FINAL TEST

Subject : Sociolinguistics

Lecturer : Dr. H. Pauzan, M. Hum. M. Pd.

Arranged By:

Baiq Arita Damayanti

Nim : 190107028

Class : TBI VA

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION PROGRAM

FACULTY OF EDUCATION AND TEACHER TRAINING

STATE ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY OF MATARAM

2020/2021

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 1. Language and Culture
Language is a specific thing to human beings and an ability to speak a language is culturally
transmitted by the older generation of human beings. This is different from animals' ability to use
their means of communication, which is genetically transmitted by their older generation. The
most essential feature to differentiate human language from the means or modes of animal
communication is in the productivity and creativity of language. Human cultures are classified
into three parts. These are Perspectives, Practices, and Products. Perspectives refer to the beliefs,
ideas, meanings, values, and attitudes of a society's cultural practices and products. There are two
types of cultural products:. (1) tangible cultural products covering: literature, painting, cathedral,
and chopsticks; whereas (2) intangible cultural products include: dance, oral tale, sacred
ceremony, educational system, and law. Deep culture refers to humans' behavioral patterns or
living styles. It covers eating time and food, attitudes and behaviors towards friends, colleagues,
and family members, ways to communicate. Similar to products in the model of 3P, the formal
cultural components are easily observed through cultures. Components/elements of deep culture
are frequently hard to identify, because they tend to be value-based and deeply rooted in the
psyches of individuals who make up a specific culture. Relationship between language and
culture, language and culture are two sides of the same coin. Language is used by its users to
convey and -at the same time- accommodate all the aspects of culture. Culture includes rules,
norms, thoughts, attitudes, manners, etc. based on which people communicate and interact. One
of these relationships is that social structure may both influence and determine linguistic
structure (aspect of language).

2. Bilingualism and Diglossia

Bilingualism is the ability to use two languages. To be bilingual means different things
to different people. A young child entering school may be called bilingual but it may be that she
uses her first or home language for domestic and familial purposes. Or she may be largely
monolingual in her first language only when she starts school. If we look at the logical
relationship between bilingualism and bilinguality, it will be understood that not all who have
"bilingulity" will practice "bilingualism" in their daily lives. However, we can also understand
that this depends on the linguistic situation in their environment.
There are some kinds of bilingualism as follows:
 Early bilingualism - there are two types: simultaneous early bilingualism and
consecutive (or successive) early bilingualism.
 Late bilingualism
 Additive bilingualism and subtractive bilingualism
 Passive bilingualism
Diglossia
Diglossia is a situation in which two dialects or languages are used by a community.
Examples include Katharevousa versus spoken Demotic Greek and Garifuna versus spoken
English. Some scholars cite that diglossia appeared when Muslim cities emerged during the early
period of Islam.
Relationship between Bilingualism and Diglossia
DIGLOSSIA BILINGUALISM + _

1. Both diglossia 2. Bilingualism

and without
bilingualism diglossia

3. Diglossia 4. Neither
without diglossia
bilingualism nor bilingualism

3. Language Varieties:
Language varies from one social group to another social group, from one situation to
another situation. Variation shows that every speaker does not speak the same way all the time.
Some examples of language varieties are lingua francas, pidgins, creoles, jargon, slang and taboo
language.
a. Descriptive linguistic axioms
There is a difference between synchronic and diachronic linguistics. Saussure
(1988) says that langue is the whole passively acquired habit (word) that is taught in the
language community. Parole is the actual use of language.
b. Types of Language Varieties
 Standard / Polite / Formal
We use the terms standard, polite and formal to refer to language that sticks to the
rules and is essentially presented as the ‘proper’ form of English. Standard
English is what is generally taught where possible, but alternative forms may be
taught in communities with developed variations.
 Colloquial / Informal
Colloquial language is effectively anything that is not formal, often described as
‘spoken’ language. It is informal as the aim is to communicate rather than stick
rigidly to rules, so it is where we see contractions and idiomatic language being
used.
 Regional Dialect
Regional dialects are varieties of language that emerge based on regionally
specific use. There are many examples within the UK alone, from the broad
 differences between the English spoken in the North and South to the more
specific, localised dialects, such as those spoken in certain cities, some of which
have their own names (with Scouse from Liverpool, Geordie in Newcastle and
Brummie in Birmingham to name just a few).
 Social Dialect
Social dialects emerge like dialects, but within a specific class or culture, instead
of a region (though they can be further developed to fit certain regions). This may
also be referred to as a minority dialect, highlighting the variation is not the
predominant use. A major example of this is African American Vernacular
English.
 Lingua Franca
A lingua franca is a common language used between people who speak different
languages. As the full purpose is bridging gaps in communication, this can be
very adaptable and therefore will not necessarily stick to traditional language
rules. English is used as a lingua franca all over the world, more commonly in fact
than it is used by native speakers, and in some cases may even be taught in a
specific form to fit these needs, rather than as standard English. You can read
more about this on Wikipedia here.
 Pidgin
A pidgin is a simplified version of a lingua franca, where people trying to
communicate across different languages develop their own form of
communication. Pidgins can therefore develop their own vocabulary and rules
that can be very independent of the original source languages.
 Creole
A creole is an established form of pidgin, where a language developed from
communicating over two or more languages is taken up by a culture as a native
language. Examples of English-developed creoles include Gullah in South
Carolina and Georgia and Nigerian Creole. Another interesting example is
Louisiana Creole, which derives from French but is used by Americans so may be
interspersed with English.
 Vernacular
Vernacular is the term used to describe language as it is used naturally by a
specific people. What it describes can therefore vary depending on what we wish
to specify: we could speak about the vernacular of a country or a smaller
community within a city, or of a certain time and place (for example, we have a
modern vernacular which would include vocabulary that would not be part of the
vernacular of, for example, fifty years ago).
 Patois
 Patois is a term used to refer to minority, non-standard use of a language, so this
could cover all dialects, creoles and pidgins, but this carries somewhat negative
connotations as it implies an inferiority.
 Lingo
Lingo is a term used to refer to any wording or phrasing that is specific to a
certain group, including jargon or slang (see below). Lingo is roughly
synonymous with argot and cant, both also referring to the language of specific
groups.
 Jargon
Jargon is the words and phrases that emerge to cover ideas with in a specific
community, often when specialist terminology is required (for example technical
terms in a profession or sport). In some cases this is necessary, where specialist
activities require new terminology, but jargon can also be seen as negative, where
it is used to separate others from a conversation or to create a superior appearance
(as is commonly associated with business jargon)
 Slang
Similar to jargon, slang is the language that emerges within a subgroup to
describe new ideas, or to assign new words to existing ideas to develop a sense of
identity. As with jargon, this can be exclusionary, though while jargon typically
refers to specialisms, slang is more typically associated with social groups, for
example the language of a younger generation. Extreme forms of slang may be
used specifically to disguise conversation, such as rhyming slang.
c. Sources of language variations
 Chronological variation. Variations in language caused by the time sequence factor.
 Geographical Variations. Language variations caused by geographical factors.
 Social Variations. Variations in language caused by sociological factors.
 Functional Variations.
 Style Variations.
 Cultural Variations.
 Individual Variations.
d. Kinds of Language Varieties
 Pidgin.
 Creole.
 Regional dialect.
 Minority dialect.
 Indigenized varieties.
e. Levels of Language Varieties
 Phonetics, Phonology This is the level of sounds. One must distinguish here between
the set of possible human sounds, which constitutes the area of phonetics proper, and
 the set of system sounds used in a given human language, which constitutes the area
of phonology. Phonology is concerned with classifying the sounds of language and
with saying how the subset used in a particular language is utilised, for instance what
distinctions in meaning can be made on the basis of what sounds.
 Morphology This is the level of words and endings, to put it in simplified terms. It is
what one normally understands by grammar (along with syntax). The term
morphology refers to the analysis of minimal forms in language which are, however,
themselves comprised of sounds and which are used to construct words which have
either a grammatical or a lexical function. Lexicology is concerned with the study of
the lexicon from a formal point of view and is thus closely linked to (derivational)
morphology.
 Syntax This is the level of sentences. It is concerned with the meanings of words in
combination with each other to form phrases or sentences. In particular, it involves
differences in meaning arrived at by changes in word order, the addition or subtraction
of words from sentences or changes in the form of sentences. It furthermore deals with
the relatedness of different sentence types and with the analysis of ambiguous
sentences.
 Language typology attempts to classify languages according to high-order principles
of morphology and syntax and to make sets of generalisations across different
languages irrespective of their genetic affiliations, i.e. of what language family they
belong to.
 Semantics This is the area of meaning. It might be thought that semantics is covered
by the areas of morphology and syntax, but it is quickly seen that this level needs to be
studied on its own to have a proper perspective on meaning in language. Here one
touches, however, on practically every other level of language as well as there exists
lexical, grammatical, sentence and utterance meaning.
 Pragmatics The concern here is with the use of language in specific situations. The
meaning of sentences need not be the same in an abstract form and in practical use. In
the latter case one speaks of utterance meaning. The area of pragmatics relies strongly
for its analyses on the notion of speech act which is concerned with the actual
performance of language. This involves the notion of proposition – roughly the
content of a sentence – and the intent and effect of an utterance.
f. Models of Language Varieties
Based on the speaker's point of view, the variety of languages is divided into four,
namely: Dialect Variety, Learned Variety, and Official Variety. and Unofficial Variety.

4. Language Plan
In sociolinguistics, language planning is a deliberate effort to influence the
function, structure or acquisition of languages. It involves the establishment of language
regulators to design or develop new structures to meet contemporary needs. Language
planning is often associated with government planning, but is also used by non-
governmental organizations.
Ferguson (in Muslich and Oka, 2010:1) argues that there are three basic reasons behind
language planning. The following describes the three reasons.
 Language is dynamic so that it causes the language to live, change, and develop. The
language is active and continues to develop along with the development of the life of
the people who use the language.
 Many language users who more or less already have knowledge of linguistics. They
themselves can judge and determine whether or not the use of a language is correct.
They can also distinguish a standard language, dialect, creole, slang, and other
language variations. In principle, language users(speakers, writers, listeners, and
readers) can judge a language as true or false based on the knowledge of linguistics
they know.
 Colonizers can also cause the use of language in certain communities to change.
Changes of this kind are widely applicable in Asia, Africa, and Latin America. The
colonizer imposes the use of his language on the population or country he colonizes.
Many countries in French colonized Africa use French as the official language, even
though the country has become independent.
A. Target of Language Plan
Based on various studies, it can be seen that the objectives of language planning
(which are carried out after determining the status of the national language and the
official state language), are:
 Development and development of the planned language (as the national language, the
official state language, and so on).
 The audience in a society that is expected to accept and use the suggestions proposed
and established.
B. Aspects of Language Plan
According to Ferguson's (1968) observations in terms of language planning, the
aspects that will be implemented as planning objectives are (1) standardization
(standardization), (2) modernization (intellectualization), and (3) graphicization (writing
and spelling).
Ferguson (1966) and Steward (1968) stated that the characteristics of language that make
it easier for ordinary people to accept language planning are as follows.
 Language is the native language (indigenous people) or mother tongue of that
country.
 The language was once a lingua franca within that country and between neighboring
countries.
 Language has the potential (creative and flexible) for the development of education,
religion, literature, science and technology (science and technology), and mass media.
 Language has a strong and great culture.
 The history of the language is solid and valid.
 Language has a lot of documentation material to study.
 Language has traditional and modern experts.
 Language has a policy (policy) planning carried out by individuals or groups who
love the language.
 Language is respected by its users and the community of users of other groups.
 Language has national or national characteristics.
 Language has an appeal that makes it easy for the user to obey and be loyal to him.
 Easy language fosters the unity of the nation and the state.
C. Models of Language Plan
 Haugen's Model (1959)
Based on his experience in Norway, Haugen suggests four stages of language
planning, namely selection, encoding, implementation, and expansion.
 Selection
The selection stage involves selecting one (or more) language or norms to be
fostered for a particular purpose. In general, this training aims to make the target
language able to carry out its duties as the national language. Norm is an abstract concept
that is selected or formed as the target of planning. Standard language, for example, is the
norm to which language planning is targeted
 Encoding
The encoding stage involves efforts related to language standardization, for
example the preparation of spelling, the formation of terms, the preparation of grammar,
the preparation of expressions, and so on. This standardization effort is basically the
introduction of the various language passwords and determining their respective uses.
 Implementation
The implementation phase involves activities carried out by officers (both
institutions and individuals) who are appointed to disseminate information and provide
guidance related to established norms and compiled coding.
 Expansion
The expansion stage is related to the guidance and development of the target
language, both in terms of form and function. This involves a general target language
modernization process.
 Ferguson Models (1968)
Ferguson argued that in language planning efforts, there are three components that
need to be considered, namely alphabetizing, standardizing, and modernizing
 Alphabet
Alphabetization is an effort so that the target language has a perfect alphabet or
spelling system. This activity is carried out if the target language does not yet have a
spelling, or standardization or correction of an existing spelling.
 Standardization
Standardization is the process of making one dialect or a language a standard
language compared to other dialects through its use in scientific, government, or other
official situations.
 Modernization
Modernization is efforts to develop vocabulary and foster certain forms of
discourse, usually scientific discourse. This vocabulary building involves the creation of
certain terms and expressions to accommodate scientific needs or other fields.
 Kloss Models (1969)
Kloss suggests that language planning has two dimensions, namely status
planning and material planning.
 Status Planning
Status planning is an effort to determine or choose a dialect or language from
various existing dialects or languages to be used as a language with a certain status. For
example, becoming a national, official language, and so on.
 Language Planning
Language planning is an effort related to the formation of terms, standardization
of spelling, standardization of grammar, and their application in language practice.
In addition, Kloss also put forward one more element, namely financing, which involves
economic and management aspects in language planning. As with language planning in
general, the elements of financing and management are important elements.
 Shipwreck Models (1974)
Karam suggests a language planning model (in the form of a diagram) that can
explain the cycle of language planning implementation. In the Karam model the
implementation of language planning is carried out at the national level by an agency
appointed by the government. In Indonesia, for example, it is carried out by the Center
for Language Development and Development. This institution will carry out three tasks,
namely planning, implementation, and assessment. The assessment component according
to Karam is very important. It is said so because the component plays a role in
determining the level of success of the steps that have been taken.

Aspects that play a role in good language planning

Regarding language planning, several experts expressed their opinions regarding what
is needed to support the implementation of good language planning. Aspects that need to
be considered in language planning.
 E. Haugen (1966) suggests that language planning requires a language policy,
language codification for general, modern, and technical use; development and
implementation.
 Sjoberg (1966) suggests that when planning a language, it must accommodate the
opinions and views of the people who use the language because they are the main
 supporters of the implementation of language planning later. In this way, language
planning will be more democratic, comprehensive and facilitate the cultivation of a
sense of loyalty and a sense of adherence to the principle of language.
 Neustupuy (1970) adds that language planning must also pay attention to stylistics
because stylistics provides opportunities for literary development.
 Rubin (1971) says that at each stage of language planning, an assessment process is
needed in order to determine the level of success. Through this assessment, it will
also be possible to know the extent of the condition and level of language
development.
 Jernudd and Gupta (1971) argue that the government in power can be the driving
force and key to the success of language planning. Therefore, the attention and
involvement of the government will be very much needed so that every level of
planning goes well, thus accelerating the realization of the targeted language figure.
 V. Tauli (1973) says that language planning is impossible if it is not supported by
adequate funds. Therefore, the commitment of the holder of the source of funds, in
this case the government, is needed to allocate the cost of language planning on a
regular basis.
 Fishman (1973) suggested that language planning be harmonized with the planning of
other fields in order to be coherent and/or synergized with the national master plan. In
this way, national cohesion and integrity can be properly nurtured.
Types of problems in language planning
sometimes language planning in a country can't go well. The types of problems or
obstacles that often arise in language planning include the following.
 In terms of language
It can be seen that the standardization of spelling, vocabulary and terms as well as
grammar which so far seems to still contain weaknesses as a standard language,
especially the problem of its relevance to the needs of Indonesian citizens and
development needs.
 From the point of view of Indonesian language users
The attitude of some Indonesians who are proud to use a foreign language,
especially English, but are not proud to use Indonesian is a weakness in
implementing the results of Indonesian standardization so far.
 From the implementation point of view
The status and authority of the Center for Language Development and
Development until now still contains various weaknesses as a national center for
language development and development in Indonesia in general and
standardization of the Indonesian language in particular, especially in terms of the
distribution of activities and results of language development and development
activities as well as in terms of manpower processing and development. other
resources.
  In terms of language planning process
The planning process for standardizing the Indonesian language seems to still
contain weaknesses in terms of supervision, assessment, and confirmation. In
addition to the things above, other obstacles that can arise in the language
planning process include (1) the attitude of language speakers, (2) funds, and (3)
manpower.
Evaluation of Language plan
In an article entitled Evaluation and language Plannin (in Fishman.(ed.), 1972:
476-510), Joan Rubin stated that language planning is an activity that takes place
continuously because the language used as the object is always changing and developing
in line with changes and developments. progress of the user community. Therefore,
language planning programs are also constantly changing, both in terms of targeting and
alternative implementation strategies. In this regard, Rubin suggested that the assessment
of language planning programs be seen as a continuous process. Next, Rubin put forward
an opinion about the assessment technique which was divided into several stages. The
first stage is data collection. In this case, the assessor can help the planner identify if there
are problems encountered. The second stage is planning. In this case, the assessor can
assist in the preparation or formulation of goals, strategies, and results to be achieved. In
addition, the assessor can participate in formulating criteria that can compare the effects
and consequences of the various targets and strategies chosen. These criteria will also be
useful in determining the order of priority targets and strategies that can be selected. The
third stage is implementation. In this stage, monitoring data is collected to compare the
actual results with the predicted results. The fourth stage is processing and feedback. In
this stage, an evaluator can assist language planning in formulating benchmarks to assess
the success or failure of the effort.

5. Models of Language Function

In sociolinguistics, language variety—also called lect—is a general term for any

distinctive form of a language or linguistic expression. Linguists commonly use language
variety (or simply variety) as a cover term for any of the overlapping subcategories of a
language, including dialect, register, jargon, and idiolect.

a. Kinds Of Language Varieties

 Argot
An argot is a language primarily developed to disguise conversation, originally
because of a criminal enterprise, though the term is also used loosely to refer to informal
jargon.
 Cant
Cant is somewhat synonymous with argot and jargon and refers to the vocabulary of
an in-group that uses it to deceive or exclude nonusers.

 Colloquial Language
Anything not employed in formal writing or conversation, including terms that might
fall under one or more of most of the other categories in this list, is a
colloquialism. Colloquial and colloquialism may be perceived to be pejorative terms,
but they merely refer to informal terminology.

 Creole
A creole is a more sophisticated development of a pidgin, derived from two or more
parent languages and used by people all ages as a native language.
 Dialect
A dialect is a way of speaking based on geographical or social factors. The
word dialect—which contains "lect" within the term—derives from the Greek
words dia- meaning "across, between" and legein "speak."
 Jargon
Jargon is a body of words and phrases that apply to a specific activity or profession,
such as a particular art form or athletic or recreational endeavor, or a medical or
scientific subject.
 Lingo
This term vaguely refers to the speech of a particular community or group and is
therefore loosely synonymous with many of the other words in this list.
 Lingua Franca

A lingua franca is a language often adopted as a common tongue to enable

communication between speakers of separate languages, though pidgins and creoles,
both admixtures of two or more languages, are also considered lingua francas.

 Patois
Patois refers loosely to a nonstandard language such as a creole, a dialect, or a pidgin,
with a connotation of the speakers’ social inferiority to those who speak the standard
language.
 Pidgin
A simplified language arising from the efforts of people speaking different languages
to communicate is a pidgin. These languages generally develop to facilitate trade
between people without a common language. In time, pidgins often evolve into
creoles.
  Slang
A vocabulary of terms (at least initially) employed in a specific subculture is slang.
Slang terms, either invented words or those whose meanings are adapted to new
senses, develop out of a subculture’s desire to disguise — or exclude others from —
their conversations. As US society becomes more youth oriented and more
homogenous, slang becomes more widespread in usage, and subcultures continually
invent new slang as older terms are appropriated by the mainstream population.
 Vernacular
A vernacular is a native language or dialect, as opposed to another tongue also in use,
such as Spanish, French, or Italian and their dialects as compared to their mother
language, Latin. Alternatively, a vernacular is a dialect itself as compared to a
standard language (though it should be remembered that a standard language is
simply a dialect or combination of dialects that has come to predominate).

b. Levels Of Language Varieties

 Phonetics, Phonology This is the level of sounds. One must distinguish here

between the set of possible human sounds, which constitutes the area
of phonetics proper, and the set of system sounds used in a given human
language, which constitutes the area of phonology. Phonology is concerned with
classifying the sounds of language and with saying how the subset used in a
particular language is utilised, for instance what distinctions in meaning can be
made on the basis of what sounds.

 Morphology This is the level of words and endings, to put it in simplified terms.

It is what one normally understands by grammar (along with syntax). The
term morphology refers to the analysis of minimal forms in language which are,
however, themselves comprised of sounds and which are used to construct words
which have either a grammatical or a lexical function.

Lexicology is concerned with the study of the lexicon from a formal point of view
and is thus closely linked to (derivational) morphology.

 Syntax This is the level of sentences. It is concerned with the meanings of words

in combination with each other to form phrases or sentences. In particular, it
involves differences in meaning arrived at by changes in word order, the addition
or subtraction of words from sentences or changes in the form of sentences. It
furthermore deals with the relatedness of different sentence types and with the
analysis of ambiguous sentences.

 Language typology attempts to classify languages according to high-order

principles of morphology and syntax and to make sets of generalizations across
 different languages irrespective of their genetic affiliations, i.e. of what language
family they belong to.

 Semantics This is the area of meaning. It might be thought that semantics is

covered by the areas of morphology and syntax, but it is quickly seen that this
level needs to be studied on its own to have a proper perspective on meaning in
language.

 Pragmatics The concern here is with the use of language in specific situations.

The meaning of sentences need not be the same in an abstract form and in
practical use. In the latter case one speaks of utterance meaning. The area of
pragmatics relies strongly for its analyses on the notion of speech act which is
concerned with the actual performance of language. This involves the notion of
proposition – roughly the content of a sentence – and the intent and effect of an
utterance.

c. Models Of Language Varieties

1. The rationalist model
So what are the characteristics that are ideally (and perhaps ideologically) attributed
to standard languages? The most conspicuous feature is probably the generality of
standard languages. Standard languages, in contrast with dialects and other restricted
languages, are general in three different ways.
2. The romantic model
The romantic conception of standardization may be easily defined in con trast with
the two dominating features of the rationalist model.

6. Situation of speech, events of speech, and acts of speech

A speech situation is the social context of interaction. It is determined by different

situational factors the elements of a speech situation. These include:

- The participants (speaker(s) / addressee(s) and their social relations (grade of

familiarity, power) define their social roles in the communicative situation.

- The location or physical setting of communication (e.g. school, at home, in a

shop).

- The purpose of the communication.

- The topic: what is being talked about?,

- The mode or channel of linguistic expression: spoken or written language.

 a. Event of speech

A Speech event is an activity in which participants interact via language in one

conventional way to arrive at some outcome Yule, 1996:56. According to Hymes
1974:52, the term speech event will be restricted to activities, and or aspect of activities
that are directly governed by rules or norms for the use of speech. Speech event take
place within a speech situation and it is composed by one or more speech acts.

b. Speech act

Speech act is an act that a speaker performs when making an utterance, for example
thanking someone, making promise, or requesting something. On any occasion, the
action performed by producing an utterance will consist of three related act (ibid: 48).

a. Locutionary act which is the basic act of utterance or producing a meaningful

linguistic expression.

b. Illocutionary act is performed via the communicative force of an utterance.

c. Perlocutionary act is the effect of the illocutionary act on the hearer. In short, a
locutionary act is the act of saying something, an illocutionary act is the act of doing
something and perlocutionary act is the act of affecting someone.

Speech act classification

One general classification system list five types of general functions performed by speech
act: declaration, representative, expressive, directive, and commisive (ibid: 53)

- Declaration is kinds of speech act that change the world via utterance

- Representative is kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker believes to
be the case or not. The example is “the earth is flat”. In using the
representatives, the speaker makes words fit the world (belief).

- Expressive is kinds of speech acts that state what the speaker feels. The
example is “congratulations”. In using representatives, the speaker makes
words fit the world (of feeling).

- Directive is kinds of speech act that speaker use to get someone else to do
something. They express what the speaker wants. They are commands, orders,
request, suggestion etc. an example “don’t touch that” in using a directive, the
speaker attempts to make the world fit the word (via the hearer).

- Commisive is kinds of speech act that speakers use to commit themselves to

some future action. They express what they speaker intends. They are
 promise, threats, refusal, pledges and so on. The example is “don’t do that”.
Using a commisives, the speaker undertakes to make the world fit the words
(via the speaker).

Direct and indirect speech act

A speech act can be performed either directly or indirectly. A direct speech act occurs
when there is a direct relationship between a structure and function. Meanwhile an indirect
speech act is performed when there is an indirect relationship between a structure and function.

- Direct speech act is performed when there is a direct relationship between the
linguistic form of an utterance and its pragmatic function (Yule, 1996: 54).
The example “move out of the way”.

- Indirect speech act is generally occurring when there is an indirect

relationship between a structure and a function. The speakers express his
attention implicitly according Fraser (in Schmidt, 1996: 46). Indirect speech
act are associated with the greater politeness in English than direct speech act.
One of the most common types of indirect speech act in English in the form of
an interrogative, but it is not typically used to ask a question, they don’t
expect only an answer but they expect action. The example “do you have to
stand in front of the TV?

Component of speech

Hymes (1974) defines component of speech (usually called SPEAKING) they are:

- Situation or scene

- Participants.

- Ends

- Act sequence

- Keys

- Instrumentalities.

- Norms

- Genre
7. Change, Shift and Maintenance of Language
A. Definition of model of language
A language model is a statistical tool to predict words. Where weather models
predict the 7-day forecast, language models try to find patterns in the human language.
They are used to predict the spoken word in an audio recording, the next word in a
sentence, and which email is spam. Grammarly recently released a new feature to detect
how confident a user’s email might sound.
B. Models of language function
A functional model uses the concepts of field, tenor and mode to describe how a
text makes meaning within the context of a particular situation. These are the three
features of the situation which influence the way language is used in the text. They have
their counterparts in three broad functions of language which are reflected in the choices
from the language system (e.g. choices of wording) that can be seen in any text. These
broad functions are called the ideational, interpersonal and textual meta functions.
C. Three-function models
Halliday, M.A.K and Hasan, R (1995) argue that language has three main meta-
functions. These are;
1) The ideational function is to organize the speaker’s or writer’s experience of the real
and imaginary world that is, language refers to real or imagined person. It is divided
into 2 types:
- Experiential metafunction : It refers to the content or idea expressed in an
utterance.
- Logical metafunction : It is concerned with the relationship between ideas.
- It refers to the way we organize, understand and express our perceptions of the
world and of our own consciousness.
- It implies “Language as reflection.”

2) The interpersonal function is to indicate, establish, or maintain social relationship

between people. It includes form of address, speech function and modality.
- It refers to the way we use language to communicate ourselves with other
people.
- It implies “Language as action.”
- It is about the social world, especially the relationship between speaker and
hearer.
3) The textual function is to create written and spoken texts which is cohesive within
themselves and which fit to the particular situation in which they are used.
- It refers to the way we use language to organize the text itself.
- It implies “Language as construction of text.”
- Language is used to relate what is said (or written) to the real world
-
 8. Interference and Integration
Interference is a symptom of the biggest, most important and most dominant change in
language development. Even in large languages, which are rich in vocabularies such as
English and Arabic, their development cannot be separated from interference, especially for
vocabulary related to the culture and nature of the donor language environment. Symptoms
of interference from one language to another is difficult to avoid. The occurrence of
interference symptoms also cannot be separated from the behavior of the speakers of the
receiving language.
Interference in the field of phonology
For example: if a Javanese speaker pronounces words in the form of place names that
start with the sound /b/, /d/, /g/, and /j/, for example in the words Bandung, Deli, Gombong,
and Jambi. Often Javanese people pronounce it with /mBandung/, /nDeli/, /nJambi/, and
/nGgombong/.

a. Interference in the field of morphology

Morphological interference is seen by linguists as the most common interference.
This interference occurs in the formation of words by absorbing affixes of other
languages. For example, if we often hear the words hit, hit, big, too small, expensive,
real, disbanded, duaan.
b. Interference in the form of sentences
Interference in this area is rare. This really needs to be avoided because the structural
pattern is the main characteristic of the independence of a language. For example,
Ali's father grew up alone in the village, or The food was eaten by me, or That I told
you yesterday.
Semantic Interference
Based on the language of the recipient (absorber) semantic interference can be divided
into,
 . If the interference occurs because the recipient's language absorbs cultural
concepts and their names from other languages, it is called expansion. For
example, the word democracy, politics, revolution comes from the Greek-Latin
language.
 What needs attention, interference must be distinguished from code switching and
code mixing. Code switching according to Chaer and Agustina (1995:158) is an
event of changing language or language variety by a speaker due to certain
reasons, and is done intentionally. Meanwhile, code mixing is the use of two or
more languages by incorporating elements of one language into another language
consistently.
D. Factors Causing Interference
 Bilingualism of speech participants
 The fidelity of the recipient language user is thin
  Insufficient vocabulary of the recipient language
 The disappearance of rarely used words
 The need for synonyms
 The prestige of the source language and style
 Getting carried away with habits in the mother tongue
B. Definition of Integration
Integration is the systematic use of other language elements as if they were part of a
language without the user realizing it (Kridalaksana: 1993:84). One of the integration
processes is the borrowing of words from one language into another.

9. Code Switching and Code Mixing

Ohoiwutun (2007:71) says code switching, namely the transition of usage from one
language or dialect to another. This translation completely occurs because of sociocultural
changes in the language situation. These changes include factors such as the relationship
between speaker and listener, language variation, purpose of speaking, topics covered, time
and place of conversation. Then another symptom is code mixing. Symptoms of code
switching are usually followed by code mixing symptoms, Thelander in Chaer (2004:115)
says if in a speech event there are clauses or phrases used consisting of hybrid clauses and
hybrid phrases, and each -Each clause and phrase no longer supports its own function, so this
event is code-mixing.

Causes of Code Switching and Code Mixing

1. Causes of Code Switching

In addition to the multilingual attitude possessed by the speech community, there are several
factors that cause code switching events, as stated by Chaer (2004: 108), namely:

a. Speaker

The behavior or attitude of the speaker, who deliberately switches the code to the speech
partner for a specific purpose. For example changing the situation from official to unofficial
or vice versa. Then there are also speakers who expect something from their interlocutor or in
other words expect benefits or benefits from the conversation they are doing. For example, A
is a Sumbawa.

b. Opposite Speech

Speech partners or interlocutors can cause code switching events. For example, because the
speaker wants to balance the language skills of the other person. In this case, the language
ability of the interlocutor is usually lacking or somewhat lacking because maybe the language
is not his first language. c. The Presence of the Third Speaker.
d. Situation Change

Changes in the speech situation can also affect the occurrence of code switching. These
situations can be formal to informal situations or vice versa.

e. Conversation Topic

Topic is the dominant factor in determining the occurrence of code switching. The topic of
conversation that is formal is usually expressed in a standardized manner, in a neutral and
serious style, and the subject of an informal conversation is conveyed in non-standard
language, a slightly emotional style, and in a casual manner.

Types of Code Switching and Code Mixing

1. Types of Code Switching

a. Metaphoric Code Switching

Metaphorical code switching, namely code switching that occurs when there is a change of
topic.

b. Situational Code Switching

While situational code switching, namely code switching that occurs based on situations
where speakers realize that they are speaking in a certain language in one situation and
another language in another situation. There is no change in topic in this code switching. This
shift always coincides with a change from one external situation (eg talking to family
members) to another external situation (eg talking to neighbors).

In addition to metaphorical and situational code switching, Suwito in Chaer (2004:114) also
divides code switching into two types, namely, internal code switching and external code
switching.

a. Internal Code Switching

Internal Code Switching is code switching that takes place between own languages, such as
from Indonesian to Sumbawa, or vice versa

b. External Code Switch

Meanwhile, external code switching is code switching that occurs between Indonesian and
foreign languages. For example, Indonesian to Japanese, or vice versa.

2. Types of Code Mix

Code mixing is divided into two, namely outer code mixing and inner code mixing.
a. Outer Code-Mixing

That is code mixing that comes from a foreign language or it can be explained that the
original language is mixed with a foreign language. For example Indonesian – English –
Japanese, etc

b. Mix Code Into (Inner Code-Mixing)

Namely mixing code that comes from the original language with all its variations. For
example, Indonesian-Sumbawa language-Lombok language-Bima language (more on dialect),
etc.

10. Language Attitudes

Language attitude is a mental position or feeling towards one's own language or
the language of others (Kridalaksana, 2001:197). In Indonesian the word attitude can
refer to body shape, upright standing position, behavior or gestures, and actions or actions
taken based on views (positions, beliefs, or opinions) as a reaction to the existence of a
thing or event.
Attitude is a psychological phenomenon, which is usually manifested in the form of
action or behavior. Attitudes cannot be observed directly. To observe attitudes can be
seen through behavior, but various research results show that what appears in behavior
does not always indicate attitude. Vice versa, a person's attitude is not always reflected in
his behavior.

a. Characteristic of Language Attitudes

Anderson (1974) divides attitudes into two types, namely (1) linguistic attitudes and (2)
non-linguistic attitudes, such as political attitudes, religious attitudes, and others.
According to Anderson, language attitude is a relatively long-term belief system or
cognition, partly about language, about language objects, which gives a person a
tendency to react in a certain way that he likes. However, this attitude can be in the form
of positive and negative attitudes, so the attitude towards language is the same. Garvin
and Mathiot (1968) formulated three characteristics of language attitudes, namely:

- Language Loyalty which encourages people of a language to maintain their

language and if necessary prevent the influence of other languages.

- Language Pride which encourages people to develop their language and use it
as a symbol of identity and community unity.

- Awareness of language norms that encourage people to use their language

carefully and politely is a very big factor in influencing actions, namely
language use activities.
 b. Types of Language Attitude

Lambert (1967) states that it consists of three components, that is, cognitive, affective
components, and cumulative components. The explanation of the three components is as follows:

- Cognitive relate to knowledge of the realm around and ideas that are usually
used in the thought process.

- A corrective having a problem of good judgment, whether like it or not, of

some sort or circumstance, so the person is said to have a positive attitude. If
instead, it's called having a negative attitude.

- A cumulative involving behavior or works as a "final decision" of reactive

readiness to a particular situation.

c. The Choice of Language Attitude

- The students hold the positive attitude toward English

- The factors affecting the students’ language choice are the role of the lecturers and
language exposure in the academic environment.

11. Languages, Dialects, and Varieties

Language
Language is the most important aspect of human life in our world since it allows
individuals to communicate with one another and serves as a social resource. The language
can be employed if we comprehend each other or have a good understanding of each other
using our linguistic resources. If we pay attention to what is being said, we can grasp the
meaning and

The following are the seven linguistic criteria:

1) Codification of language: grammars, spelling books, dictionaries, and literature are

examples of standardization. Teaching is a viable option. Standardization necessitates the
selection of a single elite vernacular, which might be prestigious.
2) Vitality: The presence of an active speaker community.
3) Historicity: A group of people discovers their identity via the use of a specific language.
4) Autonomy: Other speakers of a language must feel distinct from speakers of other
languages.
5) Reduction: A specific variety can be considered a sub-variety rather than a separate
entity.
6) Mixture : Thoughts on the purity (or lack thereof) of a variety
7) De facto norms: Speakers distinguish between "good" and "bad" speakers, with the good
speakers representing proper use rules.
 1. Dialect

Dialect is a type of language that is distinctively spoken in a particular place or by a

particular social class. Even linguists use the term dialect in two different ways. One usage refers
to a dialect of the language that is unique to a certain group of its speakers. The phrase is most
commonly used to describe regional speech patterns, but other characteristics, such as social
class, can also characterize a dialect

Types of dialects:

1) Regional or geographical dialect : varieties of a language spoken in a geographical area.

2) Temporal dialect: dialects of a language that were used at different times in its history.
3) Socioeconomic dialect: dialects of a language spoken by people from different social
classes.
4) Idiolects: dialects of a language spoken by a single person, having differences in
pronounciation, grammar, and vocabulary.
5) Style: the way speakers communicate; the speaker can choose whether to be informal or
formal, depending on the situation as well as the participant's age and social group.
A. Regional Dialects

Regional dialect refers to linguistic differences that accumulate in a particular geographic

region (Fromkin, Rodman & Hyams, 2011). Dialect variation in regional dialect is influenced by
three factors completing each others which are time, place, and socio-culture.

B. Social Dialects

Social dialect originates among dialect social groups and are related to a variety of
factors, the principal ones apparently being social class, religion, and ethnicity. There are two
types of dialect as explained by Trudgill (2004). The first type of dialect is social dialect which
emerges because of particular kind of social background (Trudgill, 2004).

C. Styles, Registers, and Beliefs

1. Styles

Style is language variation which reflects changes in situational factors, such as

addressee, setting, task or topic. Style is often analyzed along a scale of formality, the level of
formality is influenced by some factors like the various differences among the participants, topic,
emotional involvement.

a) Principles of style

a. There are no single style speakers. Style-shifting occurs in all speakers to a different degree;
interlocutors regularly and consistently change their linguistic forms according to context.
b. Styles can be ranged along a single dimension, measured by the amount of attention paid to
speech. Style-shifting correlates strongly with the amount of attention paid to speech.
According to studies conducted by Labov, this was one of the single most important factors
that determined whether or not anointer locut or would make a style-shift.

c. The vernacular, in which the minimum attention is paid to speech, provides the most
systematic data for linguistic analysis. Labov characterized the vernacular as the original
base mode of speech, learned at a very young age, on which more complex styles build later
in life. This "basic" style has the least variation, and provides the most general account of the
style of a given group.

b) The kind of style

a. Frozen style. It is the most formal style used in formal situations and ceremonies. Exp:
In written form (historical documents, and formal documents).

b. Formal style. It is used in formal speech, formal meeting, office correspondence, lesson
books for school, etc.

c. Consultative style. It ordinary conversation held at school, in meeting or conversation

that leads to result and production. It is the most operational one between casual and
formal.

d. Casual style. It is used to speak with friends, family or relatives, during the leisure time,
while break or recreation, etc.

2. Register

Register are varieties of language used in different situations, which are identified by
degrees of formality. Register can be vary from vocabulary, phonology, grammar to semantics.
Register is determined by some factors:

• Field of discourse: what is being disscussed

• Mode of discourse: oral or written

• Tenor of discourse: relation between participant.

2. Fill in the empty column!

Assalmu’alaikum my students. I would like to apologize for any lacks of online lectures that
we applied during this fifth semester, both lacks in aspects of time allocation in teaching and
learning, the materials were provided, and others.
(Assalmu’alaikum mahasiswa dan mahasiswiku. Saya ingin menyampaikan permohonan
maaf atas segala kekurangan pelaksanaan kuliah secara online yang kita aplikasikan selama
semester lima ini, baik kekurangan dalam aspek alokasi waktu mengajar, belajar, materi
yang diberikan maupun aspek lainnya).
Below, I provide a column to respond my apology by filling in the empty column A and B in
responsive manner (Yes or No).
(Di bawah ini saya menyediakan kolom untuk merespon pernyataan permohonan maaf saya
dengan cara mengisi kolom A dan B dengan jawaban Ya atau Tidak):

Name of Students (Nama A:Yes (Ya dimaafkan) B: Not (Tidak dimaafkan)

Mahasiswa)

Baiq Arita Damayanti Yes ………………………….

Information:
1. The resume is submitted in the form of softcopy and hardcopy. Send it to my email;
pauzanharis@yahoo.com, afterwards print and bind it. Submission deadline of your resume
is 20th December, 2021. Don' be late to submit your assignment because it influences grade.
2. Submit your resume to Kosma/vice kosma for hardcopy.