Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. Vol. 20. No. 2, pp.

p. 73-89, 1983 0148-9062 83 020073-17503.00'0

Printed in Great Britain Pergamon Press Ltd

Discontinuity Frequency in Rock Masses

J. A. HUDSON*
S. D, PRIESTf
The fracture or discontinuity frequency measured along a line through a rock
mass is often quoted as one sing&figure, yet the value can depend signi[icantly
on the orientation of the line through the rock mass. The amount of variation
that could be experienced along boreholes or scanlines in different directions
is a function of the discontinuity geometry, particularly the degree to which the
discontinuities tend to be orientated in certain preferred directions. In general,
rock masses with a few joint sets will exhibit much greater discontinuity
frequency variation than those with man), sets. The basic theory of discon-
tinuity frequency variation is presented for the general case of N discontinuity
sets which can be considered as the class intervals of a rosette or stereogram.
Methods for constructing loci of discontinuity frequency and for establishing
the magnitudes and directions of the maximum and minimum values of
discontinuity frequency are included. These methods, applying for persistent or
impersistent discontinuities, are illustrated by a case example. Some practical
guidance is also given on measurement of discontinuity frequency in rock
masses.

INTRODUCTION rock mass; this overall measure will not, however, be the
best parameter for design because orientational discrim-
The intensity of fracturing in rocks is of fundamental
ination has been suppressed.
importance in considerations of rock mass properties
Values of linear frequency in different directions could
before, during and after excavation. For this reason,
be crucial in estimating the support requirements or
estimates of the discontinuity frequency are normally
indeed the whole orientation of a particular under-
made during a site investigation for any major civil or
ground structure. Thus, the most generally useful
mining engineering scheme. However, the use of a single
measure of fracturing intensity will be related to linear
value for linear frequency (the number of discontinuities
frequency, in particular the basic linear frequencies of
encountered per unit length of a line in a particular
the discontinuity sets involved. Once these are known,
direction through the rock mass) will generally be
the linear frequency in any direction can be established
insufficient to provide an adequate description of frac-
together with the maximum and minimum values.
turing intensity for engineering design purposes.
The purposes of this paper are to present the basic
Discontinuities in rock are never uniformly distrib-
theory governing discontinuity frequency variation, to
uted at all orientations, but usually occur in sets [1]. The
explain how the linear frequency in any direction and the
linear frequency value will depend, therefore, on the
extreme values for a particular rock mass can be calcu-
direction of the line through the rock mass, a corollary
lated from the basic frequencies generated by a site
being that there is a maximum value in one direction and
survey, and to illustrate the theory with a case example.
a minimum value in another direction. Similarly, if the
From the theory and examples in the paper, it is hoped
frequency is measured on an areal basis (the number of
that the reader will be able to design an optimal discon-
discontinuities encountered per unit area of a plane in a
tinuity frequency survey for his specific conditions and
particular direction through the rock mass), the value
be able to calculate any discontinuity frequency param-
will be a function of the orientation of the measurement
eters that he desires.
plane. On the other hand, a volumetric frequency (the
Throughout the paper, the word 'discontinuity' is used
number of discontinuities encountered per unit volume
as a general term encompassing microfissures, fissures,
of the rock mass) has no measurement direction and
joints, bedding planes and faults. The analysis that is
therefore is a single value for a homogeneously fractured
presented applies to all discontinuities or to any defined
sub-group of such discontinuities in a rock or soil mass.
* Geotechnics Division, Building Research Establishment, Garston,
The terms 'discontinuity frequency' or 'frequency' refer
Watford, Herts. WD2 7JR, U.K. (Recently Visiting and Adjunct to the average frequency and the word 'scanline' is used
Professor, Department of Metallurgical and Mineral Engineering, either for an imaginary line at some orientation through
University of Wisconsin-Madison, U.S.A.). the rock mass or to a measurement tape set up on a rock
t Department of Mineral Resources Engineering, Imperial College
of Science and Technology, South Kensington, London SW7 2BP, exposure during a discontinuity survey. In the examples,
U.K. angles are measured in degrees rather than radians
73
74 HUDSON and PRIEST: DISCONTINUITY FREQUENCY

following the convention in rock mechanics and struc- The basic theoo"
tural geology. Consider, then, a single set of parallel, persistent and
planar discontinuities within a rock mass. The spacings
DISCONTINUITY FREQUENCY VARIATION between the discontinuities can be of any form: evenly
spaced, clustered or any other type of spacing distribu-
As mentioned in the Introduction, it can be of consid- tion. Along the normal (a line perpendicular to the
erable importance for design engineers to know how discontinuities), the discontinuity frequency is denoted
many discontinuities will be intersected along a line at a by 2, the mean number of discontinuities intersected per
given orientation within a rock mass. Such a line could unit length of the line. The mean spacing between
be along the roof or sidewalls of a proposed tunnel, mine discontinuities, 2, is the reciprocal of the frequency:
or machine chamber or along the dip of a potential
failure plane. In most rock masses, some proportion of 2 = 1/2.
the discontinuities occur in sub-parallel groups, or sets,
Assume that a scanline in a horizontal plane is at an
so that measurements of discontinuity frequency in one
acute angle ~t to the normal of a set of vertical discon-
direction may or may not provide a good estimate of the
tinuities as shown in Fig. l(a). The frequency along the
frequency in another direction; this will depend on the
scanline, 2,, will be less than that along the normal
discontinuity pattern and on the orientation of the lines.
because the distance, x, between two successive discon-
The purpose of this Section is to present the basic
tinuities intersected by the normal is increased to x/cos ~t
theory governing discontinuity frequency variation
along the scanline. In fact, for a length L of the normal
which involves both the orientation of the scanline and
intersecting N discontinuities and a length L/cos ct of the
the grouping and orientation of the discontinuities. The
scanline intersecting the same N discontinuities,
theory is developed for the general case and illustrated
in Appendix A starting with a single set of parallel,
2 = N / L along the normal
persistent and planar discontinuities. In Appendix A, the
number of sets is increased to two, three and four to and
illustrate the nature and magnitude of the variation in
2, = N / ( L / c o s ~ ) along the scanline.
discontinuity frequency. For simplicity, orthogonal or
other symmetrical discontinuity orientations have been Therefore,
used for the explanatory examples in Appendix A. An
asymmetrical example is considered in the case example 2s = ( N / L ) cos ct
in the main text. Finally, to study anisotropy of discon-
or
tinuity frequency, the number of symmetrically
orientated sets can be increased while maintaining a }.~=2 COS0~ for an acute angle 0t
fixed discontinuity density until an infinite number of
and
sets. each with infinitesimal frequency, is achieved; the
contribution from such discontinuities then becomes ).~ = 2 Jcos ct I for all ot (I)
independent of scanline direction because they are
randomly orientated. In the general case, the absolute value of cos ~t must be

0o

Normal

120 °

2101 " ~ ' ~ = - . . ~ Y - - K1500

18(b°
(a) (b}
Fig. 1. (a) A scaniine in the horizontal plane at angle = to the normal of a set of vertical discontinuities, (b) Polar plot of
the discontinuity frequency locus.
 HUDSON and PRIEST: DISCONTINUITY FREQUENCY
taken because the resolved component of 2 is always
positive.
This definition of discontinuity spacing and the fre-
quency resolution is compatible with the early work by
Terzaghi [2] and the more recent methods suggested for
the quantitative description of discontinuities in rock
masses by the International Society for Rock Mechanics
[3]. The current work differs in that the cosine term has
been used because ct is the angle between the normal to
the discontinuities and the scanline, rather than the angle
between the discontinuities themselves and the scanline.
The variation in discontinuity frequency that occurs as
the scanline in Fig. l(a) is rotated from 0t = 0 ° to
~t = 360 ° is shown by the polar diagram in Fig. l(b). The
scanline frequency, ).,, is represented by the distance
from the centre of the diagram to one of the circular loci
as illustrated for the case of ct = 30 ° in the diagram. The
maximum value of 2, is 2 and occurs when the scanline
is in the direction of the discontinuity set normal
(~ = 0°); the minimum value of 2, is zero and occurs
when the scanline is parallel to the discontinuities
(~t = 90°). In fact, this case of a single set of parallel
discontinuities is the most anisotropic case possible
because the ratio between the maximum and minimum
frequency values is infinite. Moreover, the angle between
the directions of these extreme values is 90 ° and this
orthogonality of extreme values does not generally
Occur.
An important feature of the locus in Fig. l(b) is the
cusp that occurs when the scanline becomes perpendic-
ular to the normal, and hence parallel to the discon-
tinuities, i.e. for ~ = 90 + or 270 °. The cusp is indicated
by the arrows on the locus around the ct = 90 ° portion
and occurs because the value of 2, does not asymptote
to zero as ct approaches 90°: the slope of the locus,
d(cos~)/dct = -sin~t, is not zero for ~t = 90 °. In this,
and subsequent two- and three-dimensional examples,
the cusps are sharply defined. This is because it has been
assumed that all sets contain parallel discontinuities. In
reality, there would be some variability about the mean
Scantine: frend=oc , plunge: B
A ~ y (0°)
~
x 19001
~E tx'ty'tz
z mx'my'mz
(vertical.)
OABC ties in fhe horizontal, ptane
OBD ties in a verficat ptane
Fig. 2. The orientation of a scanline in a cartesian coordinate system.
75
orientation for each set; this would lead to a rounding
of the cusps. This rounding effect will form the subject
of future research.
In order to consider the variation of 2, in three
dimensions, it is necessary to be able to define the
orientation of an arbitrary line in three dimensional
space. This is most easily done using the plunge ,8 (the
acute angle measured in a vertical plane between the
downward-directed end of the line and the horizontal)
and the trend ~t (the geographical azimuth of this vertical
plane measured in the direction of plunge). The trend
and plunge of the scanline are respectively ~t and/3; the
trend and plunge of the normal to the ith discontinuity
set are respectively ~ and /3i.
Figure 2 shows a left-handed cartesian coordinate
system in which x is horizontal to the east (trend 090°),
y is horizontal to the north (trend 0 °) and z is down-
wards vertical (plunge 90+). A scanline, OD, of trend
and plunge/3 will have direction cosines relative to the
x, y and : axes given respectively by
Ix = sin 0t cos/3
t,. = c o s ~ c o s
1- = sin fl
The angle 0 between this line, and a second line, OE,
with direction cosines m+, m.,. and m: is given by
cos 0 = !,.m,. + !,.my + l:m:
The angle 0~ between a scanline of trend ct and plunge fl
and the normal to the ith discontinuity set (trend ;ti and
plunge/3i) is therefore given by
cos 0, = (sin ;t cos fl sin ~ti cos fli)
+ (cos ~ cos/~ cos ~i cos £ )
+ (sin/3 sin fli) (2)
or
c o s 0~ = c o s (~ - ~,) c o s / 3 cos/3i
+ sin/3 sin/3i (3)
If the discontinuity frequency along the ith set is 2i
and there are N sets, the discontinuity frequency along
the scanline is found from equation (1) by summing the
resolved frequencies from each set as follows
N
2~ = ~ 2~ cos 0i for acute angles 0i
i=l
or
N
2+ = ~ 2;Icos 0il for all 0i (4)
i=l
Combining equations (2) and (4) gives
)++= a sin ct cos ,8 + b cos ct cos/3 + c sin ,8 (5)
76 HUDSON and PRIEST: DISCONTINUITY FREQUENCY

where where
,\
N
a = ~ 2, sin2,
a = ~ 2, sin ~ticos fl, 1=1
i=!

N
b = ~" )~,COS~
b = ;., c o s cos/ , t=l
i=1

N The values :~, and 2~ma~are given by equations (6) and (8)
c = Y~ )~i sin fl,
i=1
the values a, b and c being constant for a given discon-
tinuity geometry.
The directions ~,, and //,, associated with a value of
maximum discontinuity frequency are found by partially
differentiating equation (5) with respect to a and fl,
equating the results to zero and then solving simul-
taneously to obtain ~,, and fl,,. This gives
~,. = tan -I (a/b)
fl,. = tan -I (c/x/a'- + b 2)
Substituting these values of oz., and //,. for ~ and // in
equation (5) gives a value of maximum discontinuity
frequency
,~.Smax = x/a 2 + b 2 + c 2
The value 2,,~ is a local maximum, which may or may
not be a global maximum. Equations (6)-(8) demon-
strate that a, b and c are, in fact respectively the x, y and
z components of the ';"m,~ vector.
In two dimensions, taking N vertical discontinuity sets
intersecting the horizontal plane, a l l / / a n d / / ~ are zero,
hence equation (5) becomes
2, = a sin ~ + b cos :t
respectively, noting that in two-dimensions c = 0.
It is important to remember that the validity of
equations (5)-(9) is subject to the constraint that
cos0i~> 0 since the components of discontinuity fre-
quency cannot be negative. This is equivalent to the
constraint that 0i must always be acute, - 9 0 ~< 0~ ~< 90L
In practice, for given values of = and fl, this constraint
can always be satisfied for any pair of values :c~ and fl,
by taking, if necessary, the reverse direction (a~ + 180 °)
and upward inclination (-fl~) to ensure that 0~ is acute.
(6) The local maximum given by equations (6). (7) and (8)
(7) is for that part of the 2, locus in the region of the scanline
of trend ~ and plunge fl in equation (2). The distinction
between local and global maxima is explained later.
The general theory set out in equations (2)-(8) is
applicable for any discontinuity orientation and any
(8) number of sets. In order to illustrate the theory, and to
understand the properties of local and global maxima
and minima for discontinuity frequency, it is useful to
examine a number of simple discontinuity geometries.
This has been done in Appendix A for cases involving
one to four discontinuity sets.
The geometry of the L~ locus in two dimensions
The discontinuity frequency, ,;.,, along a horizontal
(9) scanline of trend ~ passing through N vertical discon-

0o

car}[ine

~2

,r

~N
270° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90*

\
\ ~X,. ~ . ~ - ~ - ~ Normal to
j \ scanline

i \ z

180 °
Fig. 3. Geometricalconvention for measuring trend such that - 9@ ~<(:t - cq) ~<90~ and hence cos (~t - %) is never negative.
 HUDSON and PRIEST: DISCONTINUITY FREQUENCY 77

tinuity sets whose normals have trend 0t~(i = 1, 2 . . . N) (3) from the centre of the polar diagram, the diameter
is given by equation (9). In this two dimensional case, the of the circular arc has a trend given by 0tin in equation
angle 0~ between the scanline and the ith normal is given (6).
by
The circular arc defined in this way is that arc which
0, = (~ - ~,) includes the trend direction :t used in the constraint
- 9 0 ° ~<(~ - 0ti) ~< 90 °. In order to plot the complete
Because discontinuity frequency cannot be negative it
locus it is simply necessary to select values of ct that lie
is necessary to impose the constraint, referred to earlier,
within each of the separate inter-cusp zones and which
that cos 0~ >/0 therefore define different circular arcs. In some cases, the
computed value of ~,, may lie outside its inter-cusp zone.
hence cos (ct - 0ti) >/0
In such a case, only that part of the arc in the inter-cusp
or - 9 0 ° ~ (~t - ct~)~< 90 ° zone is plotted; 2.... is not plotted and hence there is no
stationary point defining a maximum for 2s in the actual
This constraint can always be satisfied by adjusting, if
inter-cusp zone itself. Local and global minima for 2s
necessary, a given a~ value by +_ 180°: if (~t - a~) > 90 °,
always occur at cusps; however, all cusps do not neces-
then 180° is added to ~t~;if (~t - ct~)< - 9 0 °, then 180° is
sarily define local minima.
subtracted from ~ti. The results of such an adjustment are
A simple two-dimensional theoretical example using
illustrated in Fig. 3. The adjustment of the ~ti values in
three vertical discontinuity sets (2~ = 7, 22 = 2, 23 = 4),
this way has particular significance when considering the
shown in Fig. 4a, illustrates how the constructed ).~ locus
direction and magnitude of maximum frequency.
(Figs 4b and c) is defined by six intersecting circular arcs.
The variation of 2, with a in the range 0 ° to 360 ° is
The example shows how the strike directions of the
described by a number, 2N, of circular arcs which
discontinuities (at 90 ° to the 2i directions) define the
intersect to define 2N cusps. In this two-dimensional case
locations of the cusps in the polar plot of ),,. Although
involving vertical discontinuities, these cusps occur in
the individual circles shown in Fig. 4b appear similar to
the strike directions of the various discontinuity sets.
those defining the 2s locus for a single discontinuity set
The circular arc describing the 2, locus for each intercusp
in Fig. lb, they are different. The diameter and location
zone can be plotted directly using compasses if the centre
of each of the former (Fig. 4b) depends upon the
and diameter of the circle can be determined. In the
properties of all three discontinuity sets while that of the
absence of a computer-driven plotter, this provides an
latter is uniquely defined by the single set. In other words
easier method of constructing the locus than by changing
the 2i directions do not, in general, coincide with direc-
in suitably small increments between 0 ° and 360 ° to
tions of 2s~. Inspection of Fig. 4(b) reveals that the ).~
generate numerous values of 2 , and can be accom-
locus is rotationally symmetrical, in that the information
plished using the following information:
is duplicated across any arbitrary straight line passing
(1) each circular arc, if extended, must pass through through the centre indicated by the letter O. The global
the centre of the polar diagram; maximum and minimum for ).~ are found by inspecting
(2) the diameter of a given circular arc is given by 2,~., the locus. In Fig. 4c these extreme values are 10.76 and
in equation (8); 4.75 in the directions ctm= 28 ° and ct = 130 ° respectively.

ps

~,1=7 or.1=60 °
~'2 =2 ¢,2=80 °
(a) ),3=/. 0~3=160o (b) (c)
Fig. 4. Construction of the discontinuityfrequencylocus for a two-dimensionalexample with three discontinuity sets.
78 HUDSON and PRIEST: DISCONTINUITY FREQUENCY
The geometry o f the Ls locus in three dimensions
The discontinuity frequency, 23, along an inclined
scanline of trend ~ and plunge /3 passing through N
discontinuity sets whose normals have trend 7, and
plunge/3~ (i = 1, 2 . . . N) is given by equation (5). As in
the two-dimensional case, one approach to plotting the
2, locus would be to use this equation, incrementing e in
the r a n g e 0 ° to 360 ~ a n d f l i n the r a n g e 0 to 9 0 . The
~, for each pair of e, /3 could be plotted on a lower
hemisphere projection and then contoured to produce
diagrams such as those shown in Appendix Figs AI, A3,
A5 and A6.
The angle 0, between the scanline and the ith normal
is given by equations (2) or (3). As before, it is necessary
to satisfy the constraint that - 90 ° ~< 0~ ~< 90 :. For given
values of ~ and fl, this constraint can always be satisfied
for any pair of values ~ and/3, by taking, if necessary,
the reverse direction e~ + 180 ° and -/3~. If the resulting
value of e~ exceeds 360 °, it may be convenient, although
it is not strictly necessary, to subtract 360 ~ from this
resulting value. Again, the adjustment of e~ and/3~ in this
way is of significance when considering the direction and
magnitude of maximum frequency.
The variation of )~< with ~ in the range 0-360 ~' and/3
in the range - 9 0 - ~ + 9 f f is described by a number,
N 2 - N + 2. of part spheres which intersect to define
cusps in the shape of V-shaped valleys. These cusps
occur in the planes of the various discontinuity sets. The
geometry of each part sphere describing the 2~ locus for
each inter-cusp zone is defined in a similar way to the
two-dimensional case, as follows:
(1) each part sphere, if extended, must pass through
the same point, which is the origin of the three-
dimensional locus;
)'1
,,Jig i
Fig. 5. A circular area intersected by three discontinuitysets.
(2) the diameter of a given sphere is given by 2 ...... ~n
equation (8):
(3) from the origin of the locus, the diameter of a given
sphere has a trend :~,,,and a plunge [3,,,given by equations
(6) and (7) respectively.
The sphere defined in this way is that sphere which
includes the trend direction ~ and plunge/3 used in the
constraint - 90 ~< 0, ~< 9 0 . Positive values of/3 point to
spheres below the horizontal plane while negative values
of fl point to spheres above the horizontal plane. Again.
as in the two-dimensional case. the )., values are dupli-
cated across any arbitrary straight line passing through
the origin.
It is, of course, laborious to produce a contoured
lower hemisphere projection and impractical to produce
a three dimensional model describing the complete 2,
locus. It is, however, quite feasible to determine the
orientation and magnitude of the ½(N2 - N + 2) separate
local maxima for 2~ in the lower hemisphere. This is done
by selecting pairs of ~. /3 within each of the separate
inter-cusp zones, satisfying the constraint on each of the
0~, and then using equations (6), (7) and (8) to find c~,,,
tim and 2s~x. As mentioned earlier, some of these 2,m,~
values calculated from the formula may not lie within
the inter-cusp zone being considered for a particular
case. Thus the ~,, and fl,, values must be checked to
confirm that the orientation of maximum frequency is in
fact in the inter-cusp zone. It is then possible to identify
the global maximum for ).< and produce one or more
two-dimensional plots containing 2Sma; these represent
slices through the three-dimensional locus in planes
containing 2.... •
Local minima for 2s will occur in directions parallel to
each of the discontinuity sets. The direction defined by
oral number of discontinuities
ntersecfing a circle of diamefer 0
s given by
N
)'a = ~1)`i
D.=
1here N= number of sefs.
f ),i= 1//N
'hen )'a = D .
"or exampte if N=3
)`1 = XZ = )'3 = 1//3
ind )'a= Z1D,,XzD*)`3 D= D
.a
 HUDSON and PRIEST: DISCONTINUITY FREQUENCY 79

Number
of sets N: 1 2 4 N ~
Discontinuity
,'-P~. set vectors ..~--~,,. -"
• / ~'%
/
ii##/ ~ I I
I
'(.
\

=--1--~
,: ,,
Loci of ....
/
,,' ,,, % , , ~ / 1

"--
i- \\
~• ~•
),'
11/

discontinuity frequency )'s Random geometry

2 - D case Polar plots of k s )'s ~ 2/rr

3-O case Equal area projections contoured for ~,s ),s""0.5

Fig. 6. Discontinuity frequency loci (top row) and contours (bottom row) showing the convergence to isotropy as the number,
N, of symmetrically orientated sets with equal frequencies, I / N , is progressively increased.

the intersection of any given pair of discontinuity sets
will, therefore, present a candidate for the direction of
global 2sin,.. For N discontinuity sets there will be, in
general, a total of ½(N2 - N) separate intersection direc-
tions in each hemisphere. The values of ~t and fl associ-
ated with each of these directions can be found from a
lower hemisphere projection. After satisfying the con-
straint on each of the 0~, equation (5) can be used tc
calculate the 2~ for each direction and hence, by in-
spection, give the global 2,=i. Again, two dimensional
plots containing the global 2,,= can be constructed by
taking slices through the three-dimensional locus. In
general, there will be one unique plane that defines a slice
containing the global 2 ~ x and the global 2,m~,; this is
termed the "plane of extreme frequencies". Investigation
of the properties of this and associated extreme planes
will form the subject of future work.
Symmetrically orientated sets with equal frequencies
With the formulae derived in the previous sub-
sections, it is possible to study the variation in discon-
tinuity frequency when the sets and hence set normals
are symmetrically orientated in space and have equal
frequencies. The purpose of this exercise is to study
quantitatively the development of isotropy as the num-
ber of sets increases. The following analysis demon-
strates that by increasing the number of sets from one to
infinity the full range of anisotropy is covered: from
severe anisotropy for one set to complete isotropy for an
infinite number of sets.
In order to keep the areal density of discontinuities
constant as the number of sets is increased for the two
dimensional case, the value of the set frequencies is taken
as the reciprocal of the number of sets: 2~= 1IN. In the
case of one set, 21 = I; for two sets, 2t and 22 = 1/2; for
three sets 21, 22 and 23 = 1/3 and so on. The number of
discontinuities intersecting a circle in the horizontal
plane will then be the same for any number of sets. This
is because the number of discontinuities from any partic-
ular set intersecting a circle is 2~D where 2~ is the
frequency along the set normal and D is the diameter of
the circle. The number of persistent discontinuities, 2a
from all sets intersecting the circle is then given by
N
;ca = ~ 2iD
i=1
as illustrated in Fig. 5 for the case of three sets. But since
2i has been defined as 1IN then
N N
2,D = ~ D / N = N D I N = D
i=1 i=1
which is a constant for any number of sets.
The overall variation in discontinuity frequency for
the two-dimensional case can be established using equa-
tion (4); the frequency loci for N = 1, 2, 4 and oo are
plotted in the top row of diagrams in Fig. 6 for
symmetrically orientated sets. In each diagram, the set
normals are indicated by arrows with a length propor-
tional to the set frequencies, i.e. l/N, starting with unit
frequency for one set. As the number of sets is increased,
the loci progressively change from two circles, through
various multiple-lobed shapes, to the one circle in the
limiting case of an infinite number of sets. As N---, oo, the
discontinuity frequency becomes constant for any scan-
line direction and the discontinuities can be considered
as randomly orientated.
80 HUDSON and PRIEST:
The rapidity with which the frequency converges to a
limiting value as the number of sets is increased can be
studied by examining the difference between the maxi-
mum and minimum frequency values as N is increased.
In Appendix B the following formulae and limits are
derived:
2,ma~ = I / ( N sin (n/2N))
2sin,, = cos Or/2N)/(N sin (rc/2N))
lim 2s=,~= lim 2Smin = 2/n
Thus, from equations (10) and (11)
)-.... - 2s,~, = (1 - cos (n/2N))/(N sin (n/2N)) (12)
with the difference between the squared frequencies
providing a simpler expression:
22Smax - - t~"~Smin = 1/N 2
For the four cases illustrated in Fig. 6, the values of
maximum and minimum discontinuity frequency are
given below.
Number of sets 1 2 4 oo
2s=a~ 1.000 0.707 0.653 0.637
/~'$min 0.000 0.500 0.604 0.637
The implication of this rapid convergence is that if
several symmetrically orientated discontinuity sets with
similar frequencies intersect a rock face, very little
difference in discontinuity frequency will be observed
along scanlines in different directions across the rock
face.
In three dimensions, N sets cannot always be sym-
metrically orientated (i.e. have equal solid angles be-
tween the normals) because there are only a finite
number of regular polyhedra. As a consequence, formu-
lae for the maxima and minima cannot be developed in
the same way as before. However, the process of in-
creasing the number of sets with 'almost symmetrical'
orientation can be developed with the frequency along
each set normal again taken as I/N. This frequency value
ensures that the mean number of discontinuities inter-
secting a sphere will remain constant as D, where D is
the diameter of the sphere.
The variation in discontinuity frequency for the three-
dimensional case is plotted in the contoured lower
hemisphere projections in Fig. 6. In direct analogy to the
polar plots, and when both lower and upper hemispheres
are included, the loci contours gradually change from
representing two spheres, through various "blackberry"
shapes, to one sphere as N is increased to infinity. The
values of maximum and minimum frequency for the
three-dimensional case are given below. The limiting
value of 0.5 for an infinite number of sets is derived in
Appendix B.
DISCONTINUITY FREQUENCY
Number of sets 1 v 4
...................................................................................
)'*ma, 1.000 0.707 0.577 0.500
)"m,, 0.000 0.000 0.408 0.500
Convergence to the limiting value is less rapid than in
(10) two dimensions because of the third degree of orien-
tational freedom; but even when four sets are reached--
(11)
the tetrahedral case discussed in Appendix A--the maxi-
mum frequency does not exceed the minimum frequency
by more than 500/0.
Asymetrically orientated sets with unequal jrequencies
Symmetry and equal frequencies were assumed in the
previous sub-section to illustrate the spectrum of aniso-
tropy produced by regular discontinuity set geometries.
It is very rare, however, that a rock mass contains
discontinuities with regular orientation. In the real case.
(13) the sets will be asymmetrically orientated and have
unequal frequencies. In many cases, the discontinuities
will not even be in clearly defined sets: there will be
discontinuities with greater or lesser frequencies at all
orientations.
In the absence of symmetry, there is no possibility of
reducing the summation
N
>.s = ~ 2i cos Oi
i=l
by the use of trigonometrical identities. Nor in the
general case, is there any direct way of obtaining the
maximum and minimum values. The general formula for
the maximum is really several formulae in which
different ~¢iand/3,, values must be inserted algorithmically
depending on the scanline orientation. Similarly, the
minimum will always occur in a direction perpendicular
to a normal (or parallel to a discontinuity set) but it may
not be the normal with highest frequency. In Appendix
Fig. A4 for example, the minimum does occur in a
direction parallel to the set with the highest fre-
quency, 23; in more complex cases though, this direction
might coincide with several set normais each having
frequencies just less than that of the maximum, in which
case the minimum would not be perpendicular to the
normal of highest frequency.
In the general case, the simplest procedure is to avoid
completely the necessarily subjective process of deciding
to which set a particular discontinuity belongs. This is
achieved by defining the sets as class intervals of a
discontinuity rosette for two-dimensional cases, or a
stereogram for three-dimensional cases. As a two dimen-
sional illustration, consider a horizontal planar rock face
intersected by vertical discontinuities with various strike
directions. In the absence of well-defined discontinuity
sets, it would be feasible to establish nine symmetrically
orientated scanlines, at azimuths 0, 20, 4 0 . . . 160°, and
measure the frequencies of only those discontinuities
making an angle of between 80 and 100 ° to the scanline.
The resulting frequencies could be plotted on a rosette
diagram for a class interval of 20 ° and, for the purposes
 HUDSON and PRIEST:
xc
(a) Persistent discontinuities (b) lmpersistence produced by
intermittent discontinuities
Fig. 7. Traces produced by sets of persistent and impersistent discontinuities intersecting a plane surface. (a) Persistent
discontinuity planes. (b) Intermittent discontinuity planes. (c) Separate impersistent discontinuity planes.
of further analysis, regarded as the )-i values for nine
arbitrarily-defined, symmetrically orientated sets. This
would allow the use of equations (6), (8) and (9) for the
calculation of ctm, 2,m,"and 2s in the usual way. In practice
it would not be necessary to use nine scanlines since, if
discontinuity orientation were measured along a pair of
orthogonal scanlines, the 2~ values could be computed
for any orientation bandwidth about any arbitrarily-
defined set normal using the theory presented in the early
part of this paper.
Depending on the accuracy of the original survey
data, the number of class intervals in the original rosette
could be increased to, say, 18 or 36. As mentioned
earlier, compilation of a scanline frequency diagram
does give a picture of the overall variation and reduces
the chance of error when using the formulae for maxi-
mum and minimum frequency values. By extension, the
same procedure can be utilized for the three-dimensional
case by taking class intervals of the stereogram defined
by trend and plunge intervals. A lower hemisphere
projection contoured for discontinuity frequency can
then be produced using equation (5) for each of the N
three-dimensional intervals defined by the trend and
plunge intervals.
Impersistence
In the theory presented so far, the discontinuity planes
have been assumed to be continuous or persistent as
illustrated in Fig. 7(a). In reality, the discontinuities can
be impersistent, either because the discontinuity planes
are intermittent (Fig. 7(b)) or because each bounded
discontinuity is separate from the others and of limited
size (Fig. 7(c)). If the frequency of the set of complete
discontinuities in Fig. 7(a) is 2~, the impersistence of a
similar set of incomplete discontinuities shown in Fig.
7(b) could be quantified by a factor p~, representing the
proportion of the area of discontinuity plane or length
of discontinuity trace present, giving the set frequency as
p~2~ for a statistically homogeneous distribution. The
impersistent discontinuity set shown in Fig. 7(c) cannot
be considered using the factor p~ because, in this case, the
measured value of 2, will depend upon both the number
and the size of the separate discontinuities present. In
DISCONTINUITY FREQUENCY 81
p~x~ xi
(a) Separate impersisfent
discontinuities
view of this, it is desirable to regard 2i simply as the
actual discontinuity frequency along the set normal,
embodying the combined influence of the number and
size of discontinuities present.
In a site survey, the measured values of discontinuity
frequency will incorporate the influence of impersistence
whatever its nature. Therefore, having included auto-
matically the effects of impersistence in the 2i values, the
formulae presented earlier can be applied directly using
the measured frequency values.
Inhomogeneity
It was noted earlier that the discontinuity frequency
variation concepts and formulae are not affected by the
way in which the discontinuities are spaced: within a set,
the discontinuities can be clustered, evenly spaced or
distributed in any other way. It was tacitly assumed
though that the rock mass being considered was statisti-
cally homogeneous as a whole. Even if the discon-
tinuities are occurring in clusters, the scanlines in ques-
tion should be long enough to obtain a precise value of
mean discontinuity frequency. The situation becomes
more complex if the rock is not statistically homoge-
neous. The fundamental frequencies might be estab-
lished from three orthogonal scanlines in the field but the
calculated directions of maximum and minimum fre-
quency will pass through volumes of the rock that have
not been studied and which could be fractured in a
different way with different fundamental frequencies.
It must be established in the site survey whether or not
the volume of rock under consideration is statistically
homogeneous by making measurements at different lo-
cations. This is fundamental to all site measurements: if
the data only apply at the point or along the line where
they were obtained, they have very limited value. If
statistical homogeneity is established, there is no prob-
lem. If not, there are two ways of coping with in-
homogeneity. Firstly, the rock mass can be considered as
composed of structural regions within which the basic
frequencies are invariant, as recommended by Piteau [4].
Secondly, the rock mass can be considered as con-
tinuously changing, with the basic frequencies being
parameters whose values will depend on location within
82 HUDSON and PRIEST:
Fig. 8. Cambrian sandstone rock face with 1 m scale.
the rock mass. Analytical methods of using the second
approach are being developed through the geostatistical
technique for rock properties in general [5] and discon-
tinuity characteristics in particular [6]. It is likely that the
geostatistical technique incorporating a continuously
changing frequency will prove to be useful because of the
difficulty that will be encountered in cases when the
necessary structural regions are smaller than the sample
size required to obtain precise frequency estimates.
TWO-DIMENSIONAL CASE EXAMPLE
Figure 8 is a photograph of a jointed Cambrian
sandstone rock face with a 1 m scale included. The
example described below utilizes measurements, taken
from a 275 x 350 m m print of this rock face, to illustrate
some of the ideas presented earlier.
A circle representing a sample area of 4.5 m dia was
drawn on the print; all discontinuities within this sample
area were traced to produce the diagram shown in Fig.
9. To simplify the presentation, the 12 o'clock position
on this diagram was taken as the ~ = 0 ° position. Nine
diametral scanlines were set up across the tracing at 20 °
intervals, at • values of 0, 20, 4 0 . . . 160 °. Each diametral
scanline was examined to determine the frequency of
discontinuities making an angle of 90 _+ 10 ° to the
scanline direction. A simple template containing a 20 °
window was used for the purpose. This sampling pro-
cedure had the effect of classifying the discontinuities
into nine symmetrically orientated sets. The ~ and 2~
DISCONTINUITY F R E Q U E N C Y
values for each set. summarized in Table 1, show that
sets 2 and 3 had zero frequency, reducing the effective
number of sets to seven. All values of discontinuity
frequency, ),, in this table are expressed as number per
diameter. The "strike" directions of the nine discon-
tinuity sets, c~, c z . . . c~, which are given by
ci = ~, + 9 0 ,
define the locations of cusps in the polar graph of )~, vs
a. These directions are plotted as solid diametral lines in
Fig. 10.
A hand calculator program was written to calculate
values of 2s, a,, and )°~ma* for given values of ~ using
equations (4), (6) and (8). Naturally, an important
feature of this program was that, where necessary for a
given value of ~, 180 ° was added to or subtracted from
each of the ai to ensure that - 9ff ~~< (~ - ~,) ~< 9 0 . The
resulting values of ~ were then used to calculate ).,.. ~,,
and 2Sr~~ for the given 7.
To construct the 2s locus, nine values of ~t were
selected, each at the mid-point of an inter-cusp zone.
Because of the symmetry of the scanlines, this meant that
the selected values of ct were in fact the nine values of ct~.
The resulting values of ~,,, 2,.,~, and 2~ are listed in
Table 1.
The values of a,, and 2.... were used to construct the
circular arcs describing the variation of 2~ within each
inter-cusp zone as shown in Fig. 10. For example,
= 60 ° lies between the cusps c8 and c9. The value
~,, = 30.3 ° defines the direction of the diameter of the
circular arc which describes the variation of ~ between
c8 and c9; the length of this diameter is given by
2.... = 43.3. In this example, a,, lies outside the inter-cusp
zone c8 - c9, hence there is no stationary point defining
a local m a x i m u m for 2, in this zone. The seven different
directions defined by the values of ~,, in Table 1 are
marked as dashed lines in Fig. 10. Each arc is construc-
0 I 2m
t I |
Fig. 9. Tracing of discontinuities from a circular sample area o f the
rock face shown in Fig. 8.
 HUDSON and PRIEST: DISCONTINUITYFREQUENCY 83

Table 1. Values of discontinuity frequency for the,~aml~le:illust!~at~in Figs 8-10

21 Predicted Actual
~ti,a (per a,, ~.~, 2, (per 2, (per
(degrees) diameter) (degrees) (per diameter) diameter) diameter)
I 0 9 - 7.4 46.8 46.4 51
2 20 0 17.7 45.1 45.0 44
3 40 0 27.9 44.1 43.1 37
4 60 13 30.3 43.3 37.7 45
5 80 6 - 71.7 42.5 37.4 35
6 100 10 - 52.2 51.1 45.2 46
7 120 4 -52.2 51.1 50.6 53
8 ! 40 1 - 52.2 51.1 49.9 48
9 160 27 - 21.9 47.8 47.8 54

ted such that, if extended, it would intersect the centre important than others. Additionally, the degree of in-
of the diagram, the radii of the circular arcs being homogeneity in the rock mass should be estimated.
marked as dotted lines in Fig. 10. The various computed The most important aspects of a site survey which
values of 2, need not be plotted separately since they result from this research and previous work are listed
must lie on the series of circular arcs already plotted. below.
The final column in Table 1 lists the actual values of
(1) The survey should consist of a minimum of three
2, counted across nine diametral scanlines defined by the
orthogonal boreholes or scanlines so that no discon-
nine values of g = 0, 20, 4 0 . . . 160°. These actual values
tinuity sets are missed.
of 2, are plotted as single points on Fig. 10 to allow
(2) The boreholes or scanlines should be sufficiently
comparison with the locus of predicted values of 2,. The
long to
slight discrepancies between the predicted and actual
values of 2, are partly caused by the small sample size (a) enable the inhomogeneity of the rock mass to be
and also perhaps by slight inhomogeneities of discon- studied, and
tinuity frequency within the sample area. This latter (b) enable the frequency to be estimated with
factor can have a significant effect since the predicted sufficient precision (see Priest and Hudson [8]).
value of 2, across a given diameter is largely based on
(3) The basic frequencies should be corrected for
discontinuity measurements taken on other diameters
scanline orientation (see Terzaghi [2]).
within the sample area.
If a discontinuity set whose normal has a trend ~ and
An interesting feature of Fig. 10 is that an apparently
plunge//j is intersected by a scanline or borehole of trend
highly anisotropic set of 2i values, ranging from 0 to 27
and p l u n g e / / t o give an observed frequency 2,, then
per diameter, yields a locus of 2, with a global maximum
the basic frequency along the set normal is given by
of 51.1 per diameter at ~r~ = 52.2 ° and a global minimum
of 33.4 per diameter along c9 (a = 70°). These maximum 2, = 2,/cos O,
and minimum values, together with the 2, locus, present
a relatively isotropic impression of discontinuity fre- where 2, is the observed frequency of the ith discon-
quency, certainly verifying in this two-dimensional case
the statement of Hock and Brown [7] that when four or O*
more joint sets are present the rock is likely to be
isotropic in terms of discontinuity frequency. In more N
extreme cases in three dimensions, however, consider-
able anisotropy could occur for a rock mass containing
several asymmetrically orientated joint sets with widely
differing individual frequencies. .: measured
C9
b,~in
MEASUREMENT OF THEBASIC FREQUENCIES 270° 60 \, 20~ "' "':''~ / C1 90°
BY SCANLINE SURVEYS
From the theory derived earlier, it is clear that any
property of discontinuity frequency can be developed
from a knowledge of the frequencies of the individual Li \ : /~c3
sets which could be defined as the class intervals of a
rosette or stereogram. A site survey to establish these
basic 2~ frequencies should be directed towards giving
180o
equal weight to discontinuities at all orientations unless
Fig. 10. Predicted and measured values of discontinuity frequency for
there is some over-riding engineering criterion causing a two-dimensionalease exampleof discontinuities in Cambrian sand-
discontinuities of some particular orientation to be more stone.
..m 20/2~
84 HUDSON and PRIEST: DISCONTINUITY F R E Q U E N C Y
tinuity set along the scanline and 0i is the acute angle,
given by equation (3), between the scanline and the ith
set normal.
In practice, some bandwidth on the values of a, and
/~ would be required to allow for measurement error and
the natural variability in discontinuity orientation. In
extreme cases, it may be necessary to subdivide all
possible discontinuity orientations using suitable class
intervals for the ~ and /3~ values.
(4) The basic frequencies should be tabulated and a
rosette (2-D case) or stereogram (3-D case) compiled.
For either rosette or stereogram, the frequencies should
be plotted in relation to the discontinuity normal direc-
tions.
(5) A polar plot of 2s (2-D case) or contoured lower
hemisphere projection (3-D case) should be produced
using equation (4) and the directions and magnitudes of
maximum and minimum frequency should be indicated.
CONCLUSIONS
The results in this paper enable the mean number of
discontinuities intersected by a line through a rock mass
to be determined from the trend and plunge of the line
together with the frequency and orientation of each of
the discontinuity sets, whether the latter are considered
as distinct sets or as the class intervals of a rosette or
stereogram. The results are applicable to any distribution
of discontinuity spacings and also to impersistent discon-
tinuities.
The formulae allow the magnitudes and directions of
the maximum and minimum frequency in any rock mass
to be calculated. The case example illustrates the appli-
cation of the ideas and formulae through the generation
of a discontinuity frequency locus. Predictions of the
discontinuity frequency in new directions at the
measurements location were successfully made.
The practical significance of the results is that
(a) recommendations were made for site surveys so
that the basic frequency data can be obtained at a
particular site,
(b) the formulae then allow calculation of the full
range of discontinuity frequency variation, including the
directions and magnitudes of the maximum and
minimum values.
These capabilities enable the utility of existing data to
be evaluated, new discontinuity surveys to be more
productive and the effect of the orientation of future
underground structures to be studied more coherently.
Further research should be aimed at developing the
concept of discontinuity frequency as a vector, creating
algorithms for establishing the magnitude and directions
of the extreme values of discontinuity frequency in
complex rock masses, exploring the general relations
between linear, areal and volumetric frequencies for
impersistent discontinuities and enabling the geo-
statistical method to be used for characterizing the set
frequencies in inhomogeneous rock masses. Addi-
tionally, and because all rock mass discontinuities do not
have the same engineering significance due to such
properties as aperture size. fill and shear strength, the
ideas should be extended, for example by a classification
system, to consideration of sub-sets of discontinuities
with particular engineering characteristics.
Acknowledgements--The work described in this paper forms part of a
continuing U.K. research project on discontinuities and rock mass
geometry being jointly undertaken by the Geotechnics Division (Head,
Mr J. B. Boden) of the Building Research Establishement, Department
of the Environment and the Rock Mechanics Section (Head, Professor
E. T. Brown) of the Department of Mineral Resources Engineenng,
Imperial College of Science and Technology. The research was par-
tially supported by the Department of the Environment's radioactive
waste management research programme. The paper is published with
the permission of the Director of the Building Research Establishment.
The authors would like to thank Dr Paul La Pointe, formerly of the
Department of Metallurgical and Mineral Engineering at the Univer-
sity of Wisconson-Madison, U.S.A., for many valuable discussions
and his perceptive comments on the geometry of rock mass discon-
tinuities. The authors are also grateful to Professor G. B. Baecher of
the Massachusetts Institute of Technology for his comments on the
paper.
Received 2 June 1982: revised 15 December 1982.
REFERENCES
1. Piteau D. R. Geological factors significant to the stability of slopes
cut in rock. S. Aft. Inst. Min. Metall. S.vmp. on Planning Open Pit
Mines, Johannesburg, pp. 33-53 (1970).
2. Terzaghi R. D. Sources of error in joint surveys. Geotechnique 15,
287-304 (1965).
3. International Society for Rock Mechanics, Commission on Stan-
dardisation o f Laboratory. and Field Tests. Suggested methods for
the quantitative description of discontinuities in rock masses. Int.
J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. 15, 319-368 (1978).
4. Piteau D. R. Characterising and extrapolating rock joint proper-
ties in engineering practice. Rock Mechanics Suppl. 2, 31-55
(1973).
5. La Pointe P. R. Improved numerical modelling o f rock masses
through geostatistical characterisation. Proc. o f the 22nd U.S.
Syrup. on Rock Mechanics, pp. 386-391. Massachusetts Institute of
Technology (1981 ).
6. La Pointe P. R. and Hudson J. A. Characterisation and inter-
pretation o f rock mass jointing patterns, Submitted to the Geol.
Soc. Am. as a Special Paper (1982).
7. Hock E. and Brown E. T. Underground Excavations in Rock, 527
pp. IMM, London (1980).
8. Priest S. D. and Hudson J. A. Estimation of discontinuity spacing
and trace length using scanline surveys. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min.
Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. 18, 183-197 (1981).
9. Miles R. E. Random polygons determined by random lines in a
plane. Proc. nam. Acad. Sci., U.S.A. 52, 901-907 (t964).
10. Hudson J. A. and Priest S. D. Discontinuities and rock mass
geometry. Int. J. Rock Mech. Min. Sci. & Geomech. Abstr. 16,
339-362 (1979).
APPENDIX A
Illustrative Examples Using Simple Discontinuity Geometries
One discontinuity set
It is possible to reconsider, in the context of the general theory, the
example in Fig. 1 of the main text which deals with a single vertical
set of discontinuities striking east-west. The trend and plunge o f the
normal to this set are both zero. Hence, in equation (2) of the main
text sin ,,~ -~-sin ~1 = 0 and cos ,,t = cos B~ = 1, and therefore
cos 0~ = cos ~, c o s / / w i t h )., = ~t cos • cos/~ for acute angle 0 t .
On a polar diagram o f 2, vs 0~ in three dimensions, the locus would
consist of two spherical surfaces corresponding to the two drcles in
Fig. l(b) of the main text. It is, however, convenient to plot this locus
as the contoured equal area lower hemisphere projection in Fig. AI.
As usual, the trend is measured circumferentially and the plunge is
measured from 0 ° at the perimeter to 90 ° at the centre. The dots on
 H U D S O N and PRIEST: DISCONTINUITY FREQUENCY 85

0o determined a s the sum of the individual resolved frequencies from each

set as given by equation (4).
From equation (l), the contributions to the frequency along the
scanline in Fig. A2(a) from the first and second discontinuity sets are
2, i cos ~ I and ,;..,lcos (90 - a)( = 221sin a I respectively where ;,l and 2:
are the frequencies along the normals to the first and second sets. Thus,
considering first only a horizontal scanline, the scanline frequency, 2 ,
is given by equation (9) as
;.~ = 2~ cos ~t + ~,~sin = for acute ~t

270 ° 90= and

2 , = ; . ~ l c o s a l +221sin=l for all ~t.
The maximum value of 2, in the first quadrant where :t is acute can
readily be established from equation (6) to be attained in a scanline
direction, ~m. given by
~t,, = t a n - 1(22/21) (A 1)
and with magnitude, ,;,,..,, given by equation (8) as

180 °
By symmetry, four maxima with equal magnitude occur at ~ = + ~t,,
Fig. A1. Contoured equal area lower hemisphere stereographic
and 180 + ~tm.
projection showing the full variation in discontinuity frequency along
If the two sets are vertical and the set normals have general trends
scanlines in all directions. (The set frequency is one/unit length along
ofa~ and ~t:, then using equations (3) and (4) and noting that all angles
the normal, 2 = 1).
/~ are zero in this case
2, = & Icos (= - =,)l + 2., Icos (= - =.,)l
the circumference denote the orientation of the normal (pole) to the
discontinuity set. The frequency in the direction of this set normal, or
~t = 0 ° or 180 c' has been taken as unity, this being the maximum value
for any scanline direction (equation 6). The minimum frequency value 2~ --- 2~ cos 0~ + 22cos 0:
occurs along any scanline in the plane parallel to the discontinuities
where 0i is the acute angle between the scanline and the normal to the
which is represented by the east-west diameter in Fig. A1. ith set. In this case, the maximum frequency occurs in a direction
If the discontinuity set normal has some general orientation of trend
cq, and plunge fl~, then 2, = 2j cos 0~ where cos 0~ is found from ~t~,= t a n - 1[(2t sin al + 22 sin =2)/(21 cos ~q + 2., cos 22)]
equation (2). Again, 0 t is the acute angle between the normal and
scanline, which can be measured on the projection along the great with a magnitude
circle representing the plane that contains both the normal and
).,~, = ((2 t cos a] + 2, cos ct:)" + (21 sin ~tt + 22 sin a2)-')I':
scanline.
For some applications, the formulae for the direction and magnitude
of the discontinuity frequency might be preferred using the scanline
Two discontinuity sets
angle relative to a set, and the angles between the sets. For this
Consider now two sets of vertical discontinuities, one orientated example, the two previous formulae then become
east-west as before and the other north-south as in Fig. A2(a). The
spacings between successive discontinuities intersected along a scanline Oi. = tan-i(22 sin ~I(21 + 22 cos ~b))
are not simply related to the spacings between the discontinuities in and
each set because of the mutual interference between the spacing values.
The discontinuity frequency along the scanline is, however, simply ;.,.., = (;.,2 + 2;., ;-2 cos ~ + 2)) '/-"

0o
)'1 i~1
Normal to ~
discontinuity
set 1 ~ ~s = ),lCOS(~ * ),2since ),$

[ i [I .ngl. r :
]!
i i.- !i
!! ,,o.r
i,X,, y,./,,
°t '-' :'R''"°t'°"
.."'" ,o ' / ". , \ ."i \ /
,/i I
Ii "" , "--'"--,, '

~ X
(a) (bl 180~
Fig. A2. (a) A scanline in the horizontal plane through two orthogonal sets of vertical discontinuities. (b) Polar plot of the
discontinuity frequency locus (;.~ = 1.0, 2 2 = 0.5).
86 HUDSON and PRIEST: DISCONTINUITY FREQUENCY

0o

kl

Discontinuity set 1 parallel I"o xz plane

~ Contours of ks
set 2 parallel to yz plane

% , ~ Y(0°) . 35L
k2 90°
x ' ~ ~ 5 (90o) 270 ° k2

Scanltne
x,: cosoll + I os e21
(vertical) kSmex
kSmax
kl
180 •
(a) Ib}
Fig. A3. (a) An inclined scanline through two sets of vertical discontinuities. (b) Discontinuity frequency contours plotted for
scanlines passing through two orthogonal sets of vertical discontinuities (,;,~= 1, trend 0 c, plunge 0°: ;-2 = 0.5, trend 90 °,
plunge 0°).

where 0t, is the direction of maximum frequency expressed as the angle
between the first discontinuity set and the scanline, and 4~ is the acute
angle between the two discontinuity set normals.
In the example illustrated in Fig. A2(b), k, = 1.0 and k2 = 0.5. These
values are plotted as vectors OA and OB in the directions of the set
normals. The magnitude of the discontinuity frequency along a
horizontal scanline with trend a is given by the length of OC, i.e. the
distance from the centre of the diagram to the locus which is marked
as a heavy line. As distinct from the one set locus in Fig. l(b) of the
main text, the two set locus in Fig. A2(b) shows that the maximum
frequency exceeds the value of kt and that in no direction is there a
frequency value of zero. From equations (A1) and (A2), the direction
and magnitude of maximum frequency are
um = 26.5: and k,m.,= 1.118.
The maximum for the second quadrant is indicated by the vector OD
in Fig. A2(b). The locus of discontinuity frequency in the diagram is
comprised of four semi-circles centred at a radial distance ;.~../2 from
O along OD and with radius 2.... as shown in Fig. A2(b). It can be
seen from Fig. A2(b) that the direction and magnitude of minimum
frequency are a = 90 ° and 2~.,. = k. = 0.5.
One of the most important aspects of this example is that the
directions o f maximum and minimum frequencies are not perpendicular.
For the one discontinuity set shown in Fig. 1 of the main text, the
directions of maximum and minimum frequencies are perpendicular,
but in general they are not because the causes of the two extreme values
are different. The maximum occurs in a direction such that the sum of
the contributions from each set is maximized; the minimum, at least
in simple cases, occurs in a direction such that the largest single
contribution is eliminated, i.e. the direction perpendicular to the largest
frequency vector, in other words parallel to the discontinuities in the
set with the highest frequency.
Finally, in this discussion on a scanline through two discontinuity
sets, the frequency along a scanline at any orientation in three-
dimensional space should be considered. Again, the frequency is the
sum of the contributions from each set given by equation (4), where
the acute angles 0, are given in equation (2) of the main text. The
variation in 2s for a scanline at any orientation is shown (for the same
discontinuity sets as in Fig. A2(b)) in the contoured lower hemisphere

0o

(P
// \
N

/ \
/
t t i.o 2?0°..]-
I
/, ,,
\ / L , /
!
\
\

/
i

180°
(a) Ib}
Fig. A4. Discontinuity frequency loci for two-dimensional symmetrical and asymmetrical cases. (a) Three sets symmetrically
orientated with equal frequencies. (b) Three sets asymmetrically orientated with unequal frequencies.
 H U D S O N and PRIEST: DISCONTINUITY FREQUENCY 87

0o

Discontinuity set 1 parallel to xz plane

set 2 paraUet to yz plane
set 3 parallel to xy plane

y (0 °)

x ( 90 °) 2700 ;~2 900

Scanline

z (vertical)

Xs=xlJcos eli* xzi cos e2[÷ x3 Icos e3l laD=

(a) (b)
Fig. A5, (a) An inclined scanline through three sets of discontinuities. (b) Discontinuity frequency contours plotted for scanlines
passing through three orthogonal sets of discontinuities (2j = 1.0, trend 0 °, plunge 0°; 2, --- 0.5, trend 90 °, plunge 0°; 23 = 0.5,
plunge 90°).

projection in Fig. A3. The discontinuity frequency contours are arcs
of small circles which define the orientation of all lines at the same
angle to the line of maximum frequency; one small circle arc intersects
another at a cusp where the scanline is perpendicular to one of the
normals. Towards the centre of the projection, this effect produces
concentric parallelogram shapes because the small circle segments are
almost straight lines in that region. The maxima remain the same as
in Fig. A2(b) but the minimum value is zero for a vertical scanline--
which is perpendicular to both normals and parallel to the discon-
tinuities in both sets. This is one of the rare cases where the directions
of maximum and minimum discontinuity frequency are perpendicular.
Three discontinuity sets
Figures A4(a) and (b) show the discontinuity frequency variation for
a horizontal scanline intersecting three sets of vertical discontinuities.
In Fig. A4(a), the set vectors have equal unit magnitude and are
symmetrically orientated. The six maxima and six minima directions
are also symmetrically orientated, with the maxima in the same
directions as the normal vectors and the minima perpendicular to these
vectors. Note also that the ratio between the maximum and minimum
values is close to unity, 2:1.73.
In Fig. A4(b) the frequency variation is shown for three vertical
discontinuity sets which have unequal frequencies and are asym-
metrically oriented: 2 u = 1.0, a I = 30°; 22 -- 0.5, ct2 = 45°; 3.3 = 1.5,
=3 = 60°. For this case, the maximum value of 2 s is 2.92 for =, = 47.5 °.
The minimum occurs in the direction perpendicular to the normal of
the set with the highest frequency. In both Figs A4(a) and (b) and
indeed for any such polar locus, each segment of the 2, locus is a
portion of a circle that is truncated when the perpendicular to a normal
Is encountered.

0•
Discontinuity set 1 parallel to plane BED
2 .... ACD
" 3 " ABD
)'1 ~ " A BE

/ |t ,~ ,Ao.

I/~~'
/// t|
'700 90°

/~-- - -.~ , . .~'~ x(900)

~3

Ivertical)

180 °
(a) (b)
Fig. A6. (a) Four sets of discontinuities parallel to the faces of a regular tetrahedron. (b) Discontinuity frequency contours
plotted for scanlines passing through four symmetrically orientated discontinuity sets, the discontinuities being parallel to the
faces of a regular tetrahedron (all 2~ = 1).
88 HUDSON and PRIEST: DISCONTINUITY F R E Q U E N C Y

Consider now three orthogonal sets of discontinuities and a scanline
passing at any orientation through them. The set normals shown in
Fig. A5(a) are as follows.
Set frequency Trend Plunge
Set 1 2I=l ~]=0: /~=0:
Set 2 2, = 0.5 ~, = 9 0 [J, = 0
Set 3 ).3 = 0.5 -- f13 = 90°
Using equations (6), (7) and (8) of the main text the maximum value
of 2, is 1.225 in a direction o f a,, = 26.6 °, /~,, = 24.1 ~ for the first
quadrant in the lower hemisphere. There are four main directions of
).,~,~ because there are four quadrants making up the lower hemisphere
and a total of eight directions if the upper hemisphere is included.
The contoured lower hemisphere projection in Fig. A5(b) is more
difficult to interpret than the previous cases. It is instructive to note the
following features of the diagram:
(a) the poles, 2j. ),2 and ).3,
(b) the 2~,,, direction labelled in the first quadrant,
(c) the 4-fold symmetry of the diagram equivalent to reflections in
the planes perpendicular to the normals (i.e. parallel to the discon-
tinuities) of the first and second sets,
(d) the dashed lines which are planes containing a 2,.,~ direction and
a set normal direction,
(e) the 2~, marked for the first quadrant and which are submaxima
in planes perpendicular to the set normal,
(f) two minima occurring in the lower hemisphere projection, one
in the 22 vector direction and one in the 23 vector direction--because,
for example, the )., direction is parallel to discontinuities from sets l
and 3 and does not. therefore, intersect these discontinuities at all.
Four discontinuity sets
The case o f four symmetrically orientated sets with equal frequencies
is shown in Fig. A6. The discontinuity sets are parallel to the faces o f
a regular tetrahedron ABCD and the set vectors can be repre~nted as
arrows from the tetrahedron centre, O, to the vertices (see Fig. A6(a)).
In this example~ therefore, fit = 90~, while ft., = f13 =/~4 = 19.47° and ~.,,
~3 and ~4 are respectively 0, 120 and 240L
Remembering that discontinuity frequency is a pair of vectors with
equal magnitude but opposite directions, it is necessary to consider the
tetrahedron that is created by taking the 2~ vectors in the opposite
directions. The significance of the second tetrahedron m that the lower
hemisphere projection contains elements from each tetrahedron, e g
;"'~, )'~, )'4 and 2 t .
The six dashed lines on the contoured projection represent planes
that contain two set normals, say 2~ and 2< in this plane is the direction
maximizing the contribution from the 2 t and 22 sets. Another plane will
contain the ,i~ and 24 normals and where this meets the ).~. 2, plane a
global maximum is achieved with a value of 2.309 for the unit ).
vectors. One of the 2 ..... directions is therefore :~,~= 180 and
B,, = 35.3:. Planes perpendicular to the normals are parallel to the
discontinuities, i.e. parallel to the faces of the tetrahedra. One is the
perimeter of the net and the three others are shown by the dotted lines
in Fig. A6(b). Where two such planes meet. the line thus defined has
a minimum frequency--the directions defined bv the edges of the
tetrahedron.
APPENDIX B
Derivation of DiscontinuiO, Frequency Formulae .[or Symmetrically
Orientated Sets with Equal Frequencies
The horizontal normals of N sets o f symmetrically orientated
vertical discontinuities are separated by (180/N) ° or n/N radians as
illustrated for N = 4 and N = 5 in Fig. B1. The minimum frequency
value always occurs in a direction perpendicular to a discontinuity
normal and, for an even number of sets. this is always in the direction
of another normal, e.g. the )~, direction is perpendicular to the 24
direction in Fig. Bl(a). By symmetry, the maxima will occur midway
between the normals (Fig. Bl(b)). Thus, for any even number o f sets,
the minima occur in the directions of the normals and the maxima
occur half way between the normals. For an odd number o f sets, the
directions of the maxima and minima are reversed: the minima, being
perpendicular to a set normal, are in directions midway between the
normals (Fig. Bl(c)) whilst the maxima, being midway between the
minima, are in the directions o f the normals (Fig. Bl(d)).
To find the values o f minimum and maximum frequency for N sets,
each with frequency t/N, the contributions from all set normals are
resolved into the directions along and between normals, bearing in
mind the reversal in directions for even and odd N.
Even number of sets: Minimum value
Measuring angles to the set normals from the direction of minimum
frequency, say from the first set normal, the angle to the ith set is in/N
for i = 0 . . , (N - 1) measured in a clockwise direction as indicated for

Even number of sets Oddnumberof sets

ExampLe : t, sets Example : 5 sets

),t. ,/lSmi n along

set normats X5
• /g J)'Smin between
~I~W2N/ twoset normats

Minima : lsmin

/ " ~'3
(a) (c)
kt,

3 1 ~ 2 N ~ xl i f ~ m i l x between
~ ~ 2 N t w ° " t n°rmaLs
Maxima : ),aml x
=I . . . ~ N : ~2

"X3
,0," 1\ (d)
Fig. BI. Directions o f minimum and maximum frequency for a horizontal scanline passing through even and odd numbers
o f vertical discontinuity sets that are symmetrically orientated and have equal frequencies.
 H U D S O N and PRIEST: DISCONTINUITY F R E Q U E N C Y 89

N - 4 in Fig. Bl(a). The contribution from the first set normal is I/N Similarly,
(because it is along this direction that the linear frequency is being
considered and the full ;1 contribution is obtained) and the con- lim 2,m,,= lira I/(N sin(n/2N))
tribution from the perpendicular normal, )-3 in Fig. Bl(a), is obviously N~ N~ac
zero. This leaves N - 2 normals to be resolved and, by symmetry,
(N - 2 ) / 2 can be taken and the result doubled. = lira l/((n/2) - (n3/48N 2) + (n-~/3840N4)..,)
N*'c
I N - 21/2
).~,,,=(I/N)+ 2(I/N) ~ cos(in/N) (BI) = 2In
Hence the minimum and mari.~num values of discontinuity fre-
Using the identity quency tend to 2/7r as the number of symmetrically orientated sets each
2(cos x + cos 2x + . . . cos nx) with a frequency of I/N tends to infinity as shown in the top row o f
polar plots in Fig. 6.
= ((sin ((2n + l)x/2))/sin(x/2)) - 1 (B2) An alternative method of obtaining this limit is to consider the mean
with n = (N - 2 ) / 2 and x = n/N, equation (BI) reduces to value of all the resolved values.

).,,,, = cos (n/2N)/(N sin (n/2N)) (B3)

lim 2 , - lim (l/N) ~ Icos~,[
N~ N~ t= I
Even number of sets: Maximum value
where ~i is the trend o f the ith set.
As illustrated in Fig. Bl(b) for N = 4, the angle to the i + lth normal
from the direction of maximum frequency (between two normals) is
( 2 i - l)n/2N. As before, the frequency values of I/N along each lim (l/N) ~ Icos ~il = lira (1/N)N Icos~l = lim ]cos~ [
normal are resolved for all the normals i ffi 1 . . . N/2 and the result
doubled: where Icos ~, I is the mean o f Icos ~ I for uniformly distributed ~ in the
N/2
range - n / 2 to n/2. The probability density o f • is therefore I/n and
3.~,, = (2/N) ~ cos ((2i - l)tt/2N) (B4) ~2
/i
i--I
Icos~l = / ( l / n ) c o s ~ da (BII)
Using the identity
-n,2
2(cos x + cos 3x + . . . cos (2n - 1)x) = (sin (2nx))/sin x (BS)
or
with n = N/2 and x = n/2N, equation (134) reduces to lim :.,= 2/~
N~C
2~.~ = I/(N sin (n/2N)) (B6)
The limiting case as a random geometry
Odd number of sets: Minimum value
The process o f letting N tend to infinity produces an infinite number
One normal is perpendicular to the direction of minimum frequency of sets with an infinitesimal frequency while maintaining the number
which is midway between two normals (Fig. BI(c)). With one normal of discontinuities per unit area constant. This can be considered as a
eliminated, the summation is taken to ( N - 1)/2 and the result random geometry where each discontinuity has a random position and
doubled: orientation. Miles [9] has shown that the frequency of intersections
I N - I)/2 along an arbitrary line through such a geometry is 2/n where the
A~m=(2/N) ~ cos((2i-I)n/2N) (B7) perpendicular distances to the lines from an origin are a Poisson
process with unit frequency (equivalent to the unit 2 value of one set).
Using equation (B5) with n = (N - I)]2 and x = n/2N, equation (B7) However, in the analysis presented here, no assumption was made
reduces to concerning the way in which the discontinuities are spaced; indeed,
each set could have a different spacing distribution. The implication is
:.,,,,= cos (n/2N)/(N sin (n/2N)) (B8) that the interaction o f many discontinuity sets with different spacing
distributions converges to a random gcmmetry which is characterized
Odd number of sets: M a x i m u m value by a negative exponential distribution of spacing values. The authors
The direction of m a x i m u m frequency is along a normal (Fig. Bl(d)) have found that this latter distribution dog's occur in a variety of rock
which contributes I/N. Here the summation is taken to (N - I)/2 and masses [10].
again the result is doubled:
(N- I)/2
Minimum, maximum and limiting values in three dimensions
2~,. = (I/N) +(2/N) ~ cos(in/N) (B9) As explained in the main text, N sets cannot always be orientated
symmetrically in three dimensions because there are only a finite
Using equation (B2) with n = (N - I)/2 and x = n/N, equation (B9) number of regular polyhedra. Therefore, the values o f minimum and
reduces to maximum frequency cannot be obtained directly by summation of the
resolved individual set frequencies for the general case o f N sets. The
2~.~ = 1/(N sin(n/2N)) (BI0) limiting value of 3.~ as N tends to infinity can, however, be established
by the probabilistic method used for the two-dimensional case. For
Note that equations (B3) and (B8) are the same and equations (B6) and uniformly distributed sets in three dimensions, the angle 0 between the
(BI0) are the same. The final formulae for the maximum and minimum scanline and each discontinuity set normal is not uniformly distributed.
values are independent of whether N is even or odd. This is because a larger number o f set normals will occur within an
increment d0 at the higher values of 0 in the range 0 to n/2. Simple
Limiting values of k~,. and k ~ geometry demonstrates that the frequency o f set normals making an
To obtain the limits of ~,,,, and 3.~. as N tends to infinity, the cosine angle in the range 0 to 0 + dO is proportional to sin 0 d 0 when
and sine terms in equations (B3) and (B6) are expressed as an infinite 0 <~0 <~n/2. Substituting 0 for :, in equation (B! i) and replacing the
series density l/n by sin 0 gives
7/2

lira ).~, = lira cos(n/2N)/(N sin(n/2N))

N~oc N~uc
Icos 01 = / sin 0 cos 0 dO
./
(1 - (n 2/8N2) + (n 4/384N4) - . . . ) 0
= lira hence
N~:~ (n/2 - (n 3/48N2) + (n s/3840N0 - . . . )
lira 2, = 0.5
= 21n N ~ o~