversity by the number of species present and shared with other areas, and those

3
present but found no where else (endemics). Williams (2002); Hillman (1986a) and other
researchers agreed that the Bale mountains area (including the study site) is the best-kept
secret of Ethiopia. The international, national and regional values of the Bale Mountains
are incalculable. The circumstances at which this is true can be split into two broad
categories. The first is the extent to which human communities, both local and far-
beyond, are dependent on ecological prosseses within the Bale massif. The second is the
importance of the area for the conservation of biodiversity.

According to Williams (2002) the fascinating values of the study area are declining and
will be abandoned like other parts of the highlands of the country unless and other wise
we develop mechanisms to enhance natural resources rehabilitations. Mammals’
distribution in Bale Mountains National Park is relatively even but the greatest portion
(80%) is found in the northern woodlands showing the importance of this small area to
the park. However, this is now far from true because, even if it is a good source of
mammals, the area is now getting shrunk from time to time. The vegetation types (homes
of mammals and other wild animals) are declining in type, composition as well as in
structure/growth form. Williams (2002) strongly recommended his anxiety that "it has
been estimated that if conservation efforts in the Bale Mountains are not successful and
people continue to exploit the resources in an unsustainable way, more species of
mammal would go extinct than any other area of equivalent size on the globe''. Yet, little
works have been so far done in Bale Mountains area to address such problems. Field
vegetation inventory, estimating land cover land use changes, checking rate of soil carbon
stock deterioration, and indicating the ways of rehabilitation are timely crucial in Bale
Mountains National Park for the revivals of wildlife and their habitats and to increase the
various benefits from such resourceful but under stress area.

1.3 Significance of the study

The study site BMNP is part of a remarkable area where 80% of the wild animals
habituated in this very small northern part of the park while 20% distributed in the wide
entire park area. Unfortunately at this time natural resources in BMNP are depleting and

4
being at higher risk. Vegetation is the sole part of these all stated resources. Therefore,
because of all mentioned and related importance of the site and respective problems,
studying of vegetation structure over time is an important task of ecologists. More over, it
is crucial to determine the current status and prospects of vegetation in specific areas, and
also the similarities and differences of vegetation and soil carbon stocks in different land
use types which help for the enrichment of these economically as well as ecologically
important species. This inturn help to keep up the importance of the area to its
surrounding and to the lower of its watersheds because of its fascinating values. The
situation is directly related to the qualities of habitats and these habitats are the
interrelated results of the fauna and flora of the area.

Researches done in other areas in the last three decades of forests/ tree based land use
systems has shown that sustained production of a given ecosystem can be achieved by
maintaining structural diversity, minimizing disturbance of the soil and maintenance of
its organic matter, and by controlling the size and shape of the disturbed area (Longman
and Jenik, 1987; Jordan, 1985 cited in Getachew, 1999). Hence, this study particularly
tried to generate information on the rate of interaction between vegetations and their
underneath soils focusing on human and livestock activities to wards the natural habitat
changes of the Northern part of Bale Mountain National Park. This consecutively helps in
understanding of the ecology of the site for designing improvement interventions for the
wellbeing of wildlife in the park and to earn ecological, social and economical benefits
from the area.

1.4 Objectives of the research

General objective
 The general objective of this study was to investigate the current status
of vegetation structure and their dynamics, soil carbon stock variations
among land use types and to give the impression of over all methods for
improving the habitats of wildlife in the Northern Part of Bale
Mountains National Park Dinsho area.

5
Specific objectives

 To assess and monitor extent of vegetation cover/land use change

using Landsat satellite imagery;

 To investigate impact of human and livestock interference on

composition, density, dominance, diversity and population structure of
plant species in the study area by field inventory;

 To investigate the impact of different forms of deforestation (grazing

and crop land) on soil carbon stocks, and

 To look in to the degree of perception of the local people to wards

Bale Mountains National Park.

1.5 Hypothesis

This study is based on the following hypotheses: -

 Human and livestock interference causes change in the forest area,

diversity, composition, abundance and population structure of vegetation
in Bale Moutains National Park;

 Soil carbon stock might deteriorated due to natural vegetation area

conversion into grazing and agriculture land uses;

 Land shortage and other economic factors might arised conflicts between
the Park and the surrounding people.

6
 Chapter 2: Literature Review
2.1 History of Ethiopian natural forests depletion and present status

Demand for forest-related commodities will continue to grow as long as population

increases and per capita consumption does not decline. Not only is human population
dependent on the commodities available from forest ecosystems, but it also depends on
many other processes and functions of those ecosystems. Physical and biological
processes produce non-commodity values critical to the maintenance of human
population (Reed and Mroz, 1997). Probably the most obvious changes of the global
landscapes during the last centuries are the human reshaping and conversion of the
earth’s surface cover. The amount of land used for agriculture has increased. However,
simultaneously, large areas have been lost for agricultural production due to different
degradation processes (Hergarten, 2004).

The greater part of the reduction of Africa's natural vegetation has happened in the last
2,000 years-probably since the late 19th century for the tropical portions the time during
which humans have been most numerous and active. Pastouralism, agriculture, the rapid
growth of human and livestock populations, the expansion of cities and towns, and the
external demands are major causes (Africa Encyclopedia Britannica, 2006). In the
Ethiopian high lands deforestation has been going on for millennia (Zewudu, 2000; Muys
et al., 2004). On the other hand it is agreed by some professionals that Ethiopian forest is
not well studied (e.g. Tamrat, 1994). However, so many literatures repeatedly indicated
that Ethiopia was once covered up to 40 % by forest of various types differing with
altitude and rainfall intensities; the present situation however, is quite grim. The forest is
fast dwindling due to unabated forest destruction. Agricultural expansion to forest areas
continues to be rampant due to population increase. Hardly any forest area is free from
human settlement, agriculture and grazing. Even the steep slopes, which are critically
prone to soil erosion are often cultivated and planted with agricultural crops
(Kumilachew, 2001). According to Million (2001) cited in Sarah (2003) the forest cover
of Ethiopia at present estimated to be 4.6 million ha and Ethiopia has on average lost
40,000 ha of forest per year from 1990 to 2000 G.C.

7
To put in a time sequence the history of the country forest cover decline in the last 3000
years from 40% to 16% in 1950’s , 18% in 1960’s ; 14% in 1975’s (Lisanework,1987;
Hedberg and Edwards, 1989;) and less than 2.3% in 1994 (EPA, 1997 cited in Eban,
2004; DGIS-WWF, 2004). The annual loss of the natural forest cover has been estimated
to be 150,000 to 200,000 ha (EFAP, 1994). FAO (2001) also pointed out that forests have
shrunk from covering 65% of the country and 90% of the highlands to 2.2% and 5.6%
respectively which is an indicator on variations in estimating the current forest status of
the country. As stated by FAO (2001) the current rate of deforestation in Ethiopia is
estimated to be 0.8% per year while the current expansion of planted forests is about
0.18% per year which does not compensate for the loss of natural forests. Human
disturbance has led to excessive deforestation and to a very limited forest cover in the
Afromontane zone of Ethiopia, which forms a large part of the country (Tamrat, 1994;
Tesfaye, 2000; Yeshanew, 2004). Thus urgent conservation measures are required to
ameliorate the situation. Understanding the natural regeneration processes and the
dynamics of plant populations of trees and other plant species has a practical application
in the restoration of these habitats (Tesfaye, 2000; Yeshanew, 2004).

Figure 1: Deforestation rates in Ethiopia (EIS-SSA, 1999)

Dry coniferous montane forests naturally occur in the northern and central parts of the
Ethiopian Highlands, where a semi-arid to sub-humid rainfall regime prevails. In the
semi-humid to humid southern parts of the highlands, the climatic climax vegetation is
mountain rain-forests. The natural upper forest limit generally lies between 3200 and
3500 m.a.s.l (EIS-SSA, 1999).

8
Until now, no reliable data on the qualitative aspects, the quantitative extent and the
dynamics of the forest degradation was available in Ethiopia. This deficit resulted in the
motivation to install a forest information system (FIS) at the Natural Resources
Management and Regulatory Department of the Ministry of Agriculture. Based on multi-
temporal remote sensing data, the FIS then served for a change detection analysis of
Ethiopia's natural forest (EIS-SSA, 1999). The results of the analysis by EIS-SSA (1999)
proved that within the last 25 years vast areas, which were then stocked by natural high
forests, have been degraded or completely deforested.

2.2 LCLU changes and remote sensing and geographic information

system for natural resources development

Land is an essential natural resource, both for the survival and prosperity of humanity,
and for the maintenance of all terrestrial ecosystems. Land is not regarded simply in
terms of soils and surface topography, but encompasses such features as underlying
superficial deposits, climate and water resources, and also the plant and animal
communities that have developed as a result of the interaction of these physical
conditions (FAO and UNEP, 1999). Land cover is the observed (bio) physical cover on
the earth’s surface (Dei Gregorio and Jansen (1998) cited in FAO and UNEP (1999).
Vegetation cover is also defined as the proportion of the soil surface covered by
vegetation. That might be near 0% in the desert or in an unplanted cultivated field and as
high as even more than 100 % (ILCA, 1990; Pickup, 1991).

2.2.1 Land cover /land use changes: spatial and temporal scales

To provide foundations for effective management of forest and other natural resources,
an understanding of the change in time and space of the resources are some of the
fundamental requirements for designing sound environmental planning and management
(Belay, 2002; Gautam et al., 2004). The spatial and temporal extent of an ecological
process is referred to as its scale. In any ecosystem there are many processes operating
simultaneously at many different scales. Processes operating with rapid time steps and
over short distances are small-scale processes (Reed and Mroz, 1997). Multi-temporal

9
land-cover change analysis provides baseline data required for proper understanding of
how land was used in the past, and what types of changes are expected in the future.
Studies of land-cover changes also yield valuable information for analysis of the
environmental impacts of human activities. Such analysis is of great use to the natural
resource manager because it provides information that would help in resolving conflicts
between human use of natural resources and the function of natural systems (Belay,
2002).

Changes in land-cover can negatively affect the potential use of an area and may
ultimately lead to degradation and loss of productivity (Pickup, 1991; Belay, 2002). Such
local-level dynamics play a significant role in determining the health of an ecosystem at
the micro level. Studies of the magnitude, rates, patterns, causes, and biophysical and
socio-economic implications of land cover dynamics at the local level help to design
more effective natural resources management strategies and policies (Weldeamlak,
2002). The spatio-temporal patterns of change in surface radiance offer reliable
information sources on the state and nature of the surface feature and the process of
changes that has taken place over a period of time. Therefore, data from different sensors
such as Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) and SPOT HRV (High Resolution Visible) are
required in order to ensure as complete a temporal coverage as possible (Mispan and
Mather, 1999).

2.2.2 Satellite remote sensing and GIS for natural resources

development

Sustainable utilization and development of natural resources should be based on their

potentials and limitations. The pressing demands of fast growing population, proliferating
sustainable use and development of natural resources, economic development,
environmental crisis, current globalization and limited resources availability create the
need for more timely, accurate and cost-effective information products to meet these
challenges (Near, 1999; Rao, et al., 2002; Abaye, 2003; Narumalani, 2004 ). Continuous
inventory and mapping of natural resources enable to assess and monitor periodic
changes and trends about our resources. This information is indispensable for sustainable

10
management of natural resources and for informed decision-making in planning and
implementation. Therefore, giving emphasis for collecting geo-information about natural
or land resources for efficient planning and management will be the main task for those
who are responsible in such activities. Geographic Information Systems (GIS), Remote
sensing (RS), and Global Positioning Systems (GPS) have significant contribution for
collection and processing of geo-information that are relevant to forestry and agriculture
(Near, 1999). Remote sensing is the science and art of obtaining information about an
object, area, or phenomenon through the analysis of data acquired by a device that is not
in contact with the object, area, or phenomenon under investigation (Berwick and
Saharia, 1995; Lillesand et al, 2004).

Usage of remote sensing is to enable acquire data on the environment and natural
resources using a sensor system on board or a platform based on their spectral and spatial
characteristics and extracting essential information through further processing and
interpretation of the remotely sensed data. Remote sensing and GIS data provides a vital
link between intensive, localized ecological research and the regional, national and
international conservation and management of biological diversity (Near, 1999; Abaye,
2003). However, cloud cover restricts the use of optical remotely sensed data in tropical
regions. It is also critical that the type of technique and approach used to detect these
changes are compatible with the characteristics of the surface features. Thus, for
successful change detection analysis, the section of an appropriate change detection
algorithm is also an important factor. The selection should be based on the capability and
flexibility of the algorithms, the nature and physical of the area and the nature and type of
change that need to be addressed (Mispan and Mather, 1999).

2.3 LCLU change verses changes of soil organic carbon stock

Soils are the largest carbon reservoir of the terrestrial carbon cycle and this foundation is
dramatically deteriorating in many areas (Masri, 1995). The quantity of carbon stored in
soils is highly significant; soils contain about three times more carbon than vegetation
and twice as much as that which is presenting the atmosphere (FAO, 2004). FAO (2004)
had also stressed where the highest carbon located as is: carbon in 1m depth> 2m depth

11
soil> vegetation > twice carbon in atmosphere. The major carbon source in the soil is
organic matter (OM). According to Stevens (2005) soil organic matter (SOM) can be
defined as “a mixture of plant and animal residues in various stage of decomposition, of
substances synthesized microbiologically and/or chemically from the breakdown
products, and of the bodies of live and dead micro organisms and small animals and their
decomposing remains”(Taru, 2004).

Organic matter or humus is important in soils because it provides food to soil organisms,
releases nutrients to plant roots, increase the water- holding capacity in the soils, and
increases the movement of air through the soil. It also tends to insulate the soil, causing
soil temperatures to be more constant. Forest soils tend to build up deposits of litter on
the forest floor. As the litter decomposes, it creates humus in the soil. Humus is also
added to soil by the decomposition of small roots (Burton, 1998). Generally, SOM
because of its positive influence on several soil processes, crop productivity and
environmental quality, it is often considered to be the single most important indicator of
soil quality and sustainable land management (Ingram, 1990; Young, 1997; Mulugeta,
2004).

The conversion of natural forest ecosystems into cultivation and monoculture plantations
can change the nutrient cycling processes through changes in plant cover and species
composition owing to differential patterns among plant species in litter production and
turnover and nutrient accumulation (CTA et al., 2002; Yeshanew, 2004; Mikhailova et
al., 2005). Other research findings prevailed also that the effects of land use change on
soil carbon stocks are of concern in the context of international policy agendas on
greenhouse gas emissions mitigation. The results from meta analysis ( Guo & Gifford,
2002) indicates that soil C stocks decline after land use changes from pasture to
plantation (−10%), native forest to plantation (−13%), native forest to crop (−42%), and
pasture to crop (−59%). Soil C stocks increase after land use changes from native forest
to pasture (+ 8%), crop to pasture (+ 19%), crop to plantation (+ 18%), and crop to
secondary forest (+ 53%). Wherever, one of the land-use changes decreased soil carbon,
the reverse process usually increased soil carbon and vice versa. As the quantity of

12
available data is not large and the methodologies used are diverse, the conclusions drawn
must be regarded as working hypotheses from which to design future targeted
investigations that broaden the database. Within some land use changes there were,
however, sufficient examples to explore the role of other factors contributing to the above
conclusions.

The pool of soil organic carbon (SOC) in terrestrial ecosystems is in general larger than
the amount in living vegetation. Thus, a little change in this pool can have dramatic
effects on CO2 concentration in the atmosphere. Land use change and disturbance history
are often called to explain numerous process in the carbon cycle. The recent evolution of
terrestrial carbon sinks and the famous ‘residual' sink; the large variability observed in
carbon sequestration in soils; etc. Land use history can affect various chemical soil
properties, even in the remote past. Reconstruct land use change history is thus crucial to
predict past and future soil carbon sequestration in ecosystems (Stevens, 2005).

Changes in carbon (C) storage in terrestrial ecosystems as a consequence of human land

use have been simplified in the Kyoto protocol to a forest – non-forest dichotomy and its
derivatives (deforestation, reforestation, and forestation). Land use, soil management, and
cropping systems affect stock, distribution, and residence time of soil organic carbon
(SOC). Therefore, SOC stock and its depth distribution and association with primary and
secondary particles should be assessed in long-term experiments (Noordwijk, 2003;
Puget, et al, 2005). National and regional soil organic carbon (SOC) inventories are
indispensable to assess direction and magnitude of carbon fluxes between soils and the
atmosphere. For these inventories SOC density [C mass/unit area] is typically determined
from spatial databases of soil properties and spatially distributed to soil or soil/land use
categories on a map (XVI INQUA Congress, 2003). Results show that calculated SOC
density is significantly influenced by density estimation method. The maximum
difference in total SOC stock resulting from the use of various SOC density estimation
methods is 6%. Findings indicate that horizon-specific SOC density estimation
procedures are better for SOC stock determination than soil type based procedures (XVI

13
INQUA Congress, 2003). However, what ever methods used, there are challenges in soil
carbon estimation (Taru, 2004) like:
 Stock changes difficult to measure because measurements are laborious and
expensive, high spatial variation, availability of dynamic character of the stocks
 Decomposition processes in soils are complex due to organic matter consists of
innumerable amount of different compounds and compound groups, wide range
of fast and slow processes.

2.4 Biodiversity

Biodiversity is the wealth of all life on earth, which can be considered at three inter-
linked levels: - genetic, species and ecosystem (Davies, 2002). The term ‘biodiversity’ is
usually used by conservation biologists to refer to the number of native plant species in a
given system (species richness) (IUCN, 1994; Simberloff, 1999 cited in Mulugeta, 2004).
The biodiversity we see today is the fruit of billions of years of evolution, shaped by
natural processes and increasingly by the influence of humans (Alemayehu, 2005). The
conservation importance of an area is typically determined by assessing its biodiversity
and as the basic units of biodiversity may be considered to be species, this is done mainly
by which species are present and by the abundance of key species (Sutherland, 2000).
With its wide range of ecological types, from arid lowlands in the east to rain forests in
the west and high altitude afro-alpine vegetation in the central high lands, Ethiopia is rich
in biodiversity. This diversity is, however, severely threatened by environmental
degradation, particularly in the densely populated areas (Azene, 1993; Teweldeberhan,
1996). As it is believed and stated by various researchers like Groombridge and Jenkins
(2002) and Williams (2002) any area contributes to global biodiversity by the number of
species present and shared with other areas, and those present but found no where else
(endemics). An area rich in either or both kinds of species (fauna and flora) has high
biodiversity values. Natural global patterns in biodiversity have been radically altered by
human and livestock actions. Global biodiversity studies showed in mammals and birds
10-20% of living species are at significant risk of extinction, and evidence suggests that
the rate of extinction in historical time has been significantly above normal. Recently

14
developed global biodiversity indicators show some conservation success against a
background of declining ecosystem health (Groombridge and Jenkins, 2002).

2.5 Vegetative communities, their structures and biological values

According to Hansen (2004) vegetation refers to the great diversity of plant species,
which occur in repeating assemblages over the face of the earth. Before attempting to
inventory and map vegetation, it is necessary to understand certain features of the nature
of vegetation. In nature, plant species are always part of an assemblage, or community of
species population living together in the same area. A more scientific definition of plant
community was given by Dombois and Ellenberg (1974) "a plant community can be
understood as a combination of plants that are dependent on their environment and
influence one another and modify their own environment."

According to explanation given by Perry (1994) the patterns of nature can be divided in
to three components: composition, structure and function. All occur in nested, interacting
hierarchies. Local ecosystems are composed of organisms, species, groups of closely
interacting species, genetic diversity within species, the legacies of organisms such as
dead wood and soil organic matter, and various inorganic components (e.g. minerals,
gases). Ecosystem structure arises from the patterns in which these basic building blocks
occur and includes both the arrangement of things in space (i.e. architecture) and social
structure (i.e. species relate to one another) (Perry, 1994). Qualitative and quantitative
descriptions of the vegetative community provide insights in to the abiotic potential of a
site to support different types of vegetation, including species not currently present in the
community (Reed and Mroz, 1997). Some form of quadrate or transect sampling may be
used to simply develop a list of species present in an area or to not their relative
abundance. Once a species list is available, measures of community richness and
diversity can be calculated, measures of evenness require information on the relative
abundance of species in a community (Reed and Mroz, 1997).

15
a) Vertical structure

One result of composition among plant species of the forest is the development of a
vertical structure of the vegetation. Forest stands exhibit several major vertical layers
characterized by trees, shrubs and thallophytic (mosses, lichens, and liverworts) (Spurr &
Barnes 1982; Longman & Jenik, 1987). The tall broadleaf trees form the ceiling or
canopy at the highest levels. The area beneath the canopy is filled in with smaller trees
that make up the understory of the forest. Small woody plants called shrubs often inhabit
the lower stratum of a forest. This layer of the forest strata is called the shrub layer. The
shortest plants such as ferns, grasses, and flowering plants are collectively called the herb
layer (Spurr & Barnes, 1982; Smith, 1992; Burton, 1998). The species of each layer are
modified or genetically adapted to make the best use of the space, light and micro
climatic resources of their respective vertical position. In the layer alone, considerable
variation occurs depending on species composition, stand age, and site conditions.

Generally the more favourable the site conditions (especially moisture) the greater the
number of layers (Spurr & Barnes 1982). Plants are classified taxonomically in to
families, genera, specie, varieties etc (Dombois and Ellemberg, 1974). This however, is
not the only way to classify plants. Species and individuals can be grouped in to life form
or growth form classes on the basis of their similarities in structure and function. A plant
life form is usually understood to be a growth form, which displays an obvious
relationship to important environmental factors (Dombois and Ellemberg, 1974). Walter
(1973) cited in Hansen (2004) described the relationship between plants, community, and
vegetation as "plant species are the building blocks of the plant communities that together
constitute the vegetation of the different regions." According to Dombois and Ellemberg
(1974) vegetation structure defines as ``the organization in space of the individuals that
form a stand (and by extension a vegetation type or a plant association) ``, and he states
that`` the primary elements of structure are growth form, stratification, and coverage``.

16
b) Changes in forest ecosystem and its effect on biodiversity

Worldwide, the distraction of natural environments is reducing biological diversity at all

levels. Tropical rain forests the most biological diverse of all terrestrial habitats are being
cleared at an annual rate that some estimates to be as high as 1 percent (Rietbergen,
1993). Disturbance or damage to an ecosystem is likely to affect all aspects of its
successional status (Mulugeta, 2004). Perhaps some of our best understanding of
conservation biology derives from the considerable amount of research that has been
carried out on the impact of disturbance on the biological diversity of ecosystems.
Modeling exercises suggest that small disturbances lead to highest species diversity,
while large disturbances are likely to favor the persistence of competitive, opportunistic
species of both plant and animals thereby decreasing natural species diversity
(Rietbergen, 1993; Muys et al., 2004).

Landscapes consist of interacting ecosystems, and ecosystems consist of communities in

combination with their abiotic environments. The definition of ecosystem boundaries is
complicated by human and livestock impacts. The forest community consists of an
assemblage of plants and animals living in an environment of air, soil and water. Each of
these organisms is interrelated either directly or indirectly with virtually every organism
in the community. The health and welfare of the organisms are dependent upon the
factors of the environment surrounding them is conditioned to a considerable degree by
the biotic community itself (Spurr and Barnes, 1982; Smith, 1992). Changes in the
structure and composition of the forest result from the constant demand of each
individual tree for more space and from the eventual death of even the most dominant
individuals (Spurr and Barnes, 1982). The most obvious disturbances to the existing
forest are those which partially or completely destroy the forest structure by killing
overthrowing either the trees in the over story or the trees and other plants in the under
story (Spurr and Barnes, 1982). The development of every country has necessarily
involved the clearance of its original forests to varying extents whether for the
development of agriculture, industries villages and townships or communications. Where,
however, this process has been carried too far and combined with misuse of land, it has

17
sometimes led to a progressive desiccation of the land (Singh and Vishwakarma, 1997).
Disturbances to the forest can be grouped in to three classes; first, disturbances altering
the structure of the forest; second disturbances altering the species composition of the
forest; and third disturbances altering the long-term climate in which the forest grows.
The first class includes fire, wind throw, logging and land clearing activities. The second
involves the introduction of new plants or animals in to the forest ecosystem or the
elimination of plants or animals from that system. The third is concerned with climate
changes over a period of year as well as climatic extremes, which affect the relative
vigor, and competitive ability of the species making up the forest (Spurr and Barnes,
1982).

Figure 2: Huge and much aged Hagenea abysinica and Juniperous procera dominated forest
ecosystems and their rate of deforestation in BMNP
N.B Remnant trees of Hagenea abysinica and Juniperous procera in recently converted
cultivated lands indicating the resources of the park are at higher risk of human and
livestock interference which could be taken as these resources are in need of urgent
management interventions for their protection.

2.6 People and wildlife conflict

With increasing pressure from humans competing for natural resources, it is inevitable
that the interests of wildlife and rural people come into conflict (Happlod, 1995; Desta,
2001). Forinstance, most human-mammal interactions are detrimental to wild mammals.
Resolving such conflicts is a challenge that conservation biology cannot afford. In Africa,
mammalian population numbers and the geographical distribution of many species have
been reduced due to hunting, pastoralism, habitat modification and disease control. The

18
importance of each of these factors depends on the species, its location and habitat, and
density of the human population. There appears to be a strong negative correlation (at
least for some well studied species) between density of humans and density of mammals
(Happlod, 1995).

The numbers of humans, livestock and wild mammals that can be supported in a given
region is determined by the carrying capacity which fluctuates from year to year
depending on the rainfall and previous grazing pressure (Happold, 1995). Human
activities have caused massive changes to the character and functioning of African
ecosystems. The area of land used for agriculture and permanent crops has increased in
all countries of Africa since 1950 by about 26 % (e.g. Bilborrow and Ogendo, 1992 cited
in Happold, 1995). Deforesation is the second major form of habitat modification in
Africa. The average annual percentage of deforestation during the 1980s was about 0.5%-
2.9%/year, according to country, equivalent to about 5%-30% per decade (Happold,
1995). Again, the rate of deforestation appears to be highest in countries with the highest
densities of humans. Deforestation eliminates habitats necessary for the survival of most
species of forest mammals; at worst, it results in local extinction of forest species unable
to adapt changing conditions (Happold, 1995).

a) Bale Mountains National Park

Before the establishment of the park in 1970 there were a limited number of settlers in the
present protected area. In 1994, in Dinsho wereda alone, which is adjacent to the northern
edge of the park, there were 15,521 people, owning 19,374 heads of cattle, 3,094 pack
animals and 23,096 small ruminants (sheep and goats). Both the human and the livestock
populations exert tremendous pressure on the park (Yosef, 1998). There are three kinds
of use of the park area by local people:
 Permanent settlement and associated crop cultivation;
 Temporary (nomadic) use of some grazing and of the HORAS, which are
mineral springs and;
 A source of wood (timber and fuelwood for construction, sale and household
use).

19
Traditional hunting of wild animals for their skins, horns and meat is practiced to a
limited extent, but was excessive immediately after the change of government. In all,
there are five areas where human settlements have been established. The community
appreciates the existence of the park even though they receive no direct benefits from it.
The community was involved in the measures that were taken to abate the wildlife
slaughter in 1991. A committee established by the local community has participated in
handling a number of management issues in collaboration with park management, a local
nature club, and local government authorities (Yosef, 1998).

2.7 Problems in BMNP related to competition of land use types

More than three-quarters of all African land above 3,000 meters is to be found in
Ethiopia. The Bale Mountains lie at the heart of this unique Afro-Alpine landscape. The
home of wild coffee plants and of the endangered Ethiopian Wolf, it is also an area of
ever-expanding settlements, cultivation and large-scale livestock grazing (DGIS-WWF,
2004). Since the designation of the Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) as protected
area, two management plans were developed for the Park: the first in 1971 and the second
in 1986. However, the current situation is frustrating that the natural resources are at high
risk of human and livestock interference. WWF has commissioned a study to prepare a
revised management plan for the Park (B & M Development Consultants, 2003) which is
expected to be fully finalized and will act as of 2007. According to B & M Development
Consultants (2003) during the three regimes of the country the Park's territory has never
been fully controlled and whatever pressure is placed on the park caused by the following
factors:
 The Park is poorly managed;
 Disproportion between manpower and the Park size;
 Lack of community participation and;
 The communities inhabit the area prior and after the designation of the area as
the Park.
In Ethiopian context, controlling movement of people to and from protected areas is not
in existence and therefore, the BMNP is not exceptional. The activities of humans, cattle,
sheep and other large animals result in substantial changes in the forest site. Human use

20
in the Park also includes satisfying demands for construction and fuel wood. This
includes own use and for sale. The other uses of human concerns, which contribute a lot
for the distraction of the habitats for wildlife of the park, are: - access through the park on
foot, by vehicle and livestock for market. The footpath is conspicuous at Geessee where
thousands of local people (with their herds of livestock for grazing and marketing) cross
the area to and from Dinsho.

B & M, Development Consultants (2003) stated that before 1991 the local people had
restricted area for footpath. The road from Adaba to Delomena also crosses the Park and
Ethiopian wolf killings by vehicles were reported. This road has provided opportunity for
the park and visitors to arrive at different parts of the park but it facilitates killing of
wildlife, exposing the park to resource exploitation such as sale of firewood and
transporting construction wood. According to Almaz (2001), the major causes for such
problems are:- absence of land use and wildlife policies and regulations, lack of legal
instrument for the management of conservation areas, little or no involvement of local
people in protected area management and benefit sharing by the local communities, lack
of integration of conservation efforts with other development activities and limitations in
budget, facilities and skilled human power and finally the ever increasing conflicts
among local communities over resource use.

2.7.1 Deforestation, grazing and agricultural land expansion in BMNP

The trends of human and animal population have a far-reaching effect on land use and
forest position in any country (Singh & Vishwakarma, 1997). Forested areas are moist
regions and therefore, eminently suitable for the raising of agricultural crops. The great
majority of the world’s forest has been cut and the land clear for agriculture grazing land
and fuelwood which are responsible for the loss of tree and vegetation in forests,
woodlands and bush lands (Spurr & Barnes 1982; Aster, 1998; Carrell, 2004).

21
Figure 3: Forestlands are already changing in to grazing, agricultural & bare lands in all parts of
BMNP
N.B The above two plots are separated only by barbed-wire fence which were similar in
vegetation cover before few years. It is obvious that it will be much easier to follow the right-
left arrow to deplete than to rehabilitate from left to right which will take handred of years (see
also Annex 6).

Ethiopia has the largest population of livestock in Africa; thus grazing pressure has
increased the rate at which trees and shrubs species are becoming scarcer (Azene, 1993).
Livestock grazing is a practice that allows for harvesting forages that grow in forest
environment. Vast areas provide habitat for forage plants that grows on forested lands,
and domestic livestock species such as cattle and sheep are able to convert these plant
materials to meat. Grazing and browsing animals change the vegetation through their
selective feeding habits and the deferential ability of different plants to survive and
prosper. The changed vegetation in turn results in changed litter soil biotic activity and
thus in changed site conditions.

Livestock grazing activity was shown to be ecologically damaging in terms of having a

larger bare area and lower species diversity (Cooper, 2005). Around the world, grazing
by livestock has probably been more important than any other factor in reducing the
productive capacity of uncultivated land (Spurr and Barnes 1982). Larger stocks of cattle,
sheep, horse and mules, in Dinsho (the Northern part of Bale Mountains National Park,

22
which is small portion but hold 80% of wild mammals of the park) completed the tight
basis of the agrarian production.

Figure 4: Livestock grazing is one of the most frustrating & potent issues for natural resources
degradation at every spot of BMNP (human being, domestic and wild animals are sharing the same
habitat) (see also Annex 6).

The agricultural system based on scarce arable land and cattle breeding mainly served for
subsistence. This situation eminently revealed that the natural resources of the site are at
higher hazard. Because of encroachment for grazing and settlement there is a danger of
hybridization of wildlife and domesticated as well as for the transfer of diseases such as
rabies (Almaz, 2001; B & M, Development Consultants, 2003).

Table 1: Livestock population data of six Kebeles in and around the northern part of BMNP

Kebeles Cattle Sheep Goat Hoarse Mule Donkey Subtotal

Dinsho,Gojera 12118 12260 860 2484 58 128 27908
and Karari
Ayida 17366 6689 255 726 9 442 25487
Gofingira 6341 8450 139 1640 15 85 16670
Horosoba 9974 10250 435 2785 171 541 24156
Gerenba Dima 8312 4175 511 2291 91 203 15583
Abekera 8880 4820 1371 816 78 700 16665

Total 62991 46644 3571 10742 422 2099 126469

(Source: Dinsho Wereda Agricultural Office, 2006 Annual report)

Number of livestock in and around BMNP is increasing alarmingly comparing other

previous studies in the same site (e.g. Yosef, 1998; Befekadu, 2001). The situation is
hazardous for such inimitable resourceful area.

23
2.8 Landscapes and the need of sustainable land management in BMNP

Sustainable land management (SLM) can be defined as the use of land resources such as
soils, water, animals and plants for the production of goods-to meet changing hman
needs-while assuring the long-term productive potential of these resources, and the
maintenance of their environmental functions (Herweg et al., 1998 cited in Mitiku et al.,
2006). Sustainable land management is not expected simply by avoiding one land use
type and substituting the other. According to Mitiku et al. (2006) there is a new approach
to sustainable land management through indicators or symptoms of unsustainability.
However, the absence of unsustainablity indicators alone (e.g. no sign of soil erosion)
does not yet mean that the land management become more sustainable (Near, 1999;
Mitiku et al., 2006). Hence, decisions have to be taken with a great due attention. It
seems important to have a vision of both, what is unsustainable (what to avoid) and what
would be sustainable (where to go) (Mitiku et al., 2006). This indicates that sustainability
is a normative concept based on people perception and desires. Then the contribution of
any research on sustainability of natural resources has to be ongoing by raising and
answering that sustainability for whom? in what sense? where? and in what time frame?
(e.g. Mitiku et al. 2006).

? ?

Cropland Forest (wildlife) area Grazing land

Figure 5: Land use change decision based on users perception and desire extracted from Mitiku et al.
(2006)

As indicated by Mitiku et al., (2006) indicators or symptoms of unsustainable land

management are easier to identifiy and agree to, such as soil degradation, water quality

24
decline, loss of biodiversity, increased incidence of plant disease, etc. such symptoms are
a result of inappropriate land management and exploitation of resources, the causes of
which are often social, economical and political attributes rather than technical or
agronomic considerations. Both sustainable and unsustainable land management can be
approached through analyzing the options land users have to manage the land
sustainably. We may assume that land users are mostly aware of degradation but are not
in a position to coorect it, often due to political and economic circumstances, such as
market price distortions, insecure land tenure, misuse of subsidies and incentives, etc.
They mostly know that these factors limit their choice of options to practice sustainable
land management (Mitiku et al., 2006). Such new scientific approach of sustainable land
management is timely decisive to get an end of complicated problems of the Park.
However, addressing in depth the local and worldwide importance of natural resources of
BMNP equally desires before any land use change decision made to devise the resources
more beneficial to the people within and beyond the watershed.

2.9 Opportunity of Tourism in Bale Mountains National Park

In response to new market opportunities, tourism has emerged as part of national and
regional strategies to maximize foreign exchange earnings, increase employment and
provide financial resources to preserve natural and cultural heritage. Relatively little
attention has been paid at local destination level to the process of tourism development
(Goodwin, 1998). National parks and other designated landscapes feature regularly in the
itineraries of package tours and independent visits to developing countries. They makeup
an essential part of the idea pristine environments, which fuels the expansion of the
pressure periphery (Goodwin, 1998).

Ethiopia has so much to offer visitors and this is because Ethiopia is a land of wonder and
enchantment, a country with one of the richest histories on the African continent, a land
of contrasts and surprises, of remote and wild places, home to cultured and friendly
people who are descended from some of the world's oldest civilizations (MFA-FDRE
2002-2006). Ethiopia's many national parks like Bale Mountains National Park enable the
visitors to enjoy the country's scenery and its wildlife, conserved in natural habitats, and

25
offer opportunities for travel adventure unparalleled in Africa (MFA-FDRE 2002-2006).
Bale Mountains National Park is the largest area of Afro-Alpine habitat in the whole of
the continent. It gives the visitor opportunities for unsurpassed mountain walking, horse
trekking, scenic driving and the chances to view many of Ethiopia's endemic mammals,
in particular the Mountain Nyala and Ethiopian wolf and birds, such as the Thick-billed
Raven, Wattled Ibis, Blue-winged Goose, and Rouget's Rail (Ethiopian Travel, 2002;
Ethiopian Tourism Commission, 2005). Tourism to BMNP has never yet reached very
high levels. However, the potential for tourism is excellent. The park has much to offer
by way of different wildlife species, many of them are endemic so not possible to see
anywhere else (Hillman, 1986a). Ethiopian Tourism Commission (2005) also stated the
resources and their fascinating values of BMNP to the growth of tourism as it is an area
of high altitude plateau that is broken by numerous spectacular volcanic plugs and peaks,
beautiful alpine lakes and rushing mountain streams that descend into deep rocky gorges
on their way to the lowlands below.

Table 2: Wildlife Census results of August (2003) at northern part (Gaysay area) of BMNP adapted
from B & M Development Consultants (2003)

Species Male Female Total Remark

Mountain Nyala 143 428 571 It is their preferable site
Menelik's Bush buck 14 18 32 ““
Bohor Reedbuck 82 155 237 ““
Duiker 5 8 13
Ethiopian wolf 3 5 8 More found at Santee(central park)
Warthog 39 93 132 It is their preferable site
Spotted Hyena - - 2 Less due to its diurnal nature
Colobus monkey - - 6 More found in Harena forest
Anubis Baboon 15 45 60

N.B These are almost the major Mammals of the site that can be seen in and around the
northern part of BMNP which contribute to the fascinating nature of the area. Only one
family (five to eight in number) of Ethiopian wolf (red fox) is rarely observed in this
area while others can be seen continuously. Sannetie (central part of the park) is the
best habitat for Ethiopian wolf comparatively with highest number than any part of the
country.

26
 Chapter 3: Materials and Methods
3.1 Site selection and description

a) History and location

The study was conducted at the northern part of Bale Mountains National Park lies within
latitudes 700N and 711N, and longitudes 3945E and 3949E (Figure 6) and 400 km by
road from Addis Ababa to Goba in Bale Zone Oromiya Region, South-eastern Ethiopia. The
entire park area occupies 2471km2 (Hillman, 1993 cited in B & M Development
Consultants (2003)). It stretches 74 km from north to south, and 53 km from east to west.
It is roughly rectangular in shape, but the southern portion is narrower than the central
area while in the north it narrows to a thin projection Lajo Spur of the mountains in the
Gaysay area of the park.

Figure 6: Location of the study area (northern part of BMNP, Ethiopia)

Bale Mountains National Park (BMNP) is designated a national park in 1970. Hillman
(1986b); Williams (2002); Mekbeb (2003); Haile (2005) and others have been well
explained Bale Mountains National Park and its resources, which are summarized in the
next section.

27
b) Geology

The Bale Mountains were formed from lava outpourings in the Miocene and Oligocene
geological periods. This Trap lava's covered all the previous rock formations, and were
formed prior to the formation of the Rift Valley probably about 40-25 million years ago
(Mohr, 1963 cited in Hillman, 1986a). Soils mainly derived from basaltic and trachytic
rock are fairly fertile silty loams of reddish brown to black color (Morton, 1976 and
Mieche & Mieche, 1994 cited in Befekadu, 2001).

c) Climate

Considerable variation in climate occurs over the park area, as a result of the great
variation in altitude, and by the very bulk of the mountain massif itself, which attracts
oro-graphic rain. Description of the climate is hampered by a lack of data (Hillman,
1986a; Williams, 2002).

i) Rainfall

The rainfall of the Park area is characterized as one-eight month rainy season, followed
by a four month dry season, with the rainfall well-distributed throughout the wet season
(Gamachu, 1977 cited in Hillman, 1986a). The area shows an eight-month wet season of
1000-1400 mm annual rainfall from March to October and dry season from November to
February; the bulk of the rain falls in the latter half of the eight months (Hillman, 1986a;
Williams, 2002).

ii) Temperature

Little information has been recorded in the past on air temperature for the BMNP area.
Lowest temperature occurs at night in the dry season, with highest temperatures by day in
the same season which is stated by The Murulle Foundation (2005) as “winter every night
and summer every day”. Frost is regular experienced in the Dinsho area at night,
particularly in the dry season with the lowest recorded temperature minus 60C being
recorded the next day at midday a total diurnal range of 400C. The greatest water and

28
temperature stress in the area is thus the dry season particularly in the months of January
and February (Hillman, 1986a; Williams, 2002).

iii) Humidity

Values for relative humidity are highest in the wet season and lowest in the dry. Goba
with an altitude of (2750m) exhibits a high average value than Dinsho (3200m).
However, the seasonal values are more extreme in Dinsho, with higher wet season and
lower dry season values. It is likely that dry season values up in the mountains would be
even lower than at Dinsho at the very dry time (Hillman, 1986a; Williams, 2002).

iv) Hydrology

The Bale Mountains massif is a very important water catchment area, as is evident from
the many rivers rising in them. The headwaters of four major rivers rise in the mountains.
These are Ganale, Web, Dumal and Welmel. The main part of the mountains is formed of
higher watersheds is characterized by flat, swampy area, and many small shallow
(Gamachu, 1977 cited in Hillman, 1986a; Williams, 2002).

d) Flora

The natural vegetation of any specific area is dependent on the altitude, temperature, and
amount of precipitation that the area receives and the parent material from which the soil
has been derived. The northern part of the park is also demarcated by altitude, and this
controls vegetation zonation. Thus, the northern Gaysay area of grassland, swamp and
woodlands has various species.

i) Grasslands

This is very small, but very important zone, comprises the flat land each side of the
Gaysay River, and on the West bank of the Web River. The area occurs in the extreme
north of the Park, between Gaysay Mountain and the Adelay Ridge. These grasslands lie
on almost flat land, whose drainage is poor, and inundation is frequent in the wet season.
Swamp grasses and sedges, especially of the Cyprus and Scirpus genera; therefore

29
dominate by Artemisia afra and Helichrysum splendidum (Hillman, 1986a; Williams,
2002).

ii) Forest Patches

This vegetation occupies a narrow belt in the northwest, north east and Head quaqrter of
the Park. The upper limit is the tree line at 3,400 m, and the lower is the grassland in flat
valley bottoms at around 3,000m. Ground cover by herbs and grasses is good. This
vegetation zone is found on slopes that are relatively steep (20-300), and has, in many
places, been affected by man's activities. The species that dominate the forests of the
northern part of the park are the trees Juniperous procera and Hagenea abysinica
(Hillman, 1986a; Williams, 2002).

e) Fauna

Much of the original stimulus for making a national park in the Bale Mountains was the
plights of the endemic Mountain Nyala and Ethiopian wolf. A large proportion of the
Bale Mountains fauna is endemic-found no-where else in the world, and in some cases
no-where else in Ethiopia. The variety of species and high rate of endemmicity is due to
the wide variety of habitats conserved in BMNP (Hillman, 1986a; Williams, 2002).

i) Mammals

BMNP is the natural habitat for at least 46 mammal species. This represents about 19%
of the 239 mammal species recorded for Ethiopia (Yalden, Largen & Kock 1974 – 1984
cited in Hilman, 1986 & Williams, 2002). They range in size from the very small shrews
(8 cm long, 15 gm Weight) to the largest Mountain Nyala (241 cm long, 280 kg weight).
Fifteen species (32%) of the total mammals are rodents, and 13 species (28%) are
carnivores. Many of these are smaller carnivores, indicating the importance of the rodents
as a food source. Distribution is relatively even, but the greatest proportion (80%) is
found in the Northern woodlands, showing the importance of this small area to the Park
(Hillman, 1986a; Williams, 2002).

30
ii) Birds

There are more than 160 birds recorded in the entire area of BMNP to date; which is 19%
of the 850 species recorded for Ethiopia (Urban & Brown 1971, cited in Hilman, 1986a).
Fourteen of the species in the park are endemic, which is 60% of the 23 species endemic
to Ethiopia. The endemic bird species all occur in good numbers and are regularly seen in
their appropriate habitats (Urban & Brown, 1971 cited in Hillman, 1986a).

f) Major land cover/land use systems practicing in and around BMNP

It is not legal issue to talk about other types of land uses inside the park area. This is
because park by it self is the only land use type and has not to include any other.
Unfortunately the situation is not as it is expected in almost all protected areas of
Ethiopia which is also similar in BMNP. The naturally vegetated parts of the park are
under high competition of agricultural expansion, over grazing and extensive settlement
land use types. The expansion of these additional and unwanted land use types in the park
made the park resources at higher risk (Annex 6). Since human and livestock population
of the kebeles inside and surrounding the park is increasing, the opponent land use types
are highly eliminating the resources of the park. Above all, population structure and
abundancy of trees and shrubs being much reduced which affected the ecosystem and
needs an urgent management intervention.

31
3.2 Methodologies used in the research

a) Systematic sampling for vegetation count and measurements

Before sampling work performed, the land use types of the area were broadly classified
in to forest, grazing and agricultural lands. The three isolated forest patches available in
the northern part of the park, and their adjacent grazing and agricultural lands were taken
for transect allocation. Data on vegetation composition, height and diameter for structure
analysis were collected using systematic sampling technique. Samples plots were laid
along transect lines set at regular spacing covering the whole study area (e.g., Parent,
2000; Hunter, 2001) and GPS readings were taken in every plot. Total of nine transect
lines (Annex 6; three in each land use type) and 90 circular sample plots (10 in each
transect line) were sampled. Each transect line was 450m long and was laid along
altitudinal gradient.

12.62 m radius from the centre for

measuring of trees DBH & Ht

1m radius for herbs

ground cover estimation 5m radius from the
in the centre of each plot centre for measuring
shrubs DBH & Ht and
regeneration of shrubs
& trees

Figure 7: Sampling design for vegetation assessment

The distance between circular sample plots was fixed to 50m interval, while the distance
between transects was 500 m. Circular plot of 12.62m radius (500m 2 each) was used for
the trees and shrubs (DBH ≥ 10cm) (Dombois & Ellenberg, 1974; De Gier, 1989) and
sub-plots of 5m radius for assessment of trees and shrubs (DBH<10cm) and regeneration
status of trees & shrubs, and a further 1 m radius for herbs ground cover estimation were
used (Figure 7; Dombois and Ellenberg, 1974). Diameter and height measurements were

32
taken by tree diameter tape and Haga meter respectively (Philip, 1994). On the other hand
ground cover of herbs (including climbers, epiphytes, ferns and lianas were determined
by Domin scale comparing with Braun-Blanquet scale (Kent and Cooker, 1992).

b) Plant identification

The botanical identification of species was made in the field by the help of local people
(providing local names), but in cases of insecure identity and for checking all species,
voucher specimens were taken and identified at BMNP herbarium located in the park
Museum (collected by Hilman, 1986 and Mesfin, 1980-1996) and crosschecked at the
Addis Ababa University Herbarium and reference materials like Hedberg and Edwards
(1989); Azene (1993); Fichtl and Admasu (1994); Pascale (2002); Haile (2005) were also
basic sources for inspection of scientific names.

c) Species area curves

Species area curves for each of the three land use types were plotted based on all trees,
shrubs and herbs. The data was collected by doubling the starting radius 1m in to 2m, 2m
in to 4m, 8m, 16m, 32m, 64m, 128m, 256m and finally to 512m. Number and type of all
newly encountered vegetation species was recorded until there was no additional
(Lamprcht, 1989).

d) Vegetation cover estimation of understory species

Among various ground cover estimation methods, the Domin and Braun-Blanquet scale,
within the range 0-100 percent is partitioned in to five or 10 classes with smaller
graduations nearer to the bottom of the scale (Moore and Chapman, 1986; Kent &
Cooker, 1992). Since estimation is done by eye, there is certain to be a degree of error in
recording, however, the method is rapid to use and the problems of subjectivity might be
minimized by providing due attention.

33
Table 3: The Braun-Blanquet and Domin cover scales for ground cover estimation of herbs adapted
from Kent & Cooker (1992)

Value Braun-Blanquet scale Domin scale

+ Less than 1% cover A single individual. No measurable cover
1 1-5% cover 1-2 individuals. No measurable cover
Individuals with normal vigor
2 6-25% cover Several individuals but less than 1% cover
3 26-50% cover 1-4% cover
4 51-75% cover 5-10% cover
5 76-100% cover 11-25% cover
6 26-33% cover
7 34-50% cover
8 51-75% cover
9 76-90% cover
10 91-100% cover

In this study Domin scale was selected by considering its wide scale values (from + to
10) and narrow cover percentage ranges (1-4%, 4-10% etc) helping to observe more
species varieties in a plot than Braun-Blanquet scale which has narrow scale (from + to 5)
and wider cover percentage ranges (6%-25%, 26%-50% etc) most likely increase the
error.

e) LCLU change detection

For the purpose of land cover change analysis, remote sensing data were used. Two
different time periods Landsat Thematic Mapper (TM) images of January 1986 and
Enhanced Thematic Mapper plus (ETM+) images of January 2000 were acquired and
analyzed. The ground resolution for the two images was similarly 28.5m*28.5m while
Paths/Rows were 167/055 for the two years. The unsupervised classification provides a
"first look" statistical display of natural groupings of data based on spectral values in an
image. Unsupervised classifications were performed on each of the scenes using ERDAS
Imagine software for comparing with the supervised classification. GPS readings of 90
training points were collected and used to train the computer for pixel-based supervised
classification purpose with high accuracy classification. Classification was done using
combinations of ERDAS IMAGINE 8.6 version, ENVI 4.2 version and Arc-View 3.3
GIS softwares. The land cover/land uses in the images were grouped in to four land use

34
types namely forestland, cultivated land, grazing land and bare land (Table 4). Supervised
classification was conducted using the data from undertaken. The principal objective of
this part was to detect, delineate and map areas that have experienced the conversion of
forests to agricultural, grazing and bare lands over the previous 1986-2000, utilizing
Multi-temporal Landsat Thematic Mapper satellite imagery. The land cover and land use
classes’ accuracy was based upon ground truth data obtained by extensive points of GPS
collection at the field.

Table 4: Description of each land use types for the study area
No Land use types
1 Forest land
2 Grazing land
3 Cultivated land
4 Bare land
Description
Include three patches of forest that dominated by
Juniperous, Hagenea and mixture of the two
Covered by very much grazed herbs, very scattered
and deformed Juniperous procera tree (includes also
grass lands inside and in-between forest patches).
All crops dominated by barley
Includes no vegetation and land use types except road
and settlement

f) Soil sampling and preparation

For this study, soil samples were taken from 0−20, 20−40, 40−60 and 60−80 cm depths
from pits dug to 1 m depth (Figure 8) to determine parameters of soil organic carbon and
soil bulk density (Moore and Chapman, 1986). Three pits representing each land use with
three replications per land use class were used. Soil samples from each depth of pits were
put in individual polyethylene bags after taken out by Auger, labeled, air-dried and
passed through a 2-mm sieve for their aveage organic carbon estimation of each land use
(i.e. three pits on one transect * four depth classes = 12 samples for each land use *3
land uses = 36 total samples).

0-20cm 0-20cm 0-20cm

20-40cm 20-40cm 20-40cm
40-60cm 40-60cm 40-60cm
60-80cm 60-80cm 60-80cm

Pit-1 Pit-2 Pit-3

Figure 8: Soil profile at four height classes of the pit with three replications for each LCLU type

35
In addition separate soil core samplers of 5cm height and 7.2cm diameter were used to
takeout soil core samples by using scratching knife from each depth with their replication
for bulk density determination. The samples collected were taken to Sinnana agricultural
research centre (Located in Bale Zone Oromiya Region) and analyzed for bulk density
and organic carbon. Carbon analysis was done using the Walleye-Black method (1934),
while bulk density was determined after oven dry weighing of the samples and dividing
the result by core volume.

g) Socio-economic survey

To address the aim of the research and to see the overall understanding of the people to
wards the park and its resources, various methods have been set out. Structured and semi
structured questionnaire after translating the English version (Annex 7) in to the local
language (Afaan Oromo) were exposed to respondents living in and around the park.
House and landholding characteristics, energy sources and way of getting the energy
sources, vegetation cover and status change, general awareness on the park and its
resources, animal and crop production related questions were the main focus let to
candidate farmers. To investigate all these relation-ships with natural resources and
human- beings, 96 respondents were randomly selected proportional to the households of
surrounding five kebeles which have direct contact to the park.

Generally, this study used four major approaches to see the similarity and differences of
three contiguous and interacted land cover/land use systems: analyziing and interpretation
of field vegetation inventory, satellite imagary, soil carbon stock and people perception to
wards the park. The amalgamation of these all approaches helps to have a clear picture on
the current status and lost vegetation and related resources of the park area. Furthermore,
the results of these methods facilitate to develop management interventions for the
security of wildlife species and other land resources in the area.

36
3.3 Data Analysis

a) Vegetation

For vegetation data analyses across the three land use categories various techniques and
computations were used. Among these species richness (number of species per plot),
abundance, frequency, dominance, population structure, various vegetation indices such
as Shannon Weiner diversity indexes and important value index were worth mentioning.
Population structure of the vegetation was also determined from diameter and height
measurements using arbitrarily defined classes. Both diameter and height classes were
arbitrarily classified in to eleven. Diameter classes used were (1-10, 10-20, 20 -30, 30 -
40, 40 - 50, 50 - 60, 60 - 70, 70 - 80, 80 - 90, 90 - 100 and >100, all units in cm), while
height classes ranged in to (0.3-2.5, 2.6-5, 5.1-7.5, 7.6-10, 10.1-12.5, 12.6-15,15.1-17.5,
17.6-20, 20.1-22.5, 22.6-25 and >25, all units in m). Excel Microsoft used to plot all
graphs of diameter and highest variations of trees and shrubs among each land use type.

Floristic composition: of forests is often described in terms of dominance, abundance,

frequency and important value index (Lamprecht, 1989; Kindeya, 2003).

Abundance: is defined as the number of occurrence of stems of a given species per

hectare (Cooper, 1959; Lamprecht, 1989). It is presented as absolute abundance which is
the number of individals of a species per ha or expressed as relative abundace which is
the percentage of the abundance of each species compared to the total stem number of all
species per hectare.

Frequency: is described as the occurence or absence of a given species in all study plots
added up (Lamprecht, 1989). It is expressed as an absolute frequency, which refers to the
percentage of the total number of plots containing the species to all the plots or as a
relative frequency showing the percentage of absolute frequency of a species compared to
the total absolute of all the species added up (Kindeya, 2003).

Dominance: is the degree of coverage of a species as an expression of the space it

occupied in a given study area. Stem basal area is used usually to show dominance of
species ( Kent & Cooker, 1992; Kindeya, 2003), based on absolute dominance (= the sum

37
of basal areas of the individuals in m2 per ha), and relative dominace (= the percentage of
the total basal area of a given species out of the total measured stem basal areas of all
species) (Lamprecht, 1989; Kent & Cooker, 1992; Kindeya, 2003).

Important value index (IVI): is a good indicator in summarizing vegetation

characteristics permitting a comparison of the ecological significance of a species in a
given forest type (Kindeya, 2003). IVI is a sum total of relative abundance, relative
frequency and relative dominance, the results of these parameters were computed and
added up (Annex 2).

Basal area which is basic for dominance estimation was determined by the following
formula (Kent & Cooker, 1992; Kindeya, 2003; Dagnew, 2006):

BA= IId2/4*104 ……........................................................ (Equetion No 1)

Where:
BA = Basal Area in m2
d = diameter at 1.3m height in cm and,
II = 3.1416

Species diversity: Ecologists suggested different techniques for vegetation data

analyzing and interpreting the results. However, most of them have soft points, and the
one which is relatively the best method is Shannon Wiener diversity index. The Shannon
Wiener diversity index (H`) is an index that is commonly used to characterize species
diversity in a community. Shannon's index accounts for both abundance and evenness of
the species present. The proportion of species (i) relative to the total number of species
(pi) is calculated, and then multiplied by the natural logarithm of this proportion (lnpi).
The resulting product is summed across species, and multiplied by -1:

H`= -∑ (Pi*lnPi)…………………………………………….. (Equesion No 2)

Where: pi is the total biomass of each species divided by the total biomass for all of the
species (ln in the natural log). To obtain the total Shannon-Wiener biomass diversity for
each stand calculate (pi*lnpi) for each species, add all of these values together and
change the sign of this sum.

38
b) Species area curves

Numbers of all newly encountered vegetation species were recorded until there is no
additional in the successive doubling circular areas. Graphs which show variations among
land use types and number of any new additional species were drown based on respective
area and number counted using excel and line graphs.

c) Soil carbon:

Soil carbon stock (g m-2) for each sampled soil depths was calculated following the
formula used (Yeshanew, 2004; Mulugeta et al., 2005):

C = (ZPbc)………………………………………………. (Equesion No 3)

Where:

C = carbon stock (g m-2) of a sampled soil depth,

Z = thickness (m) of a sampled soil depth,

Pb = bulk density (kg m-3) of a sampled soil depth, and

c = soil carbon content (g kg-1) of sampled soil depth.

The sum of soil carbon stock of each depth provided overall soil carbon in the upper
0.8m depth of the soil in the respective land cover/land use category. One-way analysis of
variance (ANOVA) was also used to compare the carbon contents and bulk densities
between four depths of the three land use categories as well. The level of significance
used was 0.05.

d) Socio-economic survey

Socio-economic survey results were analyzed in SPSS soft-ware version 14.0 to look in
to frequency percentages of interviewees for various issues of vegetation change in the
park and people attitude to the park. It was done after coding a range of factors of
selected questions to make workable for computing and interpretations of the results.

39
 Chapter 4: Results and Discussions

4.1 Results

4.1.1 Species composition, density, diversity and IVI

Altogether a total of 132 species belonging to 43 families were identified (Annex 1).
Among these were 6 indigenous and 2 exotic trees, 9 shrubs, 99 herbs, 3 climbers, 2
lianas, 2 ferns, 2 epiphytes and 7 undifferentiated herb species. The forestland had the
highest species number of all life forms, except herbs, than the grazing and agricultural
lands (Table 5). Particularly, climbers, lianas, ferns and epiphytes were limited to the
forestland than grazing and agricultural lands, which demonstrates clear ecological
differences between these three land cover and land use systems. On the other hand, the
farmland had hosted more herbs, which could be due to emergency of crops and weeds
associated with crop cultivation.

Table 5: Summarized species composition by life-form and Shannon Wiener diversity indexes in the
northern part of BMNP
(FL=Forest Land, GL=Grazing Land and CL=Cultivated Land)

LCLU Species number by life form and diversity index

Tree Shrub Herb Climber Liana Fern Epiphyte Others H’

FL 8 9 36 3 2 2 2 2 2.1

GL 4 3 31 0 0 0 0 2 1.5

CL 4 3 46 0 0 0 0 3 1.6

The Shannon Wiener diversity index (H`) was higher for the forestlands than the other
land cover /land uses (Table 5) confirming higher species diversity in the former than the
later two which originated from the former implied how they are affected by human and
livestock interference. In addition, the forestland showed the highest density of woody
species per Ha and relative density (Table 6) and ground cover (Table 7) than the grazing
land (Table 8) and agricultural land (Table 9). Grazing impact resistant species were left

40
in grazing lands while agricultural lands incorporated crop and weed species related to
cultivation.

Table 6: Summarized stem density and relative abundance of trees and shrubs in northern BMNP

Land Stem density and relative abundance of trees & shrubs per ha
cover/use Trees D/Ha ShrubsD/Ha Trees RA Shrubs RA

Forest 626 385 68.73% 31.27%

Grazing 61 18 78.16% 21.84%

Agriculture 74 89 45.72% 54.28%

In the natural forest, Andropogon abysinica, Aristida tuniculata, Geranium arabicum,

Centhrus setigerus, and Juncus effuses were the most frequently occurred herb species
contributed more to the ground cover than other herb species. Haypericum revoltum was
the most abundant tree species (192 stems/ha) while Myrsine melanopheoes (173/ha) and
Erica arborea (124/ha) were second and third. In the grazing land, Agrostis sclerophylla,
Andropogon abyssinicus, Hetropogon contrortus, Hordeum vulgare and Digitaria
abysinica were the most abundant herbs, while Eucalyptus globulos, Juniperous procera,
Discopodium eremanthum, Haypericum revoltum, Euphorbia dumalis, Hagenea
abysinica and Solanum marginatum were trees and shrubs with 33/ha, 21/ha, 13/ha, 5/ha,
3/ha, 2/ha and 2/ha individuals, respectively found in disturbed and unevenly distributed
manner.

On the other hand in agricultural land, Andropogon abysinica, Linum usitatissimum,

Hordeum vulgare and Verbascum sinaiticum were the most abundant herbs, while
Euphorbia dumalis, Juniperous procera, Discopodium eremanthum, Eucalyptus
globulos, Haypericum revoltum, Hagenea abysinica and Solanum marginatum were trees
and shrubs occurred in scatter fashion with 63/ha, 34/ha, 25/ha, 23/ha, 13/ha, 4/ha and
1/ha stem density respectively. Based on their IVI, Juniperous procera was the most
important in the natural forests followed by Hagenea abysinica, Haypericum revoltum
and Myrsine melanopheoes in their order of ecological importance. Euphorbia dumalis
and Discopodium eremanthum were the first and second ecologically important shrub

41
species in the natural forest (Annex 2). Where as on the grazing land Juniperous procera
and Discopodium eremanthum and on agricultural land Hagenea abysinica, and
Euphorbia dumalis took more ecological importance than any other (Annex 2).
Following Domin ground cover estimation method (Kent & Cooker, 1992), 99 herb, 3
climber, 2 liana, 2 fern and 7 undifferentiated species were identified and their ground
cover percentage was determined. Here the contribution offered from local people in
categorizing local names was great.

Table 7: Samples of species composition, frequency%, ground cover%, and rank by cover% of
herbs, climbers, ferns and lianas in forest lands

Domin
Scientific Name cover scale cover% frequency% rank cover%
Andropogon abyssinicus 9 81.30 53.3 1
Aristida tuniculata 8 63.00 36.7 2
Geranium arabicum 7 42.00 36.7 3
Centhrus setigerus 7 42.00 10.0 4
Juncus effuses 7 42.00 6.7 5
Digitaria abyssinica 5 17.50 6.7 6
Undifferentiated species + 0.00 5.5 32
Gladiolus psittacinus 1 0.00 3.3 33

The most important decisive factor to give cover percentage of each species was its
Domin scale, but for those having similar or proximate scales, frequency percentage was
taken in to consideration. Therefore, even if the Domin scale of one species was greater
or equal but less frequently occurred than other species, it would be given less rank.

Table 8: Samples of species composition, frequency%, ground cover%, and rank by cover% of herbs
in grazing lands

Domin
Scientific Name cover scale cover% frequency% rank by cover%
Agrostis sclerophylla 8 63.00 63.3 1
Andropogon abyssinicus 5 17.50 70.0 2
Hetropogon contrortus 5 17.50 50.0 3
Hordeum vulgare 5 17.50 30.0 4
Solanum marginatum + 0.00 10.0 26
Verbascum sinaiticum + 0.00 3.3 27
Crotalaria agatiflora + 0.00 3.3 27

42
There were also very few species which had got difficulty to name and even to take
specimens because they were dried and trampled and some of them were without dried
leaves. The ground cover of these species was considered by giving local codes at their
occurrence in various plots. Andropogon abyssinicus herb species (Table 7 & 9) was
most frequently occurred in all the three lands with the highest ground cover in forest and
agricultural lands (for detail information see Annexes 3, 4 & 5).

Table 9: Samples of species composition, frequency%, ground cover%, and rank by cover% of herbs
in agricultural lands

Domin
Scientific Name cover scale cover% frequency% Rank by cover%
Andropogon abyssinicus 8 63.00 90.00 1
Linum usitatissimum 6 29.50 50.00 2
Hordeum vulgare 6 29.50 40.00 3
Verbascum sinaiticum 6 29.50 6.67 4
Conium maculatum + 0.00 6.67 39
Carduus nyassus + 0.00 6.67 39
Undifferentiated species + 0.00 3.33 40
NB: Detailed herb ground cover in each land cover/land use is given under annex 3, 4 &5.

On the other hand, Agrostis sclerophylla (Table 8) was recorded with highest ground
cover in grazing lands. The study was conducted at dry season. Even though, the grazing
impact is high in every spots of the park and there is cover variation, the availability of
moisture in the area helped herbs to be present in all LCLU types even in dry season of
the year.

4.1.2 Vegetation population structure of trees and shrubs

Diameter and height class distribution of trees and shrubs in the natural forest showed a
more or less an inverted J shape distribution, except the unusual high number of older and
bigger trees in the last diameter class (Figure 9) and both for the diameter and height
distributions (Figure 10). The diameter and height class distributions prompt that there is
a stable population of trees in the natural forest with good regeneration with exceptional
of Hagenea abyssinica and Juniperous procera which have insignificant regeneration.
The eleventh diameter class, which contained exceptionally high number of big trees, was

43
observed to host buttressed and aged Hagenea abyssinica and Juniperous procera trees
that Population
have been preserved
structurefor long ininthe national park.
of Trees
forest land of BMNP Population Structure of Trees in
forestlands of BMNP
450
Values in each

386
400 374

Values of each
350 400
300
class

250 300

class
200
200
150 101 107
100 63 50 69
21 23 15 8 11 17 15 100 23 39 14 21 13 25 22
50 3
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1 11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Diameter class Height class
A B
Figure 9: Population structure of trees in forestland based on diameter (A) and height (B) classes per
hectare
(Codes for diameter classes used 1= 1-10, 2=10-20, 3=20-30, 4= 30-40, 5= 40-50, 6= 50-60, 7= 60-70,
8= 70-80, 9= 80-90, 10= 90-100, and 11=>100, all units in cm), while codes for height classes (1=0.3-
2.5, 2= 2.5-5, 3=5-7.5, 4=7.5-10, 5=10-12.5, 6=12.5-15, 7=15-17.5, 8=17.5-20, 9=20-22.5, 10=22.5-25
and 11= >25, all units in m).

Similarly an inverted J-shaped population structure was observed for the shrubby woody
plants of the natural forests but extremely restricted to the lower diameter and height
classes (Figure 10). The structure and performance of short trees and shrubs in forest land
was distressed due to larger wild mammals in addition to livestock encroachment. Since
Population Structure of Shrubs in
all newly emerged shoots being eaten, the growth forms offorestlands
many treeofand shrub species
BMNP
Population Structure of Shrubs in
were deformed.
forestlands of BMNP
400 364
Values of each class

Values of each class

500 350
409
300
400
250
300
200
200 150
100 100 48
10 15 11 5 1 1 1 0 1 1
50 15 5 6 2 1 13 1 0 0
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Diameter class Height class
A B
Figure 10: Population structure of shrubs in forestland based on diameter (A) and height (B) classes
per hectare
(Codes for diameter and height classes similar as that of Figure 9)

44
On the other hand, the diameter and height class distribution of the trees in the grazing
land showed a diffused distribution that shows frequent interruption of regeneration
(Figure 11). Nonetheless, the shrubs have displayed an inverted J-shaped distribution still
on the grazing lands (Figure 12) demonstrated that their population trend was much
affected as compared to the tree populations and density of shrubs in grazing land. The
reason might be the palatability and easily trampling nature of most shrubs than the tree
species for huge herds of livestocks; hence their probability of growing to the upper layer
is bottlenecked. Juniperous procera tree species and Euphorbia dumalis shrub species
were dominant relative to others. The possible reasons might be resistant to impacts
(Juniperous procera) and unpalatability nature due to exudation of toxic milky substance
(Euphorbia dumalis). All other tree and shrub species were either absent or very much
deformed especially as a result of overgrazing and continuous collection of wood for fuel,
Population Structure of Trees per Population Structure of Trees per Ha in
sale andHaconstruction.
in Grazing lands of BMNP Grazing lands of BMNP
Values of each class

35 31
alues of each class

20 17 30
13 25
15
20
10 15 10
7
5 5 10 7 6
5 3 3 5 3 1 1
2 1 2 2 0 1 1 0
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Height class
Diameter Class B
A
Figure 11: Population structure of trees in grazing land based on diameter (A) and height (B) classes
per hectare
(Codes for diameter and height classes similar as that of Figure 9)

Since, highly grazed areas of the park have lost their original trees and shrubs, the sites
seam as they have never been under forest trees and/or shrubs. Figure 11 and 12 showed
how much the tree and shrub species are affected due to over-grazing performing
irregular structure and fewer individuals in each class which were similar in vegetation
before some decades.

45
 Population Structure of Shrubs in
Population Structure of Shrubs in
Grazinglands of BMNP
Grazinglands of BMNP

Values of each class

30

Values of each class

30 27
24
25
25
20 20
15 15 11
9
10 10

5 2 2 5
1 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Diameter class Height class

B
A
Figure 12: Population structure of shrubs in grazing land based on diameter (A) and height (B)
classes per hectare

(Codes for diameter and height classes similar as that of Figure 9)

Population of trees on the agricultural lands also showed a more or less similar diameter
and height class distribution pattern as of the trees in grazing lands (Figure 12 & Figure,
13). Both diameter and height class allocations displayed unpatterned distribution
Population
showing Structure
a regular of Trees
interference per their
with Ha regeneration.
Population Structure of Trees per
in Agricultural lands of BMNP Ha in Agricultural lands of BMNP

30 35 32
Values of each Class

Values of each class

27
25 30
25
20
15 20
15 13
15
9
10 7 7 10
5 5 5
5 3 3 3 3 3 3
5 2 2
0 1 1 1
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Diameter class Height class

A B
Figure 13: Population structure of trees in agricultural land based on diameter (A) and height (B)
classes per hectare
(Codes for diameter and height classes similar as that of Figure 9)

As shown in Figure 13, more individual tree species found in the third, fourth and fifth
diameter classes (20-30, 30-40 and 40-50cm) and second and third height (2.5-5 and 5-
7.5m) classes. However, the numbers of individuals in all class levels and parameters are

46
generally less. Particularly shrubs are the most affected ones in agricultural lands that
98% of individuals found only in the first class of both parameters (Figure 14). Kent and
Cooker (1992) stressed that over large parts of the globe, human populations have
modified plant communities extensively. Figure 14 could be a good indicator how
integration of human and livestock impact minimized and restricted shrubs to avail only
in the firstPopulation Structure
diameter and heightofclasses.
Shrubs This intern generated growth form gap between
per Ha in Agricultural lands of
upper and lower layers of vegetation which troubled ecosystem of the area.
BMNP Population Structure of Shrubs per
Ha in Agricultural lands of BMNP

Values of each class

Values of each

150 125 140 125

120
100 100
class

80
60
50
40
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 20 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Diameter class Height class

B
A
Figure 14: Population structure of shrubs in agricultural land based on diameter (A) and height (B)
classes per hectare

(Codes for diameter and height classes similar as that of Figure 9)

Even though, the above graph (Figure 14) showed the presence of shrubs in the lower
diameter and height classes, the vigority of the species was not promising to grow in to
the upper classes. Continuous disturbances of grazing and cultivation restricted the
growth of newly emerged shoots.

47
4.1.3 Species area curves of the three LCLU systems
Species area curves are important which help to see the general trends of species
distribution in a given study area (Ahmed et al., 1997 cited in Kindeya, 2003). These
curves are also best criterion for determination of the minimum plot size (Lamprecht,
1989; Kindeya, 2003).
Species area curves for the three land use types

60
Values of commulative

50
40
species

30
20
10
0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
Codes for circular radious

Forest Grazing Agriculture

Figure 15: Vegetation area curves of forest, grazing and agricultural land use systems

(Codes for diameter of sampling circles (1=1m; 2=2m; 3=4m; 4=8m; 5=16m; 6=32m; 7=64m;
8=128m; 9=256m and 10=512m) represent doubling the previous radius for seeking of additional new
species that had not been occurred in the preceding smaller circles).

The species area curve in this study depicts that species encounterance levelled off for all
of the three land cover /land use classes considered after 128 m radius (Figure 15). This
general trend of species area distribution revealed that sampling sizes was fitting to not
overlooking the available species in each land cover/land use systems.

48
4.1.4 Regeneration status

The regeneration trend graph indicated here is only for forestlands. Continuous
disturbance history of the site could not allowed seedlings to perform well in grazing and
agriculture lands except for one shrub species (Euphorbia dumalis). The situation is not
even as such promising in forest lands especially for Hagenea abysinica and Juniperous
procera whichRegeneration of trees
have many huge and individuals
and aged shrubs per in
hathe area.

40
35
35
Number of species

30 27
25
19
20
15
10 8
5 3 2 2 2 2 1 1
0
ym

o
a

a
Jp
r

ar

s
v
Ed

Ea
H

R
R
R
M

Species code

Figure 16: Regeneration of trees and shrubs encountered per hectare in the northern part of BMNP

(Where: Ed= Euphorbia dumalis, Mym=Myrsine melanophoeos, Hr=Haypericum revoltum,

Jp=Juniperous procera, Ea=Erica arborea, Mo= Maytenus obscura, Ha= Hagenea abysinica,
Ra=Rosa abysinica, Rs= Rubus steudneri, Rv = Rubus volkansii).

Euphorbia dumalis due to its poisonous milky exudates exists every where and Myrsine
melanophoeos due to its less palatability nature and located more in sloppy sites help
them to attain somehow better regeneration and performance than others. It was
unfeasible to construct regeneration trend graphs for grazing and agricultural lands
because Euphorbia dumalis was the only species that showed regeneration.

49
4.1.5 LCLU changes between 1986 and 2000 in the northern part of
BMNP

The land cover/land use change result for 1986 and 2000 shown in (Figure 17 a & b) and
summary of the overall cover of each land use systems for the year 1986 and 2000 are
presented in (Table 10). The two images indicate the change in-between 14 year’s gap.

Table 10: Summery of LCLU area statistics for 1986 and 2000 and their changes in between

1986 2000 LCLU change

LCLU (ha) (%) (ha) (%) b/n 1986-2000
Forest land 5425.51 26.58 3011.9 14.78 2414ha - 12.80%
Cultivated 6069.7 29.74 8479.57 41.60 2408ha +12.86%
Grazing 7595.11 37.21 7081.44 34.74 514ha -2.47%
Bare land 1319.01 6.46 1811.24 8.89 492ha +2.43%
Total 20409.33 100 20384.15 100

From 1986 to 2000 forest and grazing lands decreased by 12.8% and 2.47% respectively.
On the other hand cultivated land increased by 12.86% and that of bare lands by 2.43%
(Table 10). The highest increment was recorded for agricultural land while the highest
reduction was observed for forestland (see the colored images in Figure 17).

50
 (a) (b)

Figure 17: LCLU map of the Northern Part of Bale Mountains National Park Dinsho area using Landsat images for 1986 (a) & 2000 (b)

51
4.1.6 Soil organic carbon content, bulk density and carbon stock

I. Soil organic carbon content (%)

Average soil organic carbon contents (%) of all the sampled depths were consistently
higher in the soils under the natural forest than the soils in grazing and agricultural fields
(Table 11). However, it was only the SOC in the upper 0-20 cm layer that showed
statistically significant difference between the three land cover/land use systems at
p<0.01 (Table 11).

Table 11: Mean (±SEM) soil organic carbon content (%) of soils under natural forest, grazing land
and cultivated fields in BMNP

LAND COVER/LAND USE

Depth (cm) Forest Grazing Agriculture ANOVA
0-20 12.2±0.52 7.8±1.34 6.3±0.76 **
20-40 4.9±0.69 3.0±0.95 4.0±0.84 ns
40-60 3.5±0.21 2.3±0.60 2.3±0.75 ns
60-80 1.9±0.44 1.5±0.79 0.9±0.41 ns
**Significantly different at p<0.01; ns does not significantly different at p<0.01.

II. Bulk density (g/cm3)

The bulk density of the soils, failed to show statistically significant differences in all the
depths investigated between the three land cover/land use systems (Table 12). Despite the
lack of statistically significant differences, the forestland had the lowest bulk density in
all the sampled depths, while the agricultural field had the highest in all the
corresponding depths than forest and grazing lands.

52
Table 12: Mean ((±SEM) soil bulk density (g/cm3) of soils under natural forest, grazing land and
cultivated fields in BMNP

LAND COVER/LAND USE

Depth(cm) Forest Grazing Agriculture ANOVA

0-20 0.83±0.07 1.1±0.09 1.3±0.3 ns

20-40 0.87±0.17 0.97±0.07 1.3±0.09 ns
40-60 0.93±0.09 1.3±0.09 1.5±0.26 ns
60-80 1.1±0.15 1.4±0.08 1.7±0.17 ns
ns does not significantly different at p<0.05

III. Soil organic carbon stock (g/m2)

The organic carbon stock in the upper 0.8 m of the soil under the three land cover /land
use is presented in (Figure 18). The stock of carbon in the soil of the natural forest was
11% greater than that of the soil under the grazing land and only 5% greater than the soil
under agricultural field.

Figure 18: Average soil carbon stock of three land cover/land use systems in BMNP

Despite the fact that percentage variation of the carbon stock seams less, it can be good
indicator how similarly vegetated land scapes will be easily deteriorate due to human and
livestock interference of the area through time.

53
4.1.7 Household characteristics and perception on the Park

According to the information from the park experts, there are about 40,000 people settled
within the entire park territory with their over 115,000 livestock population. The
disturbances caused by such large human and livestock population are damaging the park
and its natural resources. Households in the study area are also characterized by extensive
family size. For instance (67.8%) of the respondents were found having a family size of
six to 20 while (32.2%) have one to 5 family size which is hazardous for having
continuous degradation of natural resources. Similar observation was also reported
through previous study (e.g., Flintan, 2000).

According to the respondents rank, the major income source of each household is
generated from livestock (13.5%), crop production (12.5%), of farm activities and
combination of these all (58%). Settlers inside and out of the park showed their lack of
enthusiasm of livestock and park related questions which seems that they reduce the
benefits that generated from livestock and all the (100%) agreed there is no forest
reduction due to livestock. On the other hand respondents of (83%) said they have
grazing land shortage while only (14%) assured enough grazing land but respondents of
(3%) have no land at all. Some of the people in the area considered the park established
on their family land, without their perception. This has made them to develop a negative
feeling, which might be a push behind the unsustainable use of the resources. These
reluctant groups thought that if the forests being finished, the park management will leave
the site and then no one will interrupt their life just by ignoring or not understanding the
future environmental crisis. However, about (80.2%) of the respondents agreed the park
is important in benefiting at least the portion of the local community in different aspects
like traveling with tourists as local tour guide especially the youngsters, renting their
horses. Therefore, they wish the park to up grade its efforts to benefit the whole
communities in the future.

54
4.1.8 Community perception on vegetation covers change

Nearly (81.3%) of interviewee agreed that there is visible and frustrating forest cover
change in the study area. They expressed their understanding that the park environments
and the outside environments are quite different in species composition, structure and
diversity. They underlined that it is because the outer environments were highly exposed
for overgrazing and continuous deforestation, while park environments were relatively
under protection even though it is not as such promising. On the other hand, (18.7%)
replied that there is no forest change at all which showed that either they hesitate to reply
by developing negative attitude about the park and/or could not understand the change.
Respondents ranked out contribution of reasons for cover change as population increment
(10%), deforestation (5%), climatic change (3%) livestock pressure (0%), combination of
the formers (63%), and unknown reasons (19%). This revealed that cumulative effect of
factors took the highest share in resource depletion.

Even though utilization of fuelwood is a continuous process, (94.2%) of the respondents

pointed out that wet season, weeding and mourn ceremonies were the major season and
occasions which boost more wood utilization and enhanced deforestation. Though several
round trainings and awareness creation campaigns have been conducted, respondents
commented that they have not had enough of it, and thus suggested for a more intensified
and continuous effort in the future. The understanding of some youngsters especially in
Dinsho town was very promising than elders. Elders thought as the park took their land
but the youngsters have vision to make the area one of the best tourist centers in the
country. They opposed any illegal activities in side the park area, which indicates
educating all people with more due attention to youngsters, will help to bring sustainable
resource management in the future. This was obviously the result of eco-tourism and the
effect of change of people perception, which has to be encouraged continuously.

55
Few people through group discussion also recommended that it was not possible to
expand agricultural land as they wish. On the other hand they agreed those people living
inside the park were the one who disturb wild animals and deteriorate their ecosystems.
Hence, it would be good for the landless dwellers and those who have land shortage that
the government or local administrators look for alternatives like creating employment or
resettlement for interested groups. There is also good possibility to have more productive
lands within the administrative zone than the one they occupied. However, Mekbeb
(2003) remarked that (96%) of the people in BMNP did not agree on resettlement which
seams real that people do not want to leave their origin.

Nearly (85.5%) of respondents accustomed and like to continue using indigenous tree
species than exotics but (14.5%) replied as they use exotics due to impossible to get
forest sites easily. On the other hand (100%) of the respondents ascertained that Warthog
from wild animals and Eucalyptus (especially around farms) from plants are increasing
time to time. Erica arborea tree species is almost eliminating from tree and shrub growth
forms and limited to lower growth form. Erica arborea, Juniperous procera, Hygenea
abysinica, Myrisene melanopheoes, Mystioxylon aethiopicum and Haypericum revoltum
are the only indigenous tree species encountered and also victim because of human and
livestock interference. This situation created a wide life-form gap on these mentioned
trees and other shrub species which is proved with their diameter and height class
variation under population structure.

The most and frequently blamed wild animal that created problems to the park and to the
surrounding farms is Warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicum). This animal kills young
Nyala, destroy and expose the roots of big plants for drying and destroy seedlings
(hamper regeneration) in and out side the park. It also consumes and destroys much under
growth vegetation especially from November to April. Probably the feeding habits of this
animal may benefit only in mixing up of topsoil with sub soil and facilitating organic
matter decomposition and nutrient recycling for live vegetation. This is inline with study
made by Hilman (1986) who examined as this animal digging for sedge-corms and roots
in swamp areas and in the woodlands at dry time. Very few people relate the benefits of

56
the park with their absence of direct participation or working in the park and they said the
park have no use. However, this inspiration seems some how personal which may not be
possible even in the future to benefit all individuals personally rather than community
based. For instance respondents of those relatively far kebeles from the head quarter
blamed that the park is benefiting those living in Dinsho town which is located nearest to
the head quarter. On this issue there is a strong opposition by many respondents of
Dinsho town that few people are benefiting from the park rather than the community.
However, (100%) of the respondents agreed that the park is relatively more benefited
from tourism than the local people and they recommend sharing this benefit to local
people not directly the money rather in various development programme to the
community.

About (95%) of the respondents articulated their additional feeling that crop production is
not promising in their respective localities. The major problem they raised is frost.
Actually shortage and high cost of chemical fertilizers were also raised as constraints.
The farmers view and the practical field observations confirmed that there is difficulty to
produce much crop in the study area because of its agro-ecology, which has continuous
frost. Since the objective of park establishment is not also to enhance cultivation, it would
not be recommended to have intervention for increment of agricultural crops. Most
respondents (86 %) said that the relationship between the park management and the local
communities is good. However, some (14 %) disagreed because the presence of the park
restricted their free access to grazing land and not to use other resources.

57
4.2 Discussions

4.2.1 Species composition, abundance and diversity of the three LCLU

systems

Vegetation dynamics is a change in composition and stand structure of plant species over
time and it affects biological diversity (Herlocker, 1999). From distance observation the
forests of northern part of BMNP seam dominated either by Juniperous procera and/or
Hagenea abysinica. This is because of very few but massive trees of Juniperous procera
and Hagenea abysinica covering the upper canopy of the forest ecosystem. Similar
observation was also taken by Hillman (1986). However, the real situation inside the
forest areas shows several other species dominating the composition. Species like
Haypericum revoltum and Myrsine melanophoeos are rather the most abundant. The
grazing and agricultural lands are still dominated by much scattered Juniperous procera
indicating that this species either can resist various human and livestock impacts or is
preferred over others by the people for preservation (Haile, 2005).

In comparison of the three land cover/land use systems, it was shown that tree and shrub
species composition and density progressively declines due to shifting from forestland to
cultivated and grazing lands. Climbers, epiphytes, lianas and ferns were totally restricted
to forest sites indicating the ecological variation created due to higher human and
livestock interference. However, there were almost comparable number of herb species in
the forest and agricultural lands, except that the agricultural land tends to show only some
more herb species existence. The reason for greater number of herb species in agricultural
lands than forestlands may be due to the emergence of new herbs associated with
agricultural practices such as weeds via seeds. Similarly, the reason for more species in
agricultural lands than grazing lands might be due to the keeping of large number of
livestock, beyond the carrying capacity of the fields, which could have resulted in
overgrazing of herbs and shrubs. The values of density of tree and shrub species per
hectare and Shannon Wiener diversity index proved that the forestland hosted more
density and diversity followed by the agricultural land and least was in grazing land

58
(Table 6). The grazing and agricultural lands considered for this study were originally
covered by forests of similar species and the decline in their diversity implies the extent
of impact of human and his livestock interference on vegetation resources.

Common species to all land cover/land uses showed their tolerance to impacts in
agricultural and grazing lands. Cultivation period with poor weeding management and
reduced grazing pressure gave rest to have vigorous herbs in agricultural than herbs in
grazing lands. Those grazing resistance and light lover herbs were observed with reduced
form on grazing lands. Overgrazing minimized the type and number of species diversity
at large (Deresse, 2003). This is inline with the suggestions of modeling exercises that
small disturbances lead to highest species diversity, while large disturbances are likely to
favour the persistence of competitive, opportunistic species of both plant and animals
thereby decreasing natural species diversity (Miller, 1982 cited in Rietbergen, 1993).

4.2.2 Population structure of trees and shrubs in three LCLU systems

According to Kindeya (2003) and Abeje et al. (2005) population structure can be defined
as the distribution of individuals in systematically defined height/diameter classes,
provides the size/frequency profile of a species, used to analyze the structure of the
population. In this study the diameter and height class distributions of trees in the forest
land showed an inverted J shape or almost L-shaped which seems an indicator of
favorable status of regeneration and hence stable/healthy population of the species
(Sarah, 2003; Kindeya, 2003; Abeje et al., 2005; Tefera et al., 2005). The inverted J
shape may also illustrate that most of the species in the forest are shade tolerant
secondary species, while the bell shape illustrate that most of the species are pioneers and
light demanding (Lampretch, 1989; Sarah, 2003).

Shrubs in forestland showed high number of individuals in the first diameter and height
classes and a sharp decline in the next classes. Among the six native tree species recorded
in the site, Juniperous procera and Hagenea abysinica tree species were concentrated in
the higher diameter and height classes. Even though, the numbers were less in the lower

59
classes, Juniperous procera had been recorded in all diameter and height classes under
higher impact which indicates the species is vigorous if there is intervention of
enhancement for its regeneration. However, (88%) of Hagenea abysinica were recorded
over the last diameter class (≥100cm) and the height of this species distributed in all
classes more dominating the upper height classes indicating life form gaps or no
regeneration of this species. On the other hand (75%) of Haypericum revoltum, (55%) of
Myrsine melanophoeos and (60%) of Erica arborea were concentrated in the range of the
first classes (1-10cm diameter and 0.3-10m height classes) which they are in need of
protection for continuous growth and final seed production for stability of the species in
the area to be benefited from the ecosystem.

Selective cutting of medium sized trees and shrub in BMNP which is observed at field
and assured with remnants of so many stumps inline with other causes, fashioned
discontinues recruitment potential in to adults (Haile, 2005). In both trees and shrubs
species of the site, when the diameter and height classes increased the number of
stems/ha decreased except for Juniperous procera and Hagenea abysinica. Population
structure of this study revealed that there is a good potential of regeneration for
Haypericum revoltum, Myrsine melanophoeos & Erica arborea trees and Euphorbia
dumalis, Discopodium eremanthum, Solanum marginatum shrub species.

On the other hand tree diameter in grazing land showed a bimodal characteristic which
means few individuals in the lowest class, followed by high increase in the next, and then
a sharp decline in the next followed by a progressive decline and increase continuously.
But height classes showed unimodal or bell shaped with progressive increment in
individuals from the first to the third and a gradual decrease thereafter (Sarah, 2003;
Abeje et al., 2005). Such characteristics are best indicators how much regeneration is
affected in the site with least or no individuals at lower classes (Abeje et al., 2005). Both
diameter and height classes showed bimodal characteristics in cultivated lands.
Agricultural activities highly affected the structure of shrubs. Almost 100% of individuals
distributed in the lower ranges of the first classes (1-10cm diameter and 0.3-2.5m height).
The most obvious disturbances to the existing forest are those which partially or

60
completely destroy the forest structure by killing overthrowing either the trees in the over
story or the trees and other plants in the under story which is in line with various studies
like Spurr & Barnes (1982).

Generally, the comparison made between the forests and that of grazing and cultivated
areas of the study sites showed that the composition, diversity, density and population
structures of woody species of the above-ground vegetation were higher in the forests
than grazing and cultivated lands which originated from adjacent forests through
encroachment. According to Weidelt (1999) cited in Kindeya (2003) the lack of
continuity in the consecutive classes may indicate there were disturbances in the study
sites which revealed in this study. As many studies investigated like Tefera et al. (2005)
rehabilitation of the degraded areas is possible by simply avoiding or minimizing
interference of people and domestic animals in the affected areas. Based on the results
and field observation of this study, Dinsho area seams has potential to rehabilitate if and
only if the interventions taken timely and judiciously.

Due to continuous deforestation, Juniperous procera and Hagenea abysinica which are
the most important and locally well known preferred and respected species than others
are at higher risk in the area. These two species can be said they have no considerable
regeneration because of higher human, wild and domestic animal impact. Unless and
other wise mechanisms of improvement taken in the area, there will be an increase in life
form gap between upper strata and lower ones. This is because lower forms are under
high impact and upper forms are much aged, therefore, there will be discontinuity of
regeneration due to absence of seed supply in the near future. This intern reduces the
value of the ecosystem which is the source of good climatic condition and water for the
area and for its lower watersheds.

4.2.3 Regeneration status

There are about three forest patches in the northern part of BMNP. In these forests all tree
and shrub species below 30cm height were counted as seedlings of natural regeneration.
Only five native trees (among 6 indigenous and 2 exotics) and six shrub species (among

61
nine recorded) were identified regenerating in some of the sample plots of the forestland.
On the other hand, Euphorbia dumalis was the only shrub species recorded having
regenerate in grazing and agricultural land use systems. This may be due to the higher
degree of disturbance from humans and livestock on the land use systems (Getachew,
1999). High impact of interference by human being (expansion of agriculture and
settlement) and his livestock (e.g., overgrazing), and also browsing and trampling from
domestic and wild animals resulted the regeneration of species in the park seems
insignificant. Another study indicated these all factors are dangerous in avoiding of
vegetation (e.g. Spurr & Barnes, 1982).

According to Rogers et al. (2005) cited in Dagnew (2006) disturbed sites expect to have
more regeneration of woody plants than undisturbed once if the disturbance is not severe.
Unfortunately, there were no any regeneration observed in agricultural and grazing lands
of this study other than Euphorbia dumalis indicating how the site is under stress by
human and livestock interference. Hence, the natural forest of BMNP suffered from
extensive deforestation for long period of time which is still continued unabated.
Reduction and eradicating of the grazing pressure of some wild animals like warthog and
all livestock, resettling people living inside the park and stopping agricultural expansion
on various parts of the park ecosystems certainly would be advantageous for the recovery
of the ground vegetation and regeneration of those very few but exceptionally crucial tree
and shrub species of the forest for the sustainability of the ecosystem to be more
benefited from the park resources.

The study on regeneration of Boswellia papryrifera at Metema being 50 seedlings /ha

was stated as it was extremely low (Yitebtu and Mengiste, 2006). Therefore, it can be
said that the regeneration potential was also very much negligible in this study. This is
because regeneration potential of all species was less than 40 seedlings/ha (Figure 16).
Euphorbia dumalis was relatively the dominant shrub species than any tree or shrub
species. Probably the reason might be that the species is less preferred as a fodder and not
palatable because of its nature which produces toxic milky substance. Hence, it would not

62
be easily affected by human beings, livestock and wild animals. Myrsine melanophoeos
was the second dominant regenerated tree species next to Euphorbia dumalis shrub
species. Myrsine melanophoeos had high performance in Bodity hill forest patch and to
some extent promising performance under Adelly forest patch and not found at all in the
forest patch of the head quarter. Juniperous procera was reported by Haile (2005) as
there were no as such promising individuals in Bodity forest patch, but both Juniperous
procera and Hagenea abysinica regenerations were observed in this forest patch than
other forest patches indicating enhancement of such regeneration may boost the number.
The reason for less regeneration might be as suggested by Tamrat (1994) that Juniperous
procera regeneration under its own canopy is poor.

The most important factor observed in this study was the feeding habit of Warthog which
accustomed to digging under all species in searching of moisture during dry time
restricted regeneration of any species. Trampling by livestock and wild animals is also
contributing to the reduction of seedlings. When we say regeneration is insignificant, the
comparison of regeneration with population structure of each land use types may seam
contradictory. Because, there are lot of individuals in the lower diameter and height
classes of each land use system. This may be due to the fact that saplings could not grow
up that they are under higher and continuous human and livestock impact and/or the
seedlings are not in a position to grow from seeds. Generally, this can be definitely an
indicator how the number of human and livestock dependent on the vegetation of the park
area increasing through time.

4.2.4 Ground cover estimation of herbs

The ground vegetation coverage of herbs for forested area was much better than
agricultural and grazing lands. Even though, there is high impact through livestock and
wild animals grazing and trampling in forestlands of the site, moisture reserved under
forest canopies helped herbs to resist and to contribute for better ground cover. The
contribution of emerging seedlings to the ground cover was very much insignificant. The
ongoing grazing impact by wild animals like Warthog and Mountain Nyala, livestock,
absence of diversified tree and shrub species with insignificant regeneration potential and

63
Afromontane nature of the area generated forest ground cover not to be more than the
current. In most cases forestlands of the area have widespread crown cover about 30m
width because of aged Hagenea abysinica and to some extent Juniperous procera trees
growth, but their ground cover is not promising due to high impact from wild animals and
local livestock and probably continuous leaf fall especially under Hagenea abysinica
might restricted the growth of underneath species. Even though the herbs avail in ground
cover, the performance of all herb species was very much grazed. Impact of livestock on
grazing land contributed a lot for the reduction in number and less welfare of all species.
Even if the impact is high, availability of so many watering points and moisture in the
area helped herb species to survive continuously in all land cover/land use systems.

Generally, there is numerical and species composition variation among the three land use
types. There is also a good opportunity to rehabilitate the sites to its original vegetation
cover if due attention given to the area. This is because the history of farming activity
under this study was not productive and interruptive because of frost. Hence, the most
significant variation is on vegetation structure and soil carbon stock due to impact of
interference which can be rehabilitated by avoiding the stress from the stated sources.
Origin of grazing and agricultural lands was from deforestation of naturally forested area
which contributes to the proximity and similarity of species diversity. The other most
important reason that the ground vegetation in all land use systems minimized due to that
research was done at dry time of the year in the study area (November-Feberuary).

4.2.5 LCLU changes between 1986 and 2000 in the northern BMNP

The land use changes of the area from 1986 to 2000 associated with the cumulative effect
of the interaction between human beings and land resources conditioned by the existing
socio-economic factors in the area. Human and livestock population of Dinsho and its
surrounding areas is increasing at an alarming rate in comparison with the previous years.
This was well discussed in the preceding section, which had implication on natural
resources degradation to satisfy the ever increasing population. It is hardly possible to

64
find human and livestock free sites even in the park head quarter. This was justified by
the changes observed in the image classification and change detection, which revealed
that agricultural land, is expanding while natural forest is declining.

This study being inline with other studies that agricultural expansion to forest areas
continues to be rampant due to population increase. Hardly any forest area is free from
human settlement, agriculture and grazing. Even the steep slopes, which are critically
prone to soil erosion are often cultivated and planted with agricultural crops
(Kumilachew, 2001). The increment of the agricultural field was therefore at the
expenses of the natural forests. A similar study by Belay (2002) also ascertained that
accurate information on the extent of land-cover changes, and the forces and process that
have caused such changes is essential for designing sound environmental planning and
management. Grazing land was reduced while bare land increased almost with similar
amount. Since, livestock grazing was shown to be ecologically damaging in terms of
creating larger bare area and lower diversity (Cooper, 2005), bare lands of this study
might acquired the current size most probably from grazing lands. Therefore, the LCLU
change detection of this study assured that there was continual vegetation destruction
even after the establishment of the park which is aligned with vegetation structure and
carbon stock reduction result of this study.

4.2.6 Soil carbon stock estimation in three LCLU systems

The soil is a ware house for carbon, because CO2 taken from the atmosphere by
photosynthesis is stored in living biomass then in the dead residues and ultimately in the
soil (Limtong and Srikhajon, 2002). According to Zewudu (2000) the impact of land use
changes on the chemistry of Ethiopian forest soils is not well understood. Basically the
grazing and agricultural land use types considered for this study were started from
gradual shrinkage of the adjacent remnant forests. The classification of grazing and
agricultural land means that the lands were continuously deforested and grazed or
changed to agriculture from forests. Therefore, the key focal point was to investigate how
much of the original soil carbon stock affected by human and livestock interference

65
changed from forest to grazing and/or from forest to agriculture. According to Yeshanew
(2004); Mulugeta (2004) and Mulugeta et al. (2005), the conversion of Afromontane
natural forest ecosystems in to arable land by smallholder farmers causes a slow but
significant degradation of soil quality in the long-run. Hence, considerable decline of soil
carbon stock resulted which was also revealed in this study.

On the other hand the reduction magnitude seams very slow and this is probably due to
the climatic condition of the study site, which is too cool for fast decomposition and
disappearance and similar studies gave the same reason (e.g., Mulugeta and Fisseha,
2004). Climate and vegetation usually interact together to influence the soil contents of
organic matter, organic carbon and nitrogen (Kindeya, 2003). However, soil organic
carbon magnitude (%) was the highest in all the depths under forestland than grazing and
agricultural lands (Table 11). However, the contents were highly statistically significantly
different only in the upper 0-20cm depth (p<0.01). This is due to relatively high and
continuous supply and decomposition of organic matter from deep plant roots density,
leaves, branches and even from elongated decaying of stems in forest lands. Furthermore,
soil organic carbon content declined with soil depth under all land uses. The second and
third layers of agricultural plots have slightly higher carbon content than the grazing plots
of similar layer. This might have to do with mixing of soil organic carbon or leaching
down due to ploughing and crops with their shallow root also used the carbon in the
upper depth.

The surface soil under the forest contained relatively high organic carbon. This is
consistent to other many studies (e.g., Murty et al., 2002 cited in Silfver, 2003) that forest
soils have most of their organic material in the litter and upper layers. This also implies
that surface soils of the agricultural and grazing lands used to contain the same amount
before they were converted. Thus, the difference observed now can be attributed to the
shift in land use. On the other hand the role of the presence of herbs in increasing organic
matter content of soils is well recognized (Kindeya, 2003). Hence, herbs in grazing and
cultivated lands with availability of continuous moisture contribute a lot to the carbon

66
content even if they are much grazed. The bulk density of forest soils is usually lower
than agricultural soils (Murty et al., 2002 cited in Silfver, 2003) but dependent on
vegetation composition and grazing pressure on grazing lands to be lower or larger than
bulk densities of agricultural land. Forest soil samples up to 80 cm depth have the least
bulk density (Table 12). For instance, the value at 60-80cm in forests was equal to the
first depth class (1.1) of grazing and proximate to agricultural lands (1.3). This indicates
that the soil under forests was full of better organic matter accumulations sourced from
various parts of vegetation including deep roots. Agricultural soil profiles showed high
magnitude in bulk density than grazing land soil pits. The reason probably might be due
to plowing compaction especially on top depths. Similar studies on Afromontane dry
forest areas of Ethiopia confirmed that significant and progressive increase in soil bulk
density and decrease in percent pore space in the top ploughing layers most probably
caused by the decline in the soil organic matter contents and by compaction from tillage
(Silfver, 2003 and Mulugeta, 2004). Even though, there were differences in magnitude
between depths of land cover/land use systems, statistically there were not significantly
different. This is probably due to the reason that all systems originated from similar forest
areas and absence of climatical and topographical differences (except aspect) contributed
relatively sustainable stock in the under depths.

All top layers under each land use types showed relatively higher carbon stock. The 0-20
cm depth of forest land had the highest carbon stock indicating continuous and immediate
supply of organic matter. The stock in the upper forest layer is greater than agricultural
ones only by (5%) while (11%) greater than grazing land layers. The value is less than
other studies like Guo & Gifford (2002) which investigate conversion from forest to
agriculture reduce carbon stock while conversion from forests to pasture is a gain in
carbon stock. However, other studies illustrated that livestock grazing activity was shown
to be ecologically damaging in terms of having a larger bare area and lower species
diversity and least productivity than cultivated land (Spurr & Barnes 1982; Cooper, 2005)
which in turn reduce carbon stock of the soil by minimizing the organic matter budget.
Similarly, heavy grazing may cause change in vegetation composition and the reduction
biomass production which accompanied by drastic change in the grass layer. Such a

67
degraded environment is considered an inhospitable environment for plants, except
probably for few species that can tolerate and survive this harsh condition (Getachew,
1999). The mean value of the stock under 20cm depth among land use types was not as
such different and even the 20-40cm depth of agricultural land was slightly higher than
forest and grazing land use types of the same depths. This might be due to loose soil
particles in the upper 0-20 cm ploughing depth which might allow leaching of carbon to
the 20-40cm depth than relatively compacted natural state of 0-20 cm depths of forest and
grazing lands could not allowed free flow like the agricultural lands. The other expected
reason could be the shallow rooted shifting and short duration crops used highly the
easily available carbon in the 0-20cm depth. For instance, a study in Thailand showed
that soil organic matter has been depleted for a long time because of intense cultivation
which means on the upper soil depth (Limtong and Srikhajon, 2002; CTA et al., 2002;
Yeshanew, 2004; Mikhailova et al., 2005).

The stock in 60-80cm in gazing lands is slightly greater than the same depths of forest
and agricultural land seems strange. However, this could be also an indication to the
similarity of previous vegetation cover and accumulation in the under profiles and
grazing affects more of the top profiles. Consumption of plant cover by livestock has a
major impact and overgrazing is believed to contribute substantially to desertification and
land degradation. Plant removal reduces protective plant cover, vigour and regrowth
capacity, the effects of which increase exponentially with removal rates (de Leeuw and
Reid, 1995). Carbon contents in the lower depth of the forested land soils is higher but
the carbon stock is less under 40-60 and 60-80cm depths. This may be due to the reuse of
nutrients by so many deep rooted tree species which are very few in grazing and
agricultural fields. This is because most changes in soil carbon storage will be closely
associated with changes in the distribution and productivity of vegetation (Silfver, 2003).
The average soil carbon stock in this study resulted 32-39 (kg m-2). The average soil
carbon stock in the world is 11.7 kg m-2 to 1m depth (Yeshanew, 2004). However, similar
study in Ethiopia made by Yeshanew (2004) found out average of 26.2- 32.7 kg m-2 on
the same depth. The reasons stated for such variation could be due to differences in soil

68
forming factors, including climate, parent material, topography, vegetation and human
impact (Yeshanew, 2004).

4.2.7 Household characteristics and perception towards the park

The local communities living in and around BMNP area are agro-pastoralists. They are
depending on livestock and subsistence farming for their livelihood (Mekbeb, 2003).
From field observations and interviews carried out, it was noted that the area is becoming
populated as the same time cultivation and other land uses are expanding with the
expense of natural forest. According to Flintan (2000) the annual population growth in
Dinsho area is rating to 5%. Such condition allowed having extensive family members
which approved by interview that (67.8%) have 6 and more than 20 family members per
household. Since rural people are dependent on natural resources for their livelihood, the
extensive family is a good indicator how the resources in the area could be affected.

Similar study by Sileshi (2000) on socio-economic and political aspects of environmental

degradation at Entoto area showed how resources were depleting due to population
increment year after year. Similarly, Garedew (2002) cited in Mekbeb (2003)
investigated that in BMNP the major treats to biodiversity are caused by human impacts
including forest clearing for agriculture, settlements, commercial logging, and charcoal
making, livestock overgrazing, uncontrolled forest fire, transmission of disease and
hybridization of domestic dogs with Ethiopian wolf. For instance, collecting wood from
natural forests was the main source of energy and the ever increasing human population
has unrestricted access to natural resources in the study area. There were no hopeful
homesteads or community forests observed which endorsed the pressure on natural
forests of the park as the only energy sources. In addition large herds of livestock, low
productivity, landlessness, lack of employment and other income generation contribute a
lot to natural resource degradation. On the other hand livestock population is highly
increasing and become beyond the carrying capacity of the site contributing also to land
resources depletion. For instance, in 1994 total number of livestock only in Dinsho area
was estimated 45,564 (Yosef, 1998) however, the number is reached 126,469 at the end

69
of 2006 (see table 1). The current figure is even greater than the figure given by park
experts for the entire park area to ETV reporter which was 115,000 (ETV, 2006).

The public`s lack of awareness of the importance of biological diversity- its relevance to
every day life, the benefits from the use of its components and the consequences of its
loss- is a mojor constraint which must be overcome if biodiversity conservation and
sustainable use efforts are to succeed. Indeed, efforts to conserve biological diversity
cannot succeed without the general public`s understanding and support (IUCN, 1994).
Many people have positive perception on the park while some have developed negative
attitude due to their direct absence from park benefits. Similar result was observed by
Mekbeb (2003) of people attitude in the same place. The study on perceptions of local
communities towards to wildlife and protected areas of Ethiopia investigated that
attitudes of dwellers were influenced by services and benefits they personally receive
from the park (e.g. Mekbeb, 2003). Many studies (e.g. Tesfaye, 1998; Sileshi, 2000) and
others agreed that continuous awareness creation in areas like BMNP and increasing the
quality of professionals approach (may be one barrier to success in a given environmental
intervention if not well approached) on various environmental processes among lands or
natural resource users is believed to have a significant impact on the way they choose to
go about using or managing that particular resource.

4.2.8 Community perception on vegetation covers change of the Park

In Ethiopia it has not been possible so far to utilize the forest and wildlife resources
effectively and properly (Minassie, 2002). According to the interviewed dwellers, the
understanding of people in and around BMNP on vegetation cover change is
encouraging. Nearly (81.3%) of the respondents could compare and contrast ecosystem
variations in disturbed and relatively secured sites. Their perception helps to develop
sustainable management plan for resources conservation and wise utilization. This will be
consistent with other studies that development should not bypass the lives of the people
concerned whether they are directly involved as future beneficiaries or are the inhabitants
living near by who see their familiar environment changed and new goods and services
becoming available (Evans, 1993 cited in Tesfaye, 1998). Respondents agreed that high

70
rate of human population is the sole factor leads to an increasing encroachment on
wildlife habitats and an increase in human-wildlife conflicts. For instance, selective
cutting for selling and construction is one of various factors frequently observed in park
with witness of so many stumps during this study and others (e.g., Bezawork, 2004;
Haile, 2005). In such situation, species that are unable to adapt to new and altered
habitats, as commercial species are being forced in to smaller and more marginal patches
of habitat. Those species because of their behavioral flexibility can adapt to a changing
ecology and can survive in human modified landscapes often come in to direct
competition with local communities (e.g., Deresse, 2003).

Respondents said that in one hand they faced serious problem in grazing land shortage
and on the other hand they stated as there is no vegetation cover change due to livestock.
These are contradictory ideas to various studies in the park and other sites (Hilmann,
1986; Befekadu, 2001; EWCP, 2000). For instance, Befekadu (2001) showed that
fattening based on park grasses was one of the major treats for vegetation degradation of
northern part of BMNP. It is well stated and known that livestock grazing activity was
shown to be ecologically damaging in terms of having a larger bare area and lower
species diversity which intern affects the soil quality in the study area and other parts of
the world (Deresse, 2003; Bezawerk, 2004; Cooper, 2005). Most people around Dinsho
are feeling sorry and worrying for the lost diversity from the land cover of their
surrounding which will be interesting in participation of local community for
management intervention. On the other hand some people showed still their ignorance
about the resource depletion in and around BMNP. Such negative thinkers will be
diverted and come to positive thinker by values from tourism and the positive thinkers
have to be more encouraged. Budowiski (1976) cited in Goodwin (1996) stated that there
is a symbiosis between conservation and tourism where tourism is wholly or partly based
on values derived from nature and its resources, it could provide an economic value for
conservation of species and habitats by creating an opportunity for increasing awareness
of importance of the maintenance of biodiversity to tourists, local visitors and dwellers.

71
Mekbeb (2003) showed that people in BMNP are more benefited and understand tourism
than other four protected areas of Ethiopia which guaranteed that people in BMNP needs
to earn from tourism to be positive thinkers of environmental issues in the area. The same
study assured that attitude of dwellers is influenced by services and benefits they
personally receive from the park probably this needs an encouragement in the future.
According to Flintan (2000) there are certainly opportunities for promoting tourism in
BMNP. However, tourism is happening in an unorganized and haphazard manner, little if
any advertising of the park and its facilities.

In general, Leykun (1991) pointed out that if wildlife resources of Ethiopia managed and
utilized wisely, they can make significant contribution to the national economy and to
localities through tourism, sales of wildlife products, ranching, farming, etc. However,
there appears to have been little effort to apply the principles of conflict-free management
of protected areas by improving the relationship between the local people and the park
administration (Leykun, 1991). Generally, the low living standard of the people coupled
with lack of alternatives is the underlying factor responsible for decline in forest
ecosystems (Taye, et al., 2001) frequently raised by respondents of BMNP. This is
expressed by increasing demands for crop and grazing land, and wood for fuel, sale and
construction in the area. IUCN (1994) well stated that combination of formal and
informal education could foster greater public understanding of the interactions biological
diversity has with almost evry aspect of daily life, and how individual action ultimately
relates back to its depletion. Also greater public understanding would lead to greater
public support for the important measures which need to be implemented to conserve
biodiversity.

72
 Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations

5.1 Conclusions

Based on the results of this study, the following conclusions are made:

1. The vegetation showed great change in composition, density, diversity and

structure following conversion from natural forest to crop field and grazing land.

2. Soil organic carbon stock assessment of the three land cover/land use systems
also showed decline as change occurs from natural forest to farm land and grazing
land, which has to do with the decline in input of organic residue.

3. Agricultural and other land use systems are increasing in the area much of which
are at the expense of natural forestland.

4. Landsat image classification and interpretation of 1986 and 2000 assured also
there is real forest cover degradation and increment of other land use systems in
such protected area indicating the park is lacking full protection.

5. Based on interviews, group discussions and personal communications, people in

and around Dinsho can be generalized that they have knowledge about natural
resources and the benefits generated from these resources. Some have also
uncertainty that the park is used only by the government and only by some local
people. This tells us how socio-economic issues are very important in this respect.
Educating the local people genuinely and continuously will divert such situation
and augments the multidimensional benefits of the park locally, regionally,
nationally and even internationally because of its unique indigenous but
endangered fauna and flora resources.

73
5.2 Recommendations

If the real situation which is now practicing in BMNP is being continued, 80% of the
total fauna of the entire park area which is found in this northern part (Williams, 2002)
and those precious remnant vegetations could be abandoned within few years. Based on
the results and discussions of this study on vegetation characteristics, soil analysis,
dwellers perception and field observations and the conclusions drawn, the following
recommendations are made:

1. Researches which have been done previously were more focused on higher wild
animals and plants, but to develop sustainable ecosystem in the park and to be
benefited at large from the ecosystem, it is recommendable to have more recent
researches on small wild animals and their relative habitat requirements and detail
studies on chemical and physical properties of soils. This is because integrating
various research-out puts will enhance building-up of detail management options
of the park.

2. Doing a detail investigation on land cover/land use changes of the entire park area
in future will give clear vision in setting any management activity for the security
of those precious natural resources.

3. It is recommendable that if all thesis works and reports worked in the park being
profiled in the library of the park, there will be access to identify research gaps
and also there will be continuous and reliable data flow for the plan and
development of natural resources of the park.

4. Population growth is becoming an impediment in the study area shadowing the

efforts that have been made so far in improving the habitats of wildlife of the
park. The park area is suffering from population pressure growing at an alarming
rate. It is clear that resettlement is not an easy task in Ethiopia, it may be smoothly
done if and only if natural resources almost finalized in the original area.
Otherwise, the culture and believes will not allow to leave their original village. If

74
 local people are aware of such problems and being voluntary with out force, any
one who has an environmental concept will strongly recommended that no people
has to be settle in BMNP which is unique heritage to the region, the country and
to the world, hence, these option has to be taken seriously and has to be supported
by policy makers.

5. Since livestock population is the potent issue frustrating the park resources, it is
strongly advisable to enhance fodder development and also focusing on quality
rather than quantity of livestock for those settled out side the park area.

6. Hagenea abysinica and Juniperous procera are the most frequently raised useful
but endangered species by dwellers and which is also revealed from insignificant
regeneration and population structure analysis of this study. Therefore, to support
other ecological managements for these and other trees and shrubs species, it will
be vital to carry out soil seed bank study and enrichment planting of native
species as the same time apllying biological and physical soil and water
conservation measures.

7. Concerned bodies at local, zonal, regional and federal level have to think on
budget allocation and policy formulation for such generation resourceful area at
least to the minimum of attention given by those foreigners for our natural
resources.

8. The new park management plan which is expected to embark acting from 2007
might help more. The activities taking by FZS and EWCP projects are some how
diversified which consider several problems of the park and even the local people.
Such considerations are important to minimize conflicts between the park and the
surrounding people and also increase resource development and positive thinking
which has to be more encouraged.

9. In BMNP ecotourism can be a major task and highly profitable to benefit the
community in particular and the country in general which is also as the same time
advantageous to the ecosystem. This needs a strong commitment of the local and

75
 federal administrators in establishing infrastructure facilities in various aspects
and build proportion manpower to the park size.

10. Based on observation, expansion of Dinsho town is much horizontal. If such

expansion is not stopped; vegetation and wild animal resources of the park will be
completed within few years. This is because expansion needs land and it is more
related to population growth (human and animal) then the population growth is in
need of fuelwood, construction wood and land for grazing, settlement and
agriculture which these all imposed on the park resources. Therefore, Wereda
administrator with the help of non governmental organizations, regional and/or
federal bodies has to set options on bring to an end at least the horizontal
expansion of the town.

76
6. References
Abaye Kindie, 2003: Land Use and Land Cover in Relation to Chromolaena odorata
Distribution, Mapping and Change Detection In ST. Lucia wetland area, MSc.
Thesis, South Africa.
Abeje Eshete, Demel Teketay and Hulten, H., 20005: The Socio-Economic Importance
and Status of Populations of Boswellia papyrifera (Del.) Hoechst in Northern
Ethiopia: The Case of North Gonder Zone. Forests Trees and Livelihoods, Vol 15;
A B Academic Publisher, Great Britain.
Africa Encyclopedia Britannica, 2006: Encyclopædia Britannica Premium Service. 21
Jan. 2006 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article?tocId=37178> (Last accessed on
May, 2006).
Alemayehu Mengistu, 2005: Rangelands: Biodiversity Conservation and Management;
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 7. Annexes
Annex 1: All species encountered during the study at northern part of BMNP

T= Tree, S= Shrub, H= Herb, E= Epiphytes, C= Climbers, F= Ferns, L= Liana

Scientific Name Family Name Local name Life form

Acalypha villicaulis Hochst.exA.Rich. Euphorbiaceae Shishenka H
Acanthus sennii (Chlov.) Asteracae Korehare/Sokoru H
Achyranthes aspera (L.) Var. Sicula L. Amaranthaceae Dergu; Metene H
Agrostis sclerophylla C.E. Hubb Poaceae Merga letu H
Aira caryophyllea L. ----------- Hilo/Yetinchelsar H
Ajuga remota Benth. Labiateae Harmagusa H
Alchemilla abyssinica Fresen. Rosaceae Hidanhido H
Alchemilla ellenbeckii Engl. Rosaceae Hidanhido H
Alchiemilla fischeri Engl. Rosaceae Hindrifi H
Andropogon abyssinicus (Fresen.) R.Br. Poaceae Chokorsa H
Aristida tuniculata Trin. & Rupr Poacae Lancha H
Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd Asteraceae Tepene/Chigugn S
Artimesia abyssinica Sch. Bip.ex A. Rich. Asteraceae Migira H
Arundanaria alpine K. Schum Poaceae/Gramineae Lemen/Kerekeha H
Asparagus africanus Lam. Asparagaceae Seriti H
Barbarea intermedia Bor. Caryophyllaceae Balle H
Brassica integrifolia (Wesr.) Baprechr. Crucifereae Rafu H
Bromus pectinatus Thunb. Poaceae Arebmuresa H
Carduus camaecephalus (Vatke.) Oliv. & Hiern Asteraceae Korehare H
Carduus nyassanus (S.Moore) (R.E. Frles.) Asteraceae Korehare H
Carex conferta A.Rich. Poaceae Arebmuresa/Shesha H
Carix spp. Cyperaceae Delandu H
Centhrus setigerus Vahl. Poaceae Serdo H
Clematis hirsute Perr. & Guill Ranunculaceae Gallefiti L
Commelina Africana L. Commelinaceae Gurajersa H
Commelina foliacea Chiov Commelinaceae Harmala H
Conium maculatum L. Umbellifareae Bokonka/Kereshashinbo H
Conyza tiguensis Oliv. & Hierm Compositeae Merecha H
Cotula abyssinica Schi. Bip.ex.A.Rich Plantaginaceae Kinta H
Crepis carbonara (Sch.Bip.) Asteracae Yefiyel wotet H
Crotalaria agatiflora Schweinf. Fabaceae Shashemene H
Cupresses lustanica Mill Cupressaceae Hindesaferenji T
Cyathula polycephala Bak. Amaranthaceae Hacho H
Cybopogon citrates (DC.) Stapf Roaceae Korichaaleti H
Cynoglossum coeruleum Hochst. Boraginaceae Metene H
Cynoglossum geometricum Baker.Wright Boraginaceae Kercheba H
Cyprerus spp. Cyperaceae Delandu H
Dichrocephala chrysantemifolia (DC.) Asteracae Merecha H
Digitaria abyssinica (Hochst.ex A.Rich.) Stapf. Poaceae Mekala H
Dipsacus pinnatifidus Steud ex A.Rich. Dipsacaceae Teasel(ENG) H

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Discopodium eremanthum Chiov. Solanaceae Meraro S
Disperis antheceros Rchb. Orchidaceae Chefera/Ensosila H
Echinops hoehnelii Schweinf. Compositae Korehare H
Erica arborea L. Ericaceae Sato/Asta T
Ergarostis tacemosa (Thuamb.)Steud. Gramianceae Mergasimbre H
Erucastrum abyssinicum (A.Rich.) D.E. Schulz. Crucifereae Rafu H
Eucalyptus globules Labill Myrtaceae Nech barzaf T
Euphorbia dumalis (S. Carter) Euphorbiaceae Guri/Anterfa S
Ferula communis L. Umbellifarae Girisa H
Festuca abyssinica A. Rich. Poaceae Loya H
Galium aparinoides Forsk. Rubiaceae Metena H
Galium simense Fresen Rubiaceae Metena H
Geranium arabicum Forssk. Geramianceae Bucha H
Gladiolus psittacinus Hook. Iridaceae Hantaye H
Guizotia scabra (Vis.) Chiov. Composite Hada H
Habenaria bracteosa A.Rich. Orchidaceae Burijeldesa H
Habenaria peristyloides A. Rich. Orchidaceae Kerkasho H
Hagenia abyssinica(Bruce) J.F. Gmel Rosaceae Heto/Koso T
Haplocarpha rueppellii (Sch.Bip) Beanuv. Crucifereae Badubera H
Helichrysum citrispinum Del. Asteraceae Tuka/Everlasting flower S
Helichrysem cymosum Compositeae Ketena H
Helichrysum foreidum (L) Cass. Compositeae Hirisha H
Helichrysum formosissinm (Sch.Bip.) A.Rich. Compositeae Hirisha H
Helichrysum gofense cuffod. Asteraceae Hirisha H
Hetropogon contrortus (L.) Roem. & Schult. Santalaceae Keru H
Hordeum vulgare Poacae Gerbu/Gebs H
Hyparthelia dissolute (Steud.) W.D Clayton. Poaceae Loya H
Hypericum revoltum Vahl Hypericaceae Gerenba/Ameja T
Juncus effuses L. Juncaceae Ketema H
Juniperous procera L. Cupressaceae Hindesa/Yeabeshastid T
Kalanchoe Petitiana A. Rich Crassulaceae Hanchura H
Kniphopia foliosa Hochst. Labiateae Lee`laa/Shinshile H
Koeleria capensis (Steud) Nees. Gramianceae Michicha H
Linum usitatissimum L. Linaceae Telba H
Malva verticillata L. Malvaceae Lita H
Maytenus obscura (A. Rich) Cuf. Celastraceae Kombolcha/Atat S
Mikaniopsis clenetoides (A Rich)M.R Compositeae Galle C
Myrsine melanophoeos (L.)R.Br. Myrsinaceae Tula/Setakuri T
Mystioxylon aethiopicum (Thunb.) Loes Celastraceae Ansha T
Nepera bilopa Benth. Labiatae Toshinbate H
Oldenlandia herbacea (L.) Roxb Rubiaceae Homachesa H
Oxalis anthelmintica A. Rich. Oxalidaceae Sokido H
Oxalis obliguifolia A.Rich. Oxalidaceae Sokido H
Pennistum humile Hochst. ex. A. Rich Poaceae ------------ H
Peucedanum Cf abyssinicum Vatke. Umbelifareae Bosoka H
Phalaris arundinaceae L. Gramianceae Michicha H
Plantago Africana Verdc. Plantaginaceae Kinta H
Plectocephalus varians ((A.Rich) Jeffrey) Asteracae Shurbe H

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Plectocephalus varians (A.Rich.) C.Jeff. ex Cuf. Asteraceae Kumbure/Etseyohanse H
Pleopeltis macrocarpa (Berg.ex.Willd) Polypodiaceae Hasufe E
Polygonum nepalens Polygonaceae Hanchuro H
Polystichum setiferum (Forssk.) Aspidiaceae Seritigurda F
Rosa abyssinica Lindley Rosaceae Gora/Kega S
Rubus steudneri Schweinf. Rosaceae Gorahato/Enjory S
Rubus volkansii Engl. Rosaceae Gorahato/Enjory S
Rumex abyssinicus Jacq. Polygonaceae Shabe /Tult H
Rumex nepalensis (Spreng.) Polygonaceae Shabe /Tult H
Salvia merjamie Forssk. Lamiaceae Okotu H
Salvia nilotica Jacq. Lamiaceae Okotu H
Satureia biflona Labiateae Toshiniti H
Satureia paradoxical (Varke.) Engl.) Labiateae Dukusha H
Senecio fresenii ex. Olive & Hiern Sch.Bip. Asteraceae Undifferentiated H
Senecio myriocephalus Sch. Bip. ex A. Rich. Asteraceae Agadena H
Senecio rhyammatophllus Mattf. Asteraceae ---------- H
Senecio steudelii Compositeae Hirisha H
Solanum marginatum L.f. Solanaceae Hidi/Emboay H
Solanum piperiferum Solanaceae Hidi Orome S
Solanum tuberosum Solanaceae Dinich H
Stephania abyssinica (Dillon & A. Rich.) Menispermaceae Kelala H
Thymus schimperi (Ronniger) Lamiaceae Tosign H
Thymus serulatus Hochst ex. Benth. Labiateae Toshiniti H
Trifolium burchellianum Var.Johnstonii (Oliv.)
Cuf.ex. Gillet) Papilionaceae Sidisa H
Trifolium multinesue A.Rich Papilionaceae Sidisa H
Trifolium simense Fres. Papilionaceae Chemere H
Trifolium tenbense Freser. Papilionaceae Sidisa H
Uebelinia abyssinica Hochst. Crucifereae Balle H
Umbilicus botryoides A. Rich Crassulaceae Hanchura H
Urtica simensis Hochst. Ex. Steud. Urticaceae Dobi/Sama H
Usnea Africana Motyka Lichen Ye` Abuyetsim E
Verbascum sinaiticum Benth. Scrophulariaceae Harbokona H
Verónica abyssinica Fres. Scrophulariaceae Undeferentiated H
Viola abyssinica Steud. Ex. Oliv. Violaeceae Hanchuro H
Xiphopteris flabelliformis (Poir.) Schelpe. Grammitidaceae Seritigurda F
Zehneria scabra (Linn.f.) Sond. Cucurbitaceae Harola/Haregresa C

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Annex 2: Summarized important value index and diversity index of trees and shrubs in forest, grazing and cultivated LCLU types of BMNP

I: Important value index

Forestland
Scientific Name N/1.5Ha D/Ha AV.AB/plot OC/30 AA RA AF RF AD RD IVI IVI%
Haypericum revoltum 288 192 19.20 18 0.211 21.09 60 17.48 0.002685 5.ecies03 43.59 14.53
Juniperous procera 154 103 10.27 15 0.113 11.28 50 14.56 0.016806 31.45 57.29 19.10
Hagenea abysinica 48 32 3.20 14 0.035 3.52 47 13.59 0.020715 38.77 55.87 18.62
Myrsine melanopheoes 260 173 17.33 12 0.190 19.04 40 11.65 0.005839 10.93 41.62 13.87
Mystioxylona ethiopicum 1 1 0.07 1 0.001 0.07 3 0.97 0.006335 11.86 12.90 4.30
Cupresus lustanica 2 1 0.13 1 0.001 0.11 3 0.97 0.000131 0.25 1.33 0.44
Maytenus obscura 19 13 1.27 5 0.014 1.39 17 4.85 0.000055 0.10 6.35 2.12
Erica arborea 186 124 12.40 4 0.136 13.62 13 3.88 0.000237 0.44 17.95 5.98
Rosa abysinica 32 21 2.13 7 0.024 2.35 24 5.79 0.000038 0.07 7.21 3.07
Rubus volkansii Engl. 2 1 0.13 2 0.001 0.15 7 1.94 0.00000037 0.00 2.09 0.70
Rubus steudneri Schwein 5 3 0.33 2 0.004 0.37 7 1.94 0.000001 0.00 2.31 0.77
Discopodiumeremanthum 166 111 11.07 6 0.122 12.16 20 5.83 0.000568 1.06 19.04 6.35
Solanum marginatum 27 18 1.80 8 0.020 1.98 27 7.77 0.000005 0.01 9.75 3.25
Euphorbia dumalis 176 117 11.73 8 0.129 12.89 27 7.77 0.000018 0.03 20.69 6.90
Total 1366 911 91.07 103 1.000 100 343 100 0.053435 100 300 100

Grazing land
Scientific Name N/1.5Ha D/Ha AV.AB/plot OC/30 AA RA AF RF AD RD IVI IVI%
Juniperos procera 32 21 5 7 0.2689 26.89 23 35 0.006629 66.77 128.66 42.89
Hagenea abysinica 3 2 0 2 0.0252 2.52 7 10 0.001569 15.80 28.32 9.44
Haypericum revoltum 8 5 1 2 0.0672 6.72 7 10 0.000723 7.28 24.01 8.00
Eucalyptus globulus 50 33 7 2 0.4202 42.02 7 10 0.000350 3.53 55.54 18.51
Discopodiumeremanthum 19 13 3 4 0.1597 15.97 13 20 0.000608 6.12 42.09 14.03
Euphorbia dumalis 4 3 1 2 0.0336 3.36 7 10 0.000001 0.01 13.37 4.46
Solanum marginatum 3 2 0 1 0.0252 2.52 3 5 0.000048 0.48 8.00 2.67
Total 119 79 17 20 1 100 67 100 0.009928 100 300 100

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 Agricultural land
Scientific Name N/1.5Ha D/Ha AV.AB/plot OC/30 AA RA AF RF AD RD IVI IVI%
Juniperos procera 51 34 7 6 0.20816 20.82 20.00 27.27 0.00074847 11.91 60.00 20.00
Hagenea abysinica 6 4 1 2 0.02449 2.45 6.67 9.09 0.00501923 79.86 91.40 30.47
Eucalyptus globulus 35 23 5 1 0.14286 14.29 3.33 4.55 0.00024022 3.82 22.65 7.55
Haypericum revoltum 20 13 3 4 0.08163 8.16 13.33 18.18 0.00011061 1.76 28.11 9.37
Discopodiueremanthum 37 25 5 5 0.15102 15.10 16.67 22.73 0.00011334 1.80 39.63 13.21
Euphorbia dumalis 94 63 13 3 0.38367 38.37 10.00 13.64 0.00003808 0.61 52.61 17.54
Solanum marginatum 2 1 0 1 0.00816 0.82 3.33 4.55 0.00001479 0.24 5.60 1.87
Total 245 163 35 22 1 100 73.33 100 0.00628474 100 300.00 100

II: Species diversity index

Forestland
Scientific Name pi lnpi H` Lan S Evenness Richness
(pi*lnpi) (lnpi/pi*lnpi)
Haypericum revoltum 0.21161 -1.553 0.329 2.708 0.76170977 14
Juniperous procera 0.11315 -2.179 0.247
Hagenea abysinica 0.03527 -3.345 0.118
Myrsine melanopheoes 0.19104 -1.655 0.316
Mystioxylon aethiopicum 0.00073 -7.216 0.005
Cupressess lustanica 0.00147 -6.523 0.01
Maytenus obscura 0.01396 -4.272 0.06
Erica arborea 0.13666 -1.99 0.272
Rosa abysinica 0.01984 -3.92 0.078
Rubus volkansii 0.00147 -6.523 0.01
Rubus steudneri 0.00367 -5.607 0.021
Discopodium eremanthum 0.12197 -2.104 0.257
Solanum marginatum 0.01984 -3.92 0.078
Euphorbia dumalis 0.12932 -2.045 0.265
Total 1 -52.85 2.066

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 Grazing land
Scientific Name pi lnpi H` Lan S Evenness Richness
(pi*lnpi) (lnpi/pi*lnpi)
Juniperous procera 0.26891 -1.313 0.353 1.946 -0.7665043 7
Hagenea abysinica 0.02521 -3.681 0.093
Haypericum revoltum 0.06723 -2.7 0.181
Eucalyptus globulus 0.42017 -0.867 0.364
Discopodium eremanthum 0.15966 -1.835 0.293
Euphorbia dumalis 0.03361 -3.393 0.114
Solanum marginatum 0.02521 -3.681 0.093
Total 1 -17.47 1.492

Agricultural land
Scientific Name pi lnpi H` Lan S Evenness Richness
(pi*lnpi) (lnpi/pi*lnpi)
Juniperous procera 0.20816 -1.569 0.327 1.946 0.81829984 7
Hagenea abysinica 0.02449 -3.709 0.091
Eucalyptus globulus 0.14286 -1.946 0.278
Haypericum revoltum 0.08163 -2.506 0.205
Discopodium eremanthum 0.15102 -1.89 0.285
Euphorbia dumalis 0.38367 -0.958 0.368
Solanum marginatum 0.00816 -4.808 0.039
Total 1 -17.39 1.592

Where: N/1.5Ha = Number of individuals in total plots of each land use type; D/Ha = Number of individuals per hectare ; AV.AB/plot = Average
Abundance of a species per plot; OC/30 = Occurrence or frequency of a species in total 30 plots of each land use type; AA = Absolute Abundance
of a species; RA = Relative Abundance of a species; AF = Absolute Frequency of a species; RF = Relative frequency of a species; AD = Absolute
Dominance of a species based on basal area; RD = Relative Dominance of a species based on total basal area of species; IVI = Important Value
Index; IVI % = Important Value Index in percent. Pi = total biomass; ln = natural logarithm; H` or pi*lnpi = Shannon species Diversity

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Annex 3: Species composition, frequency%, ground cover%, and rank by cover% of herbs, climbers,
ferns and lianas in forest land

Domin
Sc.Name coverscale Cover% frequency% Rank by cover%
Andropogon abyssinicus 9 81.30 53.3 1
Aristida tuniculata 8 63.00 36.7 2
Geranium arabicum 7 42.00 36.7 3
Centhrus setigerus 7 42.00 10.0 4
Juncus effuses 7 42.00 6.7 5
Digitaria abyssinica 5 17.50 6.7 6
Cyprerus spp. 4 7.50 76.7 7
Herichrysem cymosum 4 7.50 36.7 8
Agrostis sclerophylla 3 2.50 86.7 9
Uebelinia abyssinica 3 2.50 30.0 10
Pleopeltis macrocarpa 3 2.50 30.0 10
Zehneria scabra 3 2.50 10.0 11
Alchemilla abyssinica 2 1.00 63.3 12
Thymus schimperi 2 1.00 50.0 13
Polygonum nepalens 2 1.00 43.3 14
Carduus camaecephalus 2 1.00 26.7 15
Erucastrum abyssinicum 2 1.00 23.3 16
Herichrysum formosissinm 2 1.00 16.7 17
Cynoglossum geometricum 2 1.00 10.0 18
Pennisetum Humile 2 1.00 10.0 18
Asparagus africanus 2 1.00 10.0 18
Hetropogon contrortus + 0.00 83.3 19
Trifolium tenbense + 0.00 76.7 20
Salvia nilotica 1 0.00 56.7 21
Rumex abyssinicus 1 0.00 43.3 22
Nepera bilopa 1 0.00 36.7 23
Galium simense Fresen + 0.00 30.0 24
Echinops hoehnelii + 0.00 20.0 25
Carduus nyassus 1 0.00 16.7 26
Mikaniopsis clenetoides + 0.00 16.7 27
Salvia merjamie + 0.00 13.3 28
Herichrysum foreidum + 0.00 13.3 29
Polystichum setiferum + 0.00 10.0 30
Conyza tiguensis + 0.00 10.0 30
Galium aparinoides + 0.00 10.0 30
Rumex nepalensis + 0.00 10.0 30
Verónica abyssinica 1 0.00 10.0 30
Senecio steudelii 1 0.00 6.7 31
Herichrysum gofense + 0.00 6.7 31
Acalypha villicaulis + 0.00 6.7 31
 Arundanaria alpine + 0.00 6.7 31
Undifferentiated species + 0.00 5.5 32
Gladiolus psittacinus 1 0.00 3.3 33
Crepis carbonara 1 0.00 3.3 33
Habenaria bracteosa + 0.00 3.3 33
Habenaria peristyloides + 0.00 3.3 33

Annex 4: Species composition, frequency%, ground cover%, and rank by cover% of herbs in grazing
land

Domin Rank by
Scientific Name cover scale Cover% frequency% cover %
Agrostis sclerophylla 8 63.00 63.3 1
Andropogon abyssinicus 5 17.50 70.0 2
Hetropogon contrortus 5 17.50 50.0 3
Hordeum vulgare 5 17.50 30.0 4
Digitaria abyssinica 5 17.50 6.7 5
Linum usitatissimum 4 7.50 36.7 6
Cyprerus spp. 4 7.50 76.7 7
Uebelinia abyssinica 3 2.50 30.0 8
Aira caryophyllea 3 2.50 16.7 9
Alchemilla abyssinica 2 1.00 63.3 10
Thymus schimperi 2 1.00 50.0 11
Carduus camaecephalus 2 1.00 26.7 12
Erucastrum abyssinicum 2 1.00 23.3 13
Kniphofia foluosa 2 1.00 20.0 14
Cynoglossum geometricum 2 1.00 10.0 15
Pennisetum Humile 2 1.00 10.0 16
Urtica simensis 1 1.00 16.7 17
Salvia nilotica 1 0.00 56.7 18
Nepera bilopa 1 0.00 36.7 19
Oxalis anthelmintica 1 0.00 36.7 19
Cotula abyssinica 1 0.00 33.3 20
Trifolium tenbense + 0.00 76.7 21
Haplocarpha rueppellii + 0.00 63.3 22
Anthospernum herbaceum + 0.00 26.7 23
Viola abyssinica + 0.00 20.0 24
Rumex nepalensis + 0.00 16.7 25
Solanum marginatum + 0.00 10.0 26
Verbascum sinaiticum + 0.00 3.3 27
Conium maculatum + 0.00 3.3 27
Crotalaria agatiflora + 0.00 3.3 27
Lobilia rhynchopetalum + 0.00 3.3 27
Undifferentiated species + 0.00 2.5 28

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Annex 5: Species composition, frequency%, ground cover%, and rank by cover% of herbs in
agricultural lands

Domin cover Rank by

Scientific Name scale Cover % frequency% cover %
Andropogon abysinica 8 63.00 90.00 1
Linum usitatissimum 6 29.50 50.00 2
Hordeum vulgare 6 29.50 40.00 3
Verbascum sinaiticum 6 29.50 6.67 4
Solanum tuberosum 6 29.50 6.67 4
Agrostis sclerophylla 4 17.50 83.33 5
Satureia paradoxical 4 7.50 13.33 6
Senecio farinose 4 7.50 13.33 7
Aira caryophyllea 5 7.50 10.00 9
Pleopeltis macrocarpa 4 7.50 10.00 10
Hydocotyle manni Hook 4 7.50 6.67 11
Archemilla ellenbeckii 5 7.50 3.33 8
Alchemilla abysinica 3 2.50 50.00 12
Urtica simensis 3 2.50 16.67 13
Viola abysinica 3 2.50 13.33 14
Cynoglossum coeruleum 3 2.50 10.00 15
Malva verticillata 3 2.50 10.00 16
Guizotia scabra 3 2.50 10.00 17
Nepera bilopa 3 2.50 6.67 18
Mikaniopsis clenetoides 3 2.50 6.67 18
Trifolium tenbense 2 1.00 70.00 19
Haplocarpha rueppellii 2 1.00 56.67 20
Cyprerus spp. 2 1.00 53.33 21
Verónica abysinica 2 1.00 36.67 23
Carduus camaecephalus 2 1.00 23.33 22
Ferula communis 2 1.00 23.33 22
Oxalis anthelmintica 2 1.00 20.00 24
Geranium arabicum 2 1.00 16.67 25
Commelina foliacea 2 1.00 10.00 28
Festuca abysinica 2 1.00 6.67 26
Cybopogon citrates 2 1.00 3.33 27
Umdilicus botryoides 2 1.00 3.33 27
Salvia merjamie 1 1.00 16.67 28
Salvia nilotica 1 0.00 53.33 29
Kniphofia foluosa 1 0.00 63.33 30
Rumex abyssinicus 1 0.00 43.33 31
Cynoglossum geometricum + 0.00 30.00 32
Rumex nepalensis + 0.00 23.33 33
Conyza tiguensis 1 0.00 13.33 34
Erucastrum abyssinicum 1 0.00 10.00 35

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 Uebelinia abysinica 1 0.00 10.00 36
Cotula abysinica 1 0.00 6.67 37
Hyparthelia dissolute 1 0.00 6.67 38
Carix spp. + 0.00 6.67 39
Senecio rhyammatophllus + 0.00 6.67 39
Herichrysum formosissinm + 0.00 6.67 39
Conium maculatum + 0.00 6.67 39
Carduus nyassus + 0.00 6.67 39
Undifferentiated species + 0.00 3.33 40

Annex 6: Views of landscapes of the three mojar LCLU systems of northern part of Bale Mountains
National Park used for transect allocation of vegetation and soil sample collection (transects were
laid in South-North or North –South direction based on their aspect/orientation).

1 2 3

4 5 6

7 8 9

NB: Apart from the lower flat parts of plot 7, 8 & 9 which are purely grass lands, all of the plots
were formerly covered by forest trees and shrubs like plots 1, 3 & 8. These landscapes are
discernible how natural resources are declining in the area of BMNP.

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Annex 7: Survey questionnaire (2006)

1. Date of interview------------------Name of enumerator------------------

2. Questionnaire Serial No-----------------Region-----------Zone-----------
3. Woreda----------------PA-------------- Name of village -------------Agro ecological
zone--------------
CLOSED QUESTIONS
I. General information on house holds
4. Name of respondent/household -------Age-------Sex (M) (F)
Marital status 1.Married 2.Divorced 3. Widow
Size of household (No. of persons) 1. Male-------- 2. Female----------
5. What are the main sources of your income for your household?
1. Agricultural crops 2.Livestock 3. Livestock products
4. Wage labor 5.Handcrafts 6. If others (specify)
6. Types and size of your domestic animals
1. ----------- 2. ----------3. ---------- 4. ----------5. ------- 6. ---------- 7. ------
7. Is the number of animals you own changing?
1. Yes, increasing 2.Yes, decreasing 3.No change at all
8. What are the major crop production problems in your area?
1. Inadequate use of chemical fertilizers because of high cost of the input
2. Inadequate use of chemical fertilizers because of supply shortage
3. Lack of improved seeds 4.Lack of credit 5.Lack of work oxen
6. Inadequate and poor distribution of rains 7. Poor crop management
8. Inadequate supply of labor at peak season 9. Lack of pesticides
10. If others (specify)
9. What are the major problems of livestock production?
1. Shortage of vet drugs 2. High cost of vet drugs 3. Shortage of fodders
4. Low productivity 5. If others (specify)
10. Is the income you annually earn enough for your family subsistence?
1. Yes 2. No
11. If your answer to the above question is no, then how do you complement your
living? 1. by wage labor 2. By off farm job 3. By selling wood/fuel wood

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 4. Livestock sale 5. If others (specify)
II. Energy sources
12. Which are the main sources of your fuel/energy?
1. Wood 2.crop residues 3.Dung 4.kerosene 5.Charcoal 6.others (specify)
13. If your answer to question ( ) above includes wood, how do you get it?
1. Buying 2. Self collected
14. If you collect it yourself, where do you get it? (Specify)
1. Homestead 2. Community wood 3. Natural forestland 4.Farm land
5. Others (specify)
15. How much time does it take you to fetch wood?
1) 30 minutes 2) 1hour 3) 2 hours 4) 3hours 5) 6hours 6)12hours
16. Is the time need for fetching wood increasing or decreasing?
1. Increasing 2. Decreasing
17. Who take the responsibility to collect fuelwood? 1. Men 2.women 3.children
18. Which tree species do you like most to use as a fuel wood? (List them in order of
priority, use local names) 1. -----------2. --------------3. -------------4. -------
19. Which tree part do you like most to use as a fuel wood? (List them in order of
priority, use local names use numbers like 1,2,3 etc) 1. Branches 2.Leaves
3. Bark 4. Stem 5.Twigs 6.Roots
20. Why do you prefer the one(s) you listed? (Give reasons) 1. ---2. -----3. -------
21. Which seasons of the year do you use the wood most?
1. Dry 2. Wet
22. Why do you use in that specific season?
23. Do you use charcoal at all? 1. Yes 2. No
24. For what purpose do you use it? 1. Cooking 2. Heating 3.Selling 4. Others
(specify)
25. From where do you have it? 1. Purchasing it 2. Preparing it locally
26. Which tree species are most preferred for charcoal making? (List at least 5 in their
priority) 1. ----------- 2. ---------- 3. ---------- 4. ---------- 5. -------------

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III. Awareness creation to wards the Park
27. Do you know the presence of Bale Mountains National Park? 1. Yes 2. No
28. What types of wild animals do you know?
1. ---- 2. ------ 3. ---- 4. ----- 5. ----- 6. ----- 7. ----- 8. ------ 9. ----- 10. ------
29. How is the number & type of wild animals in the area changed over time?
1. Increasing 2. Decreasing 3. No change
30. If your answer to the above question is decreasing, what are the causes for the
decline? 1. Habitat decline, 2. Illegal hunting, 3. human and animal
interference, 4. others (specify)
31. Do the wild animals create any problem to you & your properties?
1. Some 2.All 3.Few 4.Many 5.None
32. If your answer for the question above is 1,2,3,or 4, what type of damage they
create and how do you protect them?
1. ---------- 2. --------------- 3. --------------
33. Do you think that wild animals are benefiting you? 1.Yes 2.No
34. If your answer for question above is no, for whom they are benefiting?
1. For government 2. For Woreda 3.They have no use 4. They use others
(specify)
35. Have you got any benefit from the park? 1.Yes 2. No
36. If your answer for the question above is yes, what type of benefit did you got?
(Specify)----------- -------------- -----------
37. What is the overall feeling of the community up on the national park?
1. Most are happy 2. Few are happy 3. Most are unhappy
4. Few want to use the area for their own
5. Few uses illegally out of the community interest
IV. Vegetation cover and status change of the Park
38. Is there a change on the forest cover of the area?
1. Yes 2.No
39. If your answer to the above is yes, why is the forest cover changed since you have
been here? Reasons in order of magnitude:
40. Which species are most affected by the above factors?

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41. Can you tell which species (Plant or animal) disappeared as far as you have been
here and why? 1. ------- 2. ----- 3. ----- 4. ------
V. Animal and crop husbandry related
42. How do you describe your access to grazing land?
1. Enough grazing land, 2.some how, 3. Shortage
43. If shortage is your answer, what is the cause?
44. Do you think that the park is also a contributor to the shortage of grazing land?
1. Yes 2. No
45. Do you face agricultural land shortage due to the establishment of the park?
1. Yes 2. No
46. If yes to the above question, how do you manage then?
1. Reduce livestock and farm size 2.Focus on other feed sources
3. Travel further distance for grazing and farming
4. Uses cutting and carrying system
5. Expanding farming system to uncultivated areas.
47. What kind of land title do you hold?
1. Use right 2. Exchange 3.selling right 4. Inherit 5.Other (specify)
48. Are you satisfied with the conditions of your land title? 1.Yes 2.No
49. Have you ever seen fire damage on the vegetations (forest land, grass land) of
Bale Mountain National Park? 1. Yes 2. No
50. If yes, for the above question, how was the frequency and its magnitude on the
specified vegetation type? 1. Every year 2. Every two years 3. Every three
years 4.Every five years 5.Every ten years

OPEN ENDED QUESTIONS

1. Do you think it is worthwhile to put effort in conservation like in the form of
national parks?
2. Do you think that tourism has any benefit to you? How?
3. What type of difference do you observe on the environments of the park and the
surrounding environments?
4. What do you think as a measure/s for increasing the benefits from the park?

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5. What are the problems that wild animals & their habitats facing in the park?
6. How long have you been living in this (current) settlement (place)?
7. How do you describe the changes in the habitat of the wildlife since you have lived
here?
8. How do you see the relation between local people and park management?
9. If your answer is ‘bad’, do you know any practical reason (s) why the local and the
park management do not have good relation?
10. Did you have taken any training or seminar concerning Bale Mountains National
Park and its general objectives? State when? How many times?
11. How do you see the relationships between livestock and the natural resources in
the park?
12. Which species (plant and animal) is increasing from time to time? Why do you
think?
13. Do you observe new species (plant and animal) in your surrounding?
14. Which plant species is/ are endangered in your area you think?
15. What do you think that will be done in the future concerning natural resources of
the park and the surrounding areas?

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