Composition of Soil

Plants obtain inorganic elements from the soil, which serves as a natural medium
for land plants. Soil is the outer, loose layer that covers the surface of Earth. Soil
quality, a major determinant, along with climate, of plant distribution and growth,
depends not only on the chemical composition of the soil, but also the topography
(regional surface features) and the presence of living organisms.

Soil consists of these major components:

Figure: Components of soil: The four major components of soil are shown:
inorganic minerals, organic matter, water, and air.
• inorganic mineral matter, about 40 to 45 percent of the soil volume
• organic matter, about 5 percent of the soil volume
• water, about 25 percent of the soil volume
• air, about 25 percent of the soil volume

The amount of each of the four major components of soil depends on the quantity
of vegetation, soil compaction, and water present in the soil. A good, healthy soil
has sufficient air, water, minerals, and organic material to promote and sustain
plant life.

The organic material of soil, called humus, is made up of microorganisms (dead

and alive), and dead animals and plants in varying stages of decay. Humus
improves soil structure, providing plants with water and minerals. The inorganic
material of soil is composed of rock, slowly broken down into smaller particles
that vary in size. Soil particles that are 0.1 to 2 mm in diameter are sand. Soil
particles between 0.002 and 0.1 mm are called silt, and even smaller particles, less
than 0.002 mm in diameter, are called clay. Some soils have no dominant particle
size, containing a mixture of sand, silt, and humus; these soils are called loams.

Key Points

• The chemical composition of the soil, the topography, and the presence of
living organisms determines the quality of soil.
• In general, soil contains 40-45% inorganic matter, 5% organic matter, 25%
water, and 25% air.
• In order to sustain plant life, the proper mix of air, water, minerals, and
organic material is required.
• Humus, the organic material in soil, is composed of microorganisms (dead
and alive) and decaying plants.
• The inorganic material of soil is composed of rock, which is broken down
into small particles of sand (0.1 to 2 mm), silt (0.002 to 0.1 mm), and clay
(less than 0.002 mm).
• Loam is a soil that is a mix sand, silt, and humus.

Key Terms

• loam: soil with no dominant particle size that contains a mixture of sand,
silt, and humus
• humus: a large group of natural organic compounds found in the soil
composed of decaying plants and dead and living microorganisms

Concept of pH and pH measurement

Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and
is measured in pH units. Soil pH is defined as the negative logarithm of the
hydrogen ion concentration. The pH scale goes from 0 to 14 with pH 7 as the
neutral point. As the amount of hydrogen ions in the soil increases the soil pH
decreases thus becoming more acidic. From pH 7 to 0 the soil is increasingly
more acidic and from pH 7 to 14 the soil is increasingly more alkaline or basic.
Descriptive terms commonly associated with certain ranges in soil pH are:
• Extremely acid: < than 4.5; lemon=2.5; vinegar=3.0; stomach acid=2.0;
soda=2–4
• Very strongly acid: 4.5–5.0; beer=4.5–5.0; tomatoes=4.5
• Strongly acid: 5.1–5.5; carrots=5.0; asparagus=5.5; boric acid=5.2;
cabbage=5.3
• Moderately acid: 5.6–6.0; potatoes=5.6
• Slightly acid: 6.1–6.5; salmon=6.2; cow's milk=6.5
• Neutral: 6.6–7.3; saliva=6.6–7.3; blood=7.3; shrimp=7.0
• Slightly alkaline: 7.4–7.8; eggs=7.6–7.8
• Moderately alkaline: 7.9–8.4; sea water=8.2; sodium bicarbonate=8.4
• Strongly alkaline: 8.5–9.0; borax=9.0
• Very strongly alkaline: > than 9.1; milk of magnesia=10.5, ammonia=11.1;
lime=12
• Soil pH provides various clues about soil properties and is easily determined.
The most accurate method of determining soil pH is by a pH meter. A second
method which is simple and easy but less accurate then using a pH meter,
consists of using certain indicators or dyes.

•
• Many dyes change color with an increase or decrease of pH making it
possible to estimate soil pH. In making a pH determination on soil, the
sample is saturated with the dye for a few minutes and the color observed.
This method is accurate enough for most purposes. Kits (pH) containing the
necessary chemicals and color charts are available from garden stores.
• There may be considerable variation in the soil pH from one spot in a field or
lawn to another. To determine the average soil pH of a field or lawn it is
necessary to collect soil from several locations and combine into one
sample.
Determination of pH of soil samples

The pH of soil indicates more than its alkalinity or acidity strength; it affects the
relative availability of nutrients, the soil life, and the type of plants that will thrive.

The common range of soil pH varies from 4.0 to 8.0; the range of soil pH for
optimal availability of plant nutrients is 6.0 to 7.0. The ability of soil to provide
adequate nutrition to the plant depends upon the following factors:

• Essential elements in the soil—The nutrients present in soil depend upon

the elemental nature of the soil and the organic material content. Soil
nutrients exist both as complex insoluble compounds (organic materials) and
as simple soluble forms.
• Release of nutrients to plants—Simple elements in the soil are readily
available for plant uptake. The complex forms (organic materials) must be
broken down through decomposition to simpler, more available forms to
benefit the plants.
• pH of the soil solution—pH directly affects the availability of essential
nutrients. For example, though iron, manganese, and zinc become less
available as the pH rises above 6.5, molybdenum and phosphorus become
more available. When the soil is acidic, minerals such as zinc, aluminum,
manganese, copper, and cobalt become more soluble for plants’ uptake.
However, an excess of these ions can be toxic to plants. Alkaline soil
contains a higher quantity of bicarbonate ions, which interferes with the
normal uptake of other ions, harming plant growth.

Soil life refers to living organisms that live in the soil and break down the organic
materials. Soil bacteria that assist in the decomposition of organic material thrive at
a pH of 6.3 to 6.8. Fungi and mold prefer a more acidic soil, making soil more
prone to souring and putrefaction.

Plants also have different soil pH preferences—several gardeners’ web sites offer
charts of preferred pH levels for different plants. Knowing the pH of soil can help
you choose the correct plants and the required treatment for your soil.

Testing the pH of soil sample

Equipment Needed
LAB: To get started you will need a standard pH meter, a pH electrode, an ATC
probe, a stirrer with stir bar, beaker, deionized water, and buffers.

Soil Sampling

Scoop up soil into a clean, dry plastic jar or plastic bag. Remove stones and crush
any clumps of soil for better results. Gather two to three representative samples of
each soil sample to confirm results. No sample preparation or preservative
required.

Laboratory Testing

1. Weigh 20 g of soil sample into a 100 mL beaker.

2. Add 20 mL of deionized (DI) water and place on a stirrer to mix for 30 minutes.
3. Cover and let stand for an hour.
4. For the most accurate measurements, allow the buffers and the soil sample both
to come to room temperature. (A difference in temperature will add error to your
measurement.)
5. We recommend a 2-point calibration with a pH 7 and a pH 10 buffer solution.
The electrode slope should be between 92 and 102%.
6. Rinse electrode and ATC with DI water and blot dry. Place probes in soil sample
and measure pH and record measurement.

Complexometric Titration

Those volumetric titrations or analysis in which the end point is indicated by a

colored complex, are known as complexometric titrations. It is also known as
chelatometry. In this type of titration an indicator is used which is capable of
producing clear colour change in titration which indicates end point of the
titration.
Complexometric titrations are used for determination of concentration of metal
ions in solution. It is a volumetric analysis as volume of analyte, titrant and even
indicator plays important role during titration. Indicators such as calcein and
eriochrome black T etc. are used in complexometric titration.
Complexometric Indicator

Complexometric indicators are those indicators which are used in

complexometric titrations. These indicators undergo a definite color change in
presence of specific metal ions. These indicators are also known as pM
indicators or metallochromic indicators. These indicators are organic molecules
which are soluble in water. Calcein, curcumin, Eriochrome Black T, fast sulphon
black, hematoxylin etc. are some examples of complexometric indicators.
Complexometric Titration using EDTA

You must have heard about hard water problem of Noida. If you want to know
estimation of hardness present in water then complexometric titration is an easy,
safe and cost-effective method to do so. For your better understanding of
complexometric titration, we are describing here experiment for estimation of
hardness of water by using complexometric titration.

Aim

To estimate the amount of total hardness of given water sample by

complexometric titration using EDTA.

Requirements

Conical flask, burette, pipette, spatula, buffer solution, eriochrome black T

indicator, standard EDTA Solution (0.01M), inhibitor.

Principle

Indicator Eriochrome Black T becomes wine red in color when binds with metal
ions while remain blue in color when free from metal ion. While EDTA (which is
ethylene diamine tetra acetic acid) is colorless whether its bound to metal ion or
not. So, addition of EBT indicator in the sample (water containing metal) makes it
wine red in color as eriochrome black T binds with metal ions. Eriochrome black
T binds with metal ions loosely while EDTA binds with metal ions strongly. So,
when all metal ions are bound to EDTA, indicator EBT remain free in the sample
and solution turns blue.

Procedure
1. Take 25ml of given sample in conical flask.
2. Now add 1ml of buffer solution.
3. Now in sample and buffer solution add 1ml of inhibitor as well.
4. Now add 2 drops of eriochrome black – T solution in the mixture which
turns the color of the solution wine red.
5. Fill the burette with EDTA solution. Now start titrating the mixture with
standard EDTA solution.
6. End point can be detected by color change from wine red to blue.
7. Repeat the titration for three times to obtain 3 concordant readings.
Observation Table
Burette Reading
Volume of water Volume of EDTA
S.No.
sample (ml) added (ml)
Initial(ml) Final(ml)

1.

2.

3.

Calculation – Total hardness (mg/l) by calcium carbonate = (A×B×1000)/Volume

of sample in ml
Where A = Volume of EDTA required by sample or volume of EDTA used in
titration
B = 1*(Molarity of EDTA/0.01M)
Result – Amount of total hardness in the given water sample is ……mg/l.

Precautions
1. Always rinse the burette and take out the bubbles at the nozzle of the
burette.
2. Always rinse the burette and other flasks with distilled water before using.
3. No tinge of reddish hue should remain at the endpoint, the solution should
be clear blue.
4. Titration should be performed slowly near the endpoint for detection of
sharp and correct endpoints.
5.
Types of Complexometric Titration

EDTA can be used as chelating titrant (titrant can be defined as the solution
whose concentration is known in the titration) in many ways. So, EDTA titrations
can be performed in many ways. Few of them are given as follows –
• Direct Titration- It is the most convenient and simple method of
complexometric titration using EDTA. It is similar to acid-base titration
technique. In this titration standard EDTA solution is added to given
sample containing metals using burette till the end point is achieved.
Copper, barium, zinc, mercury, aluminum, lead, bismuth, chromium etc.
are metals which can be determined by using direct complexometric
titration.
 • Back Titration – It is called back titration as in this type of titration we
perform back titration for excess amount of EDTA. In this excess amount
of standard solution of EDTA is added to the metal solution being
examined. Then excess amount of EDTA is back titrated by solution of
second metal ion.
• Replacement Titration – It is used when direct titration or back titration
don’t give sharp endpoints. In this analyte (containing metal) is added in
metal-EDTA complex. Metal present in analyte displaces another metal
from metal-EDTA complex.
• Indirect Titration – Some anions form precipitate with metal cations.
These anions do not react with EDTA. So, these can be analyzed by
indirect titration with EDTA. For example barium ions can be determined
by indirect titration.

Applications of Complexometric Titrations

• Complexometric titration is used for estimation of amount of total hardness
in water.
• It is widely used in pharmaceutical industry to determine metal
concentration in drugs.
• Titanium dioxide is used in many cosmetic products. This can be analysed
by complexometric titration.
• It is used to analyse urine sample.
• It is widely used in analytical chemistry.

Estimation of Calcium and Magnesium ions as Calcium carbonate by

complexometric titration

This method, called a complexometric titration, is used to find the total calcium
and magnesium content of milk, sea water and various solid materials. It can also
be used to determine the total hardness of fresh water provided the solutions used
are diluted. The combined concentration of calcium and magnesium ions is
considered to be the measure of water hardness. The method uses a very large
molecule called EDTA which forms a complex with calcium and magnesium ions.
EDTA is short for ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid. A blue dye called Eriochrome
Black T (ErioT) is used as the indicator. This blue dye also forms a complex with
the calcium and magnesium ions, changing colour from blue to pink in the process.
The dye–metal ion complex is less stable than the EDTA–metal ion complex. For
the titration, the sample solution containing the calcium and magnesium ions is
reacted with an excess of EDTA. The indicator is added and remains blue as all the
Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions present are complexed with the EDTA. A back titration is
carried out using a solution of magnesium chloride. This forms a complex with the
excess EDTA molecules until the end-point, when all the excess EDTA has been
complexed. The remaining magnesium ions of the magnesium chloride solution
then start to complex with ErioT indicator, immediately changing its colour from
blue to pink. The main reaction is

Ca2+ + EDTA4− → [Ca-EDTA]2−

Back titration EDTA4− + Mg2+ → [Mg-EDTA]2−

Indicator reaction: note, ErioT is blue and ErioT-Mg is pink

ErioT + Mg2+ → ErioT-Mg

Equipment Needed

Burette

20 mL pipette

250 mL conical flasks

100 mL volumetric cylinder

Solutions Needed

EDTA: (ethylenediaminetetraaceticacid) 500 mL of a 0.05 molL-1 solution.

Weigh 9.31 g of the EDTA salt and dissolve it in 500 mL of distilled water in a
volumetric flask.

Buffer: Dissolve 7.0 g of ammonium chloride in 57 mL concentrated ammonia

(see safety notes). Dilute to 100mL with distilled water in a volumetric flask. The
pH should be 10.5.

MgCl2 .6H2 O: 0.025 molL-1 solution. Weigh 2.54 g of magnesium chloride

hexahydrate and dilute to 500 mL with distilled water in a volumetric flask.

ErioT indicator: Dissolve 0.2 g of Eriochrome Black T indicator in 15 mL of

concentrated ammonia solution (or 15 mL of triethanolamine) (see safety notes)
and 5mL absolute ethanol. Do not store more than one to two days before use.
Determination of Total Calcium and Magnesium Ion Concentration

Method

Sample Preparation

For samples that are already in solution, such as freshwater, seawater and milk, no
further preparation is needed. For solid samples such as eggshells and limestone,
the samples must first be dissolved in acid. Accurately weigh about 0.5 g of the
solid into a small beaker or conical flask, add about 20 mL dilute hydrochloric acid
and allow the solid to completely dissolve (this may take several minutes).
Neutralise the unreacted acid with dilute sodium hydroxide solution until the pH of
the solution is almost 7 (according to pH indicator paper). For eggshells, the inner
membrane will remain undissolved and may be carefully removed from the
solution. Transfer the solution to a 100 mL volumetric flask and make up to the
mark with distilled water.

Standardisation of the EDTA Solution

1. Pipette a 10 mL sample of the EDTA solution into a conical flask.

2. Add 10 mL of ammonia buffer solution and 1 mL of Eriochrome Black T

indicator solution.

3. Titrate the EDTA with the magnesium chloride solution until the endpoint is
reached – a permanent colour change from blue to pink.

4. Having determined the average titre of the magnesium chloride solution,

determine the number of moles used.

5. Given the Mg2+ : EDTA ratio of 1 : 1, calculate the concentration of your

EDTA solution.

Titration Method for Seawater, Milk and Solid Samples

1. Pipette 10 mL of the sample solution into a conical flask.

2. Add 20 mL of 0.05 mol L−1 EDTA solution.

3. Add 10 mL of ammonia buffer, 50 mL of distilled water and 1 mL of
Eriochrome Black T indicator solution.

4. Titrate the sample with the standard 0.025 molL−1 magnesium chloride
solution until a permanent pink colour appears.

Titration Method for Fresh or Tap Water Samples

1. Add a 100 mL of the sample solution into a 250 mL conical flask.

2. Prepare a 0.005 mol L−1 EDTA solution by diluting the 0.05 mol L−1 EDTA
solution by a factor of 1/10. Add 20mL of this diluted EDTA to the sample
solution.

3. Add 10 mL of the ammonia buffer and 1 mL of Eriochrome Black T indicator

solution.

4. Prepare a 0.0025 mol L−1 magnesium chloride solution by diluting the 0.025
mol L−1 magnesium chloride solution by a factor of 1/10.

5. Titrate the sample solution with this 0.0025 molL−1 magnesium chloride
solution until a permanent pink colour appears. Repeat the titration with further
samples until concordant results (titres agreeing within 0.1 mL) are obtained.