B.Sc.

Botany- Core Practical-I - Course Code: BO1442

Methodology and Perspectives of Sciences, Methodology of Plant Science
Angiosperm Anatomy, Reproductive Botany and Palynology
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….

1. Make suitable micro preparations of A, identify giving reasons and describe labelled
diagrams. (Preparation – 1, Diagram – 1, Identification -0.5, Reasons- 1) (3.5)

1. Primary structure - Dicot stem: Hydrocotyle

 Single layered cuticularised epidermis with multicellular hairs.
 Heterogenous cortex with collenchymatous hypodermis, chlorenchyma and parenchyma.
 Endodermis made of barrel shaped cells and rich in starch grains.
 Pericycle seen as semilunar patches of sclerenchyma outside the phloem of each vascular
bundle, forming bundle caps.
 Limited no.of vascular bundles arranged in the form of a broken ring.
 Vascular bundles conjoint, collateral and open with cambium in between xylem and
phloem.
 Xylem vessels polygonal in outline, arranged in linear chains and endarch.

2. Primary structure - Monocot stem : Grass

• Single layered cuticularised epidermis without hairs.
• Hypodermis sclerenchymatous, 2-3 layers thick.
• Cortex, endodermis, pericycle and pith absent, instead a parenchymatous ground tissue
present.
• Numerous vascular bundles scattered in the ground tissue – fewer large bundles towards
the center and many smaller bundles towards the periphery.
• Vascular bundles conjoint, collateral, closed and endarch, each surrounded by a
sclerenchymatous bundle sheath.
• Xylem vessels oval in outline, arranged in the form of a V or Y. Phloem in between the
arms of the V-shaped xylem.
 Protoxylem lacuna present, formed by the breaking down of one or more protoxylem
elements.

3. Bicollateral stem - Coccinia

• Single layered cuticularised epidermis with multicellular hairs.
• Heterogenous cortex with collenchymatous hypodermis, chlorenchyma and parenchyma.
• Endodermis made of barrel shaped cells and rich in starch grains.
• Multilayered pericycle seen as a ring or band of sclerenchyma
• Ten vascular bundles arranged in two alternating rings of five each.
• Vascular bundles conjoint, bicollateral and open with central xylem bounded by two strips
of cambium (outer and inner). These cambia are inturn bounded by outer and inner
phloem strips.
• Central endarch xylem has very wide pitted vessels with metaxylem outwards. Xylem not
arranged radially.
4. Primary structure - Monocot root: Colocasia
 Single layered noncuticularised epidermis or epiblema with unicellular root hairs.
• A massive homogenous cortex composed of parenchyma.
• Endodermis and pericycle single-layered. Endodermal cells with casparian thickenings on
radial and tangential walls.
• Thin walled passage cells in endodermal layer, opposite to the protoxylem elements.
• Many xylem groups (polyarch) arranged radially with alternating phloem groups of equal
no.
• Xylem vessels oval or round in outline, arranged linearly and exarch.
• No.of xylem members less in each group and hence xylem groups do not protrude into the
centre.
• Large parenchymatous pith in the centre, sometimes with intercellular spaces.

5. Secondary structure - Stem [Normal type]- Vernonia

 Presence of distinct periderm layer by extrastelar cambial activity in subepidermal layers.
 Periderm consists of outer thick cork or phellem made of dead suberized cork cells, 1-2
layers of phellogen or cork cambium and inner parenchymatous secondary cortex or
phelloderm.
 Presence of lenticels.
 Stelar secondary growth marked by the formation of cambial ring by the fusion of
fascicular and interfascicular cambia in the vascular region.
 Broad secondary xylem formed inwards and secondary phloem to the outside of the
cambial ring.
 Presence of medullary rays in interfascicular regions.
 Primary xylem pushed to the centre.
 Pith distict, but much reduced.

6. Secondary structure – Dicot Root [Normal type]- Tinospora

• Presence of distinct periderm layer by extrastelar cambial activity in subepidermal layers.
• Periderm consists of outer thick cork or phellem made of dead suberized cork cells, 1-2
layers of phellogen or cork cambium and inner parenchymatous secondary cortex or
phelloderm.
• Presence of lenticels.
• Vascular tissues radial, exarch and show secondary growth due to the presence of
cambium.
• Broad secondary xylem formed inwards and secondary phloem to the outside of the
cambium.
• Primary xylem radial, exarch, in 2-6 groups, pushed to the centre. It is encircled by broad
secondary xylem with large vessels, interrupted by broad medullary rays.
• Primary phloem pushed to the periphery and becomes crushed later. Secondary phloem
more developed beneath the primary phloem.
• Pith distinct, but much reduced.

7. Secondary structure - Dicot Root [Normal type]- Ficus

 Presence of distinct periderm layer by extrastelar cambial activity in subepidermal layers.
• Periderm consists of a very well-developed 6-8 layered, outer thick cork or phellem made
of dead suberized cork cells, 1-2 layers of phellogen or cork cambium and inner
parenchymatous secondary cortex or phelloderm.
• Presence of lenticels.
 • Vascular tissues radial, exarch and show secondary growth due to the presence of
cambium as a complete ring.
• Broad secondary xylem formed inwards and secondary phloem to the outside of the
cambium.
• Primary xylem radial, exarch, in more than 6 groups and pushed to the centre. It is
encircled by broad secondary xylem with large vessels, interrupted by narrow medullary
rays.
• Primary phloem pushed to the periphery and seen as crushed patches. Secondary phloem
well developed beneath the primary phloem.
• Pith distinct, parenchymatous, but much reduced.
8. Secondary structure - Dicot Root [Normal type]- Carica papaya
 Presence of distinct periderm layer by extrastelar cambial activity in subepidermal layers.
• Periderm consists of an outer thick cork or phellem made of dead suberized cork cells, 1-2
layers of phellogen or cork cambium and inner parenchymatous secondary cortex or
phelloderm.
• Vascular tissues radial, exarch and show secondary growth due to the presence of
cambium as a complete ring.
• Broad secondary xylem formed inwards and secondary phloem to the outside of the
cambium.
• Primary xylem radial, exarch, polyarch and pushed to the centre. It is encircled by broad
secondary xylem with large vessels, interrupted by medullary rays.
• Primary phloem pushed to the periphery and seen as crushed patches. Secondary phloem
well developed beneath the primary phloem.
• Pith distinct, parenchymatous, but much reduced.

3. Comment on the aim and working of the instrument D

(Identification – 1; Aim – 0.5; Working-1.5) (Weightage -3)
pH meter
Aim : to measure the pH (acidity or alkalinity) of a liquid.
Working : The pH meter has four parts:
1. Glass electrode - It has silver electrode with a silver chloride tip suspended in a solution of KCl
, inside a special glass bulb coated with silica and metal salts.
2. Calomel reference electrode- It consists of a glass tube with a mercuric chloride reference cell
suspended in a saturated solution of KCl.
3. Resistance thermometer – corrects temperature changes to ensure a precise measurement.
4. A potentiometer arrangement
5. The glass electrode is dipped in the test solution with unknown pH
6. The reference electrode is dipped in a standard buffer solution with a known pH.
7. When electric current is supplied, electrical voltage is generated between two solutions as
they have different pH concentrations.
8. As the two solutions are linked via the electrodes, pH meter measures the difference of
voltage between the two electrodes.
9. This difference in voltage is translated by the pH meter and displayed as pH units on the
screen.
10. A pH reading below 7 indicates acidity. Solutions that measure above 7 are alkaline, and
solutions that measure 7--such as pure water--are neutral.
Precaution :
The pH meter must be calibrated by using standards of known pH before an unknown is
measured.
.
Colorimeter
Aim : to measure the absorbance of particular wavelengths of light by a specific solution. It is
commonly used to determine the concentration of a known solute in a given solution by the
application of the Beer-Lambert law, which states that the concentration of a solute is proportional to
the absorbance.
Working : The essential parts of a colorimeter include a light source (often an ordinary low-
voltage filament lamp), an adjustable aperture, a set of colored filters, a cuvette to hold the working
solution, a detector to measure the transmitted light, a meter to display the output from the detector.
In addition, there may be a voltage regulator and a second light path, cuvette and detector. This
enables comparison between the working solution and a "blank", consisting of pure solvent, to
improve accuracy.
A colorimeter works by passing a specific wavelength of light through a solution, and then
measuring the light that comes through on the other side. In most cases, the more concentrated the
solution is, the more light will be absorbed, which can be seen in the difference between the light at
its origin and after it has passed through the solution. To find the concentration of an unknown
sample, several samples of the solution in which the concentration is known are first prepared and
tested. These are then plotted on a graph with the concentration at one axis and the absorbance on
the other to create a calibration curve; when the unknown sample is tested, the result is compared to
the known samples on the curve to determine the concentration.

Centrifuge
Aim : to apply centrifugal force to separate the useful component in mixtures of liquids and solids or
liquids and liquids.
Working : A centrifuge is a piece of equipment, generally driven by an electric motor, that puts an
object in rotation around a fixed axis, applying a force perpendicular to the axis. The centrifuge works
using the sedimentation principle, where the centripetal acceleration causes denser substances to
separate out along the radial direction (the bottom of the tube). By the same token, lighter objects
will tend to move to the top of the tube. The rotating unit, called the rotor, has fixed holes drilled at
an angle (to the vertical). Test tubes are placed in these slots and the motor is spun. As the centrifugal
force is in the horizontal plane and the tubes are fixed at an angle, the particles have to travel only a
little distance before they hit the wall and drop down to the bottom.

Spectrophotometer
Aim : to measure the relative amounts of radiant energy as a function of wavelength; to analyze
unknown substance in a solution or concentration of a solution according to the substance's capacity
to absorb radiant energy.

Working : The instrument operates by passing a beam of light through a sample and measuring the
intensity of light reaching a detector. It is composed of a light source, a wavelength selector
(monochromator), a sample compartment, and a detector. Light source is a tungsten filament for
visible light and a deuterium lamp for UV light. The Monochromator (usually with a prism) splits the
light spectrum into its component colors and selects a narrow band of this spectrum. The spectrum is
projected on an opaque wall containing a slit. The wavelength of the selected light may be adjusted by
changing the angle of the dispersing element, so that the desired wavelength passes through the
slit. The selected light passes into the sample compartment, through the sample (and cell) and to the
detector (photomultiplier).

 First, the intensity of light (I0) passing through a blank is measured. The intensity is the number of
photons per second. The blank is a solution that is identical to the sample solution except that
the blank does not contain the solute that absorbs light. This measurement is necessary,
because the cell itself scatters some of the light.
 Second, the intensity of light (I) passing through the sample solution is measured.
 Third, the experimental data is used to calculate two quantities: the transmittance (T) and
the absorbance (A).
I
T=
I0
A = - log10 T
The transmittance is simply the fraction of light in the original beam that passes through the
sample and reaches the detector. The remainder of the light, 1 - T, is the fraction of the light
absorbed by the sample.

5. Comment on the material F given

(Major group –0.5; Notes – 1.5) (Weightage -2)

Carnoy’s formula
is a fixative agent used for fixation of DNA, RNA, Nissl granules and glycogen. It is made by
mixing well the following :
Ethanol (absolute) ----------------------- 60 ml
Chloroform ------------------------------- 30 ml
Glacial acetic acid ----------------------- 10 ml
F .A. A
Formalin Acetic Alcohol is a fixative agent used for primary fixation of plant specimen. It is
made by mixing well the following :
Ethanol absolute--------------------------85 ml
40% formaldehyde-----------------------10 ml
Acetic acid glacial-------------------------5 ml
Saffranin
Safranin is a red permanent stain that is used in histology and cytology, especially to stain
nuclei in plant cells. It also stains lignified and cutinized tissues red and chloroplasts pink. It is usually
used as a counterstain in some staining protocols, along with a green (e.g. fast green) or blue (e.g.
haematoxylin) stain. This is the classic counterstain in a Gram stain.
Hematoxylin
A blue dye obtained from the heart wood of the leguminous logwood tree (Haematoxylon
campechianum). It stains nuclei and cellulose cell walls blue. When oxidized it forms haematein, a
compound that forms strongly coloured complexes with certain metal ions, the most notable ones
being Fe(III) and Al(III) salts. So it also usually requires a mordant, such as iron alum or an aluminium
salt. Metal-haematein complexes are used to stain cell nuclei prior to examination under
a microscope. Different haematoxylin solutions can be prepared, e.g. Delafield's haematoxylin, which
can be used as a counterstain with safranin.
Acetocarmine
It is a nuclear stain used to stain chromosomes red. Carmine is a basic dye that is prepared
from the insect Coccus cacti. Acetocarmine is prepared by dissolving 2 g carmine powder in 1 L of 45%
glacial acetic acid, and refluxing for 24 h. One pellet of ferric chloride is also added while boiling. The
resultant mixture is filtered and stored in dark bottles at 4°C.
Canada Balsam
It is a mounting agent. It is an oleoresin obtained from the bark of the fir Abies
balsamea (of the family Pinaceae), native to North America. The dried resin is freely soluble in xylene
and other organic solvents. Reagents required are
Canada balsam ------------------------------- 55-65 g
Xylene ----------------- ----------------------- 100 ml
DPX (Distrene, Plasticiser, Xylene)
It is a common mounting agent. DPX is a colourless, neutral medium in which most standard stains
are well preserved. It is prepared by dissolving the common plastic, polystyrene, in a suitable
hydrocarbon solvent (usually xylene). The plasticiser resists the quick setting of polystyrene by forming
a mesh with the polymerised plastic. Reagents required are
Polystyrene (Distrene 80) ------------------------------ 18 g
Dibutyl phthalate ----------------------------------------- 7.5 ml
Xylene ----------------- ------------------------------------ 52.5 ml
Objective
is the optical lens system of a microscope that gathers light from the object being observed
and focuses the light rays to produce a real image. Objectives can be single lenses or mirrors, or
combinations of several optical elements.
Eyepiece
Eye piece or ocular is the lens or combination of lenses in a microscope through which the eye
views the image formed by the objective lens. It also serves to further magnify the image produced by
the objective. It consists of several "lens elements" in a housing, with a "barrel" on one end.
Condenser
Condenser lens is a basic component of almost all compound light microscopes. It is located
above the light source and under the sample in an upright microscope. It collects the light rays from
the microscope's light source and concentrates it into a cone of light that illuminates the specimen.
Mirror
Mirror collects the light from the source and directs it to the condenser lens which will then
focus it into a cone of light, to illuminate the specimen on the stage. The mirror has a concave side and
a plain side. But microscopes used in research have built-in light sources so mirrors are not needed.
7. Describe aperture type of pollen grain G
(Ornamentation type–1; Aperture type-1) (Weightage -2)

Porate Pororate Colpate Colporate

1. Porate : a pollen grain with round and compound apertures in which both the ectoaperture
and the endoaperture are circular pores of same diameter.
2. Pororate : a pollen grain with round and compound apertures in which both
the ectoaperture and the endoaperture are pores of different diameters. Endoaperture can be
seen as a distinct opening inside the ectoaperture.

3. Colpate : a pollen grain with elongated spindle-shaped aperture or colpus. Pollen grains are
usually tri-colpate, with three colpi.
4. Colporate : a pollen grain with elongated spindle-shaped aperture or colpus, having a pore
inside.

9. Make suitable micro preparations to bring out the structure of H.

(Preparation – 1.5; Labelled diagram-1.5; Identification-0.5; Reasons-1.5) (Weightage -5)

Anomalous secondary thickening in Dicot stem –Bignonia stem

 Single layered epidermis with thick cuticle and multicellular hairs.
• Heterogenous cortex with collenchyma or sclerenchyma (later) below the ridges as
hypodermis and parenchyma. In old stem, cortex has cork, cork cambium and cortex.
• Endodermis is indistinguishable and pericycle present as sclerenchymatous patches..
• Vascular system consists of primary phloem, secondary phloem, cambium, secondary
xylem and primary xylem.
• Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral, open and endarch.
 Primary phloem crushed into small patches. Secondary phloem forms four longitudinal
furrows, wedged in between the secondary xylem cylinder. These four intruded furrows of
secondary phloem are arranged as a cross.
 Single layered cambium is seen in between the xylem and phloem, and often bends
towards inner side along the phloem furrows.
 Secondary xylem is ridged and furrowed at four places due to intrusion of secondary
phloem.
 Primary xylem is endarch and sen close to the parenchymatous pith in the centre.

Anomalous secondary thickening in Monocot stem –Dracaena stem

 Single layered epidermis followed by a parenchymatous ground tissue, uniform
throughout.
• With secondary growth, periderm formation occurs giving rise to cork, phellogen and
phelloderm in the periphery.
• Formation of secondary cortical cambial ring occurs from permanent cells of cortex,
towards the periphery, outside the primary vascular region.
 • The secondary cortical cambial ring forms secondary vascular bundles and conjunctive
parenchyma alternatively to the inside.
• Secondary vascular bundles are amphivasal or leptocentric. Here, phloem is surrounded
by xylem.
 The secondary cortical cambium changes its activity after each producing each vascular
ring by alternatively switching the regions of production of vascular bundles and
coonjunctive tissue.
 So the secondary vascular bundles of successive rings show regular radial alternation.
 Cells of secondary conjunctive tissue are arranged in regular radial sequence and they
become lignified later.
Anomalous secondary thickening in Dicot stem –Boerhaavia stem
• Single layered epidermis with multicellular hairs.
• Heterogenous cortex with collenchymatous hypodermis, chlorenchyma and parenchyma.
• Endodermis and pericycle present.
• Vascular bundle in three rings – innermost ring with two large medullary bundles, middle
ring with 6-14 medium sized medullary bundles and outermost ring with 15-20 small
vascular bundles.
• Primary bundles conjoint, collateral, open and endarch.
• Medullary vascular bundles of middle and inner rings show little secondary growth.
 Small bundles of outer ring initially separate with xylem, phloem and fascicular cambium.
Later they develop interfascicular cambium between them.
 The fascicular and interfascicular cambia of these outer small vascular bundles unite to
form the secondary cambial ring, which cuts off secondary xylem inwards and secondary
phloem outwards.
 After sometime this first cambial ring stops its activity and then a second cambial ring is
produced outside from the phloem parenchyma cells of the first cambial ring.
• Anomalous secondary growth proceeds with the production of successive rings of xylem
and phloem.
10. Identify the stomatal type of I
(Identification-1; Diagram-1) (Weightage -2)

Anomocytic Anisocytic Paracytic Diacytic

No subsidiary cells Three subsidiary cells Two subsidiary cells Two subsidiary cells at
around guard cells two large & one small parallel to guard cells right angles to gua. cel

11. Identify the type of cellular inclusion in K

(Identification-1; Description-0.5; Diagram-0.5) (Weightage -2)

Raphides – are needle shaped crystals of calcium oxalate seen in bunches within specialized
cells called idioblasts eg. In Colocasia, Pistia etc.
 Cystoliths - are crystal aggregates of calcium carbonate within specialized cells called
lithicysts in the inner layers of upper epidermal cells. Each cystolith has a stalk and looks like a
bunch of grapes eg. In Ficus.
Concentric starch grains – are seen in clusters, scattered within the cytoplasm. Each starch
grain a distinct hilum in the centre, surrounded by several concentric layers of starch all
around the hilum.
Eccentric starch grains - are seen in clusters, scattered within the cytoplasm. Each starch
grain a distinct hilum towards one side, surrounded by several eccentric layers of starch
towards one side only.
Aleurone grains – are storage proteins seen in endosperm of castor seed. Each grain is ovate
and has a proteinaceous crystalloid body and a round globoid body which is a double
phosphate of calcium and magnesium. In cereals, aleurone layer is seen.
Druses – are crystals of calcium oxalate aggregated together to form spherical bodies with
spiny projections. They are also called sphaeroraphides eg. Thepesia.
12. Identify K and draw a neat labelled diagram
(Identification- 1, Diagram – 1) (2)
Anther T.S. Dicot embryo

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….
B.Sc. Botany- Practical- Core Practical-II - Course Code: BO1544
Microbiology, Phycology, Mycology, Lichenology, Plant Pathology,
Bryology, Pteridology, Gymnosperms and Paleobotany.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

1. Make suitable micro preparations to bring out the structure of A, B, C & D. Draw
a cellular diagram of each and label the parts. Identify giving reasons and leave the
preparation for evaluation.
(Preparation-1, identification with reasons-1, labeled diagram-1) (Weightage- 3x4= 12)

A. Fungus mentioned in the syllabus

Xylaria – TS of Perithecium
 Branched and septate dark-coloured mycelium forming the fleshy stroma
 Stroma long, cylindrical, white inside, but outwardly greyish turning pimply black
when mature
 Pimples represent the perithecia embedded in the white fleshy stroma and opening
outside only through the ostioles
 Produce spores in asci that are arranged intermingled with sterile paraphyses in
the fertile hymenial layer on the inner surface of the perithecium
 Peziza – VS of Apothecium
 Coenocytic much branched mycelium underground, with only the fruiting bodies or
apothecia seen above the ground
 Apothecia sessile irregularly cup-shaped white or buff coloured externally, and brown
internally
 VS of apothecium has fertile hymenium, subhymenium and hypothecium
 Hymenium has cylindrical asci intermingled with sterile paraphyses, with eight
ascospores inside each ascus

Puccinia – Uredosorus with uredospores

 TS of host leaf shows several rust-coloured uredosori along the upper margins.
 Each uredosorus has numerous stalked uredospores exposed by the breakdown of the
host epidermal wall
 Uredospores are unicellular, reddish-brown, binucleate, oval with very thick spiny
walls and four germ pores

Puccinia - Teleutosorus with teleutospores

 TS of host leaf shows several black teleutosori along the upper margins.
 Each teleutosorus has numerous stalked teleutospores exposed by the breakdown of
the host epidermal wall
 Teleutospores are bi-celled, dark brown/black, spindle-shaped with very thick walls
and slightly constricted at the cross-wall between the two cells
 Each cell has a germ pore and is binucleate when young & later becomes uninucleate
by nuclear fusion.

Agaricus –Section through gill

 Umbrella shaped pileus has numerous plate-like gills on the underside
 Gills are initially pink, then red-brown and finally a dark brown due to pigmentation of
basidiospores at maturity
 A gill in TS shows a central trama of loosely arranged mycelium, followed by
subhymenium of almost rounded cells towards the outside
 Hymenium is the fertile layer outside consisting of parallel arranged basidia
intermingled with sterile paraphyses
 Each basidium club-shaped and produces four haploid basidiospores on sterigmata

Cercospora – TS of infected leaf

 Coenocytic much branched septate mycelium ramifies through the intercellular spaces
in the leaf mesophyll of the host
 Mycelium produces branched haustoria which absorb food from the host tissues
 Conidiophores develop on a dense globular black stroma and are 1-2 septate
 They bear long cylindrical septate conidia with blunt round ends
 The conidia come out in tufts after rupturing the host epidermis.

B. Bryophyte mentioned in the syllabus

Riccia CS of thallus
 Thallus differentiated into upper assimilatory and lower storage regions.
 Upper assimilatory region photosynthetic, and made up of vertical rows of cells with
narrow air spaces between the rows.
  Cells in each row alike, with numerous discoid chloroplasts. Terminal cells bulged and
colourless, forming a loose upper epidermis, one cell thick.
 Lower storage region composed of compact parenchyma with little intercellular
spaces.
 Lower epidermis unilayered with unicellular smooth or tuberculate rhizoids and
multicellular scales.

Marchantia CS of thallus
 Thallus differentiated into upper assimilatory and lower storage regions.
 Upper assimilatory region photosynthetic, and made up of upper epidermis with
barrel-shaped air pores opening inwards into air chambers with branched
photosynthetic filaments inside.
 Each filament one cell thick and branched, but not reaching the upper epidermis; cells
with numerous discoid chloroplasts
 Lower storage region composed of compact parenchyma with little intercellular
spaces.
 Lower epidermis unilayered with unicellular smooth or tuberculate rhizoids and
multicellular scales.
 Gemma cups are situated on the dorsal side of the thallus.

C. Pteridophyte mentioned in the syllabus

Psilotum –TS of aerial branch

 Single layered thick-walled epidermis with stomata.
 Cortex many layered, differentiated into outer chlorenchymatous cortex, middle
sclerenchymatous cortex and inner parenchymatous cortex.
 Endodermis single layered and pericycle absent.
 Vascular system siphonostelic, with a well-defined parenchymatous pith in the centre.
 Phloem present inner to the endodermis.
 Xylem exarch and star-shaped, present below the phloem.

Psilotum – TS of synangium
 Many-layered thick wall present.
 Inner to the wall is the parenchymatous ground tissue.
 Ground tissue is divided into three chambers forming three sporangia..
 In each sporangium, many haploid kidney-shaped spores are formed.

Lycopodium - TS of stem
 Single layered thick-walled epidermis.
 Cortex many layered, differentiated into outer sclerenchymatous cortex and inner
parenchymatous cortex.
 Endodermis and pericycle single layered. Pith absent.
 Vascular system actinostelic (lobed xylem surrounded by ring of phloem) or
plectostelic (an actonistele with plate-like xylem patches).
 Xylem exarch and without vessels.

Selaginella – TS of stem
 Single layered thick-walled epidermis devoid of stomata.
 Cortex many layered, differentiated into outer and inner cortices.
  Outer cortex represented by the thick-walled, sclerenchymatous hypodermis.
 Inner cortex thin-walled and green, usually lacking intercellular spaces.
 Vascular system protostelic, sometimes siphonostelic or solenostelic.
 Protoxylem diarch represented by two lateral protoxylem groups and exarch.
 Air space present between the two steles and surrounding cortex.
 Radially elongated endodermal cells with casparian thickenings form 1-many celled
trabeculae, which connect the steles to the cortex.
 In each protostele, xylem is surrounded by phloem and a single-layered pericycle
successively.
Selaginella – TS of Rhizophore
 Single layered epidermis with thin cuticle.
 Cortex many layered, differentiated into outer sclerenchymatous cortex forming the
hypodermis and inner parenchymatous cortex.
 Endodermis and pericycle single layered. Pith absent.
 Vascular system protostelic (xylem cylinder surrounded by ring of phloem).
 Xylem exarch and monarch.

Equisetum – TS of aerial shoot

 Outline of stem has ridges and furrows.
 Single layered epidermis, silicified and containing sunken stomata in the furrows.
 Cortex sclerenchymatous below the ridges and inner chlorenchymatous below the
furrows.
 Vallecular canals present below the furrows in the cortex
 Endodermis and pericycle single layered.
 Vascular bundles situated opposite to the ridges and arranged in a ring.
 Stele is eustelic, xylem V-shaped and phloem in between the metaxylem.
 Protoxylem disintegrates to form a cavity called carinal canal.
 Pith is hollow.

Adiantum – TS of Rachis
 Single layered cuticularised epidermis without hairs.
 Hypodermis sclerenchymatous, 2-3 layers thick.
 Cortex parenchymatous and broad.
 Endodermis and pericycle single-layered.
 Vascular system protostelic and exarch, with a Y-shaped xylem surrounded completely
by phloem.
 Xylem vessels polygonal, arranged in the form of a Y, with central metaxylem.
 Protoxylem elements situated at the tips of the three free ends of the Y.

Adiantum – TS of Rhizome
 Single layered epidermis with numerous multicellular hairs.
 Hypodermis sclerenchymatous, 2-3 layers thick.
 Ground tissue is parenchymatous.
 Stele is gutter-shaped, dictyostelic and appears as 5-7 meristeles arranged in a ring,
with leaf gaps in between them.
 Each meristele has its own single-layered endodermis and pericycle.
 Vascular system or meristele is amphicribal with the xylem being surrounded
completely by phloem.
 Xylem measarch.
 Marsilea – TS of Petiole
 Single layered compact epidermis with rectangular cells.
 Below the epidermis, a two-layered hypodermis is seen.
 Outer cortex has large air spaces separated by parenchymatous septa.
 Inner cortex is parenchymatous, with starch and tannin cells.
 Endodermis and pericycle single-layered.
 Stele is triangular and protostelic, with a V-shaped xylem surrounded completely by
phloem.
 Xylem has central metaxylem, with protoxylem on both ends.
 Pith is absent.

Marsilea – TS of Rhizome
 Single layered epidermis without cuticle and stomata.
 Outer cortex has large air spaces separated by parenchymatous septa, outermost
layers contain chloroplasts.
 Middle cortex sclerenchymatous and inner cortex parenchymatous, with starch and
tannin cells.
 Stele is amphiphloic siphonostele with a xylem ring surrounded by inner and outer
phloem cylinders.
 Outer and inner phloem followed by outer and inner endodermis and pericycle
respectively.
 So stele contains outer endodermis, outer pericycle, outer phloem, xylem, inner
phloem, inner pericycle and inner endodermis.
 Central pith is parenchymatous.

D. Gymnosperm mentioned in the syllabus

Cycas – TS of Rachis
 Is cylindrical in outline showing insertion of pinnae on upper side.
 Epidermis is single layered with thick cuticle and sunken stomata.
 Below the epidermis, a narrow zone of chlorenchymatous cells is seen.
 Hypodermis is multilayered and sclerenchymatous.
 Ground tissue is parenchymatous, with mucilage ducts in the periphery.
 Vascular bundles arranged in omega-shaped manner (Ὠ).
 Each vascular bundle is conjoint, collateral and open, with a sclerenchymatous bundle
sheath.
 Xylem is endarch towards the base and exarch towards the apex.

Cycas– TS of Leaflet
 Upper epidermis is single layered with thick cuticle.
 Hypodermis is sclerenchymatous and two-layered in the midrib region.
 Mesophyll is divided into palisade and spongy parenchyma.
 Palisade cells elongated and compactly arranged with chloroplasts, while spongy
parenchyma has air spaces.
 Transfusion tissue with elongated radial tracheid like cells seen between palisade and
spongy tissues for lateral conduction of water.
 The single vascular bundle seen in the midrib region is conjoint, collateral, open and
mesarch and surrounded by a bundle sheath.
  Xylem is triangular, mesarch and diploxylic and seen on the upper side, with both
centrifugal and centripetal xylem elements.
 Phloem is seen below as crushed and arc-shaped.
 Lower epidermis is single layered with thick cuticle and sunken stomata.

Cycas – TS of Coralloid root

 Epidermis is single layered, followed by a broad cortex with three regions.
 Outer and inner cortex broad and parenchymatous.
 Middle cortex forms the algal zone filled with blue green algae like Nostoc, Anabaena
etc.
 Endodermis and pericycle are single-layered.
 Vascular bundles are radial with exarch xylem.
 Xylem is diarch to tetrarch.
 Central pith is parenchymatous.

Pinus – TS of Needle
 TS of Pinus needle is triangular in outline.
 Epidermis single-layered and heavily cuticularised with sunken stomata.
 Hypodermis sclerenchymatous, 2-3 layers thick.
 Mesophyll formed of arm palisade tissue with polygonal, parenchymatous cells having
chloroplasts and peg-like ingrowths. Resin canals present.
 Endodermal cells barrel-shaped, with casparian thickenings.
 Pericycle multi-layered with parenchymatous, sclerenchymatous, albuminous and
tracheidal cells.
 Vascular bundles 1 or 2 in number, conjoint, collateral and endarch.

Gnetum - TS of Leaf
 Upper epidermis is single layered with thick cuticle.
 Mesophyll is divided into palisade and spongy parenchyma.
 Palisade cells elongated and compactly arranged with chloroplasts, while spongy
parenchyma has air spaces.
 Many vascular bundles seen in the midrib region, arranged in an arc.
 Vascular bundles are conjoint, collateral and endarch.
 Xylem faces towards the upper part, and phloem towards the lower part.
 Many stone cells and latex cells are seen towards the base of the vascular bundle.
 Lower epidermis is single layered with many stomata.

Gnetum - TS of Stem
 Single layered thick-walled epidermis.
 Cortex many layered and parenchymatous, with a few layers of chlorenchyma near
the upper epidermis.
 Endodermis and pericycle are single layered and not well differentiated.
 Vascular bundles are arranged as a broken ring.
 Each vascular bundle is conjoint, collateral and open with endarch xylem.
 Xylem contains tracheids and vessels, while phloem contains sieve tubes and phloem
parenchyma.
 Parenchymatous medullary rays are seen between the vascular bundles.
 Central pith is broad and parenchymatous.
2. Sort out and identify any two algal specimens from the mixture E
(Separation & preparation-0.5; identification with reasons-1) (Weightage-1.5x2 = 3)

Nostoc
 Multicellular unbranched filament covered by gelatinous sheath
 Trichome made of small bead-like spherical or elliptical cells
 Large thick-walled heterocysts at intervals, able to fix atmospheric nitrogen.
Chlorella
 Unicellular spherical or elliptical thallus without flagella, singly or in groups
 A single large cup-shaped chloroplast with a single pyrenoid
 Single nucleus in centre, embedded in the cytoplasm.
Volvox
 Multiicellular motile thallus in the form of a mucilaginous coenobial colony
 Colony hollow in the centre, with a single peripheral layer of 500-6500 cells interconnected by
delicate cytoplasmic strands
 Cells motile, biflagellate, ovoid and chlamydomonas-like with a cup-shaped chloroplast, single
pyrenoid, single nucleus and an eye-spot
Oedogonium
 Multicellular unbranched filament with basal holdfast and apical rounded cell.
 Cells cylindrical, longer than broad, arranged end to end.
 Reticulate chloroplast, many pyrenoids and single large nucleus suspended by cytoplasmic
strands.
 Mature or old cells have cap cells towards their upper ends.
Cladophora – Thallus
 Multicellular, dichotomously branched, filamentous alga with basal holdfast.
 Cells cylindrical, 5-20 times longer than broad, arranged end to end.
 Branches arise as lateral outgrowths from the upper ends of cells.
 Each cell has a nucleus, large central vacuole, many discoid chloroplasts and numerous
pyrenoids.
Vaucheria – Filament with Haptera
 Filamentous branched unicellular and coenocytic thallus with colourless rhizoidal branches
growing into the substartum
 Cell with large vacuole continuous throughout the length of the filament.
 Peripheral layer of cytoplasm contains many small nuclei, discoid chromatophores, reserve
food as oil droplets etc.
 Pyrenoids are completely absent.
Pinnularia
 Diatom thallus is a diploid unicell, with two halves fitting together like a soap-box.
 Each cell like an oblong box with two parts – the outer epitheca and inner hypotheca. Each has
flat top and valvular margins.
 Each cell has transapical and pervalvar axes on the inner side, middle raphe & central and
polar nodules.
 In each cell, a vacuole, nucleus, a pyrenoid, many chromatophores and oil droplets are seen.
Polysiphonia – Habit
 Multicellular dichotomously branched filamentous and polysiphonous thallus with thick-
walled rhizoids basally. Polysiphonous thallus made of series of parallel filaments.
 Central axial cells large barrel-shaped forming the central siphon. It is surrounded by 4-24
pericentral cells of the pericentral siphons. Neighbouring cells interconnected by pit
connections.
  Cells uninucleate with thick cell walls, large central vacuoles, small discoid chromatophores
with or often without pyrenoids and reserve food as floridoside starch grains.
Polysiphonia – Tetrasporophyte
 Multicellular polysiphonous thallus made of central and pericentral siphons.
 The tetrasporophytic plant is diploid and bears tetrasporangia in longitudinal series, produced
by the pericentral cells.
 Each tetrasporangium by meiosis give rise to four uninucleate and haploid tetraspores,
arranged tetrahedrally.

3. Perform the Gram staining of bacterial solution F and show the result.
(Procedure-1; Skill- 1; Result- 1)
Procedure:
1. On a clear slide, prepare smear of bacteria and allow it to dry in air.
2. Stain the smear with Crystal Violet for 30 seconds.
3. Rinse with water for a few seconds and shake off excess.
4. Colour with Gram’s Iodine solution for 30 seconds
5. Rinse with distilled water.
6. Treat the smear with declourizer (95% Ethyl alcohol) add the alcohol drop by drop and stop
adding alcohol when no more colour flows out from the smear.
7. Wash with water.
8. Counter stain with Saffranin for 30 seconds.
9. Wash with water and blot dry.
10. Air dry the slide and observe under microscope.
Result: Those bacteria which retain the violet colour even after washing with the decolourizer are
Gram+ve and those appearing pink are Gram-ve.

4. Identify the disease, name of pathogen and give important symptoms of G)

(Disease-0.5; Pathogen-1; Symptoms-1.5) (weightage-3)

Disease Pathogen Symptoms

Leaf mosaic of Tapioca Mosaic virus  Severe chlorotic mosaic patterns on the leaves
Tapioca  leaf blade malformation
 stunted plant growth
Citrus canker Xanthomonas citri – a  Necrotic lesions forming rusty-brown spots called cankers on
bacterium the leaves, stems, fruits etc.
 fruit blemishes and premature fruit drop
 plant growth affected due to damage to new shoots
Blast disease of Pyricularia grisea – a  Elliptical or spindle shaped lesions on all aerial parts with
Paddy fungus brown borders and gray centres
 Lesions enlarge and coalesce eventually killing the leaves
 Even the panicles and spikelets are affected
Root wilt of Phytoplasma  Abnormal bending, yellowing and marginal necrosis of
Coconut leaflets
 Reduced leaves and crown
 Abnormal shedding of buttons and reduction in yield
 5. Spot at sight H I, J, K, L &M (weightage 1x6=6)

Nostoc Filament with Heterocysts

Chlorella Unicellular thallus with cup-shaped chloroplast and nucleus
Volvox Colony with cells
Oedogonium Unbranched filament with reticulate chloroplast and nucleus
Oedogonium Unbranched filament with dwarf male filaments or nannandria
Cladophora Thallus with holdfast
H. Alga Chara Thallus with nodes and internodes
Chara Thallus with sex organs (globule and nucule)
Vaucheria Filament with Haptera
Pinnularia Unicellular thallus with overlapping thecae
Sargassum Thallus with airbladders and receptacles
Sargassum TS of axis
Polysiphonia Thallus with polysiphonous arrangement of cells
Polysiphonia Thallus with Cystocarp
Polysiphonia Tetrasporophyte with tetraspores

I. Fossil form in Rhynia Sporophyte with gametangia

Paleobotany Lepidodendron Sporophytic tree with dichotomous branching and large fronds
Lepidodendron TS of stem
Lepidocarpon Habit or VS of sporophyte
Lyginopteris Sporophyte with large fronds

Rhizopus Mycelium with rhizoids, stolons and sporangiophores with spores

Saccharomyces Unicellular thallus with cells being budded off
Penicillium Branched mycelium with conidia
J. Fungi/Lichen Xylaria Thallus with cylindrical black stroma having perithecia peripherally
Xylaria TS of perithecium
Peziza Thallus with apothecium
Peziza VS of apothecium
Puccinnia Thallus (mycelium) with uredosori producing uredospores
Puccinnia Thallus (mycelium) with teleutosori producing teleutospores
Agaricus Basidiocarp with stipe, pileus, annulus and gills
Agaricus TS of gill

J. Lichen Usnea Thallus with apothecia

Usnea VS of Apothecium
 Riccia Gametophytic thallus
Riccia LS of Antheridium
Riccia LS of Archegonium
Marchantia Gametophytic thallus
K. Bryophyte
Marchantia LS of Antheridiophore
Marchantia LS of Archegoniophore
Marchantia LS of sporophyte
Polytrichum Gametophytic thallus with sporophyte
Polytrichum Gametophyte with antheridial cluster
Polytrichum Gametophyte with archegoniial cluster
Polytrichum LS of capsule of the sporophyte

Psilotum Sporophyte with synangia

Psilotum TS of synangium
Lycopodium cernum Sporophyte
Lycopodium clavatum Sporophyte
Lycopodium phlegmaria Sporophyte
Selaginella Sporophyte
L. Pteridophyte Selaginella LS of cone
Equisetum Sporophyte
Equisetum LS of cone
Adiantum Sporophyte
Marsilea Sporophyte
Marsilea TS of Sporocarp

Cycas Coralloid root

Cycas Microsporophyll bearing microspores
Cycas Megasporophyll bearing megaspores
Cycas LS of ovule
Pinus Dwarf shoot
M. Gymnosperms Pinus Male cone with microsporangia
Pinus Female cone with megasporangia
Pinus LS of ovule
Gnetum Male cone with maale flowers
Gnetum Female cone with female flowers
Gnetum LS of ovule