MAK537 - VEHICLE

DYNAMICS
Equations of Motion

𝑚 𝑢ሶ − 𝑣𝑟 = 𝐹𝑥𝑓 cos 𝛿 + 𝐹𝑥𝑟 − 𝐹𝑦𝑓 sin 𝛿

𝑚 𝑣ሶ + 𝑢𝑟 = 𝐹𝑦𝑓 cos 𝛿 + 𝐹𝑦𝑟 + 𝐹𝑥𝑓 sin 𝛿
𝐽𝑟ሶ = 𝑎𝐹𝑦𝑓 cos 𝛿 − 𝑏𝐹𝑦𝑟 + 𝑎𝐹𝑥𝑓 sin 𝛿
Equations of Motion
𝑚 𝑢ሶ − 𝑣𝑟 = 𝐹𝑥𝑓 cos 𝛿 + 𝐹𝑥𝑟 − 𝐹𝑦𝑓 sin 𝛿
𝑚 𝑣ሶ + 𝑢𝑟 = 𝐹𝑦𝑓 cos 𝛿 + 𝐹𝑦𝑟 + 𝐹𝑥𝑓 sin 𝛿
𝐽𝑟ሶ = 𝑎𝐹𝑦𝑓 cos 𝛿 − 𝑏𝐹𝑦𝑟 + 𝑎𝐹𝑥𝑓 sin 𝛿

 If the steer angle, 𝛿, is assumed to

be small such that 𝑚 𝑢ሶ − 𝑣𝑟 = 𝐹𝑥𝑓 + 𝐹𝑥𝑟
 cos 𝛿=1 𝑚 𝑣ሶ + 𝑢𝑟 = 𝐹𝑦𝑓 + 𝐹𝑦𝑟
 sin 𝛿=0 𝐽𝑟ሶ = 𝑎𝐹𝑦𝑓 − 𝑏𝐹𝑦𝑟
 The three equations of motion for
the vehicle model reduce to :
Equations of Motion
 The term vr on the left hand side is a product of two variables of small magnitude
and hence can be neglected.
𝑚 𝑢ሶ − 𝑣𝑟 = 𝐹𝑥𝑓 + 𝐹𝑥𝑟

 Then this equation is uncoupled from the other two equations and can be used
to study acceleration performance of the vehicle in straight motion.

 The remaining two equations 𝑚 𝑣ሶ + 𝑢𝑟 = 𝐹𝑦𝑓 + 𝐹𝑦𝑟

involve the yawing and side slip
motions of the vehicle and will be
examined in detail. 𝐽𝑟ሶ = 𝑎𝐹𝑦𝑓 − 𝑏𝐹𝑦𝑟
Reduce number of variables

𝑚 𝑣ሶ + 𝑈𝑟 = 𝐹𝑦𝑓 + 𝐹𝑦𝑟  The forward speed of the vehicle will be

kept as a constant parameter, U, and thus
the degrees of freedom of the vehicle
model is now reduced to two.
𝐽𝑟ሶ = 𝑎𝐹𝑦𝑓 − 𝑏𝐹𝑦𝑟

Variables  v and r
Express Cornering Forces in terms
of Slip Angles
𝑚 𝑣ሶ + 𝑈𝑟 = 𝐹𝑦𝑓 + 𝐹𝑦𝑟
 Under normal driving conditions, slip
angles < 4° 𝐽𝑟ሶ = 𝑎𝐹𝑦𝑓 − 𝑏𝐹𝑦𝑟

 Therefore, assumption of small slip

angles is justified. 𝐹𝑦𝑓 ≅ 𝐶𝑓 𝛼𝑓

 Consequently, tire cornering force 𝐹𝑦𝑟 ≅ 𝐶𝑟 𝛼𝑟

characteristics in the linear range can
be expressed in terms of tire cornering 𝑚 𝑣ሶ + 𝑈𝑟 = 𝐶𝑓 𝛼𝑓 + 𝐶𝑟 𝛼𝑟
stiffnesses. 𝐽𝑟ሶ = 𝑎𝐶𝑓 𝛼𝑓 − 𝑏𝐶𝑟 𝛼𝑟
Insert Slip Angle Expressions

𝑚 𝑣ሶ + 𝑈𝑟 = 𝐶𝑓 𝛼𝑓 + 𝐶𝑟 𝛼𝑟

𝐽𝑟ሶ = 𝑎𝐶𝑓 𝛼𝑓 − 𝑏𝐶𝑟 𝛼𝑟 𝑣 𝑟

𝑚 𝑣ሶ + 𝑈𝑟 = 𝐶𝑓 + 𝐶𝑟 + 𝑎𝐶𝑓 − 𝑏𝐶𝑟 − 𝐶𝑟 𝛿
𝑈 𝑈

𝑣+𝑎𝑟 𝑣 𝑟
𝛼𝑓 ≅ −𝛿 𝐽𝑟ሶ = 𝑎𝐶𝑓 − 𝑏𝐶𝑟 + 𝑎2 𝐶𝑓 − 𝑏 2 𝐶𝑟 − 𝑎𝐶𝑟 𝛿
𝑢 𝑈 𝑈
𝑣−𝑏𝑟
𝛼𝑟 ≅
𝑢
Equations of Motion – in matrix form
𝑣 𝑟
𝑚 𝑣ሶ + 𝑈𝑟 = 𝐶𝑓 + 𝐶𝑟 + 𝑎𝐶𝑓 − 𝑏𝐶𝑟 − 𝐶𝑟 𝛿
𝑈 𝑈

𝑣 𝑟
𝐽𝑟ሶ = 𝑎𝐶𝑓 − 𝑏𝐶𝑟 + 𝑎2 𝐶𝑓 − 𝑏 2 𝐶𝑟 − 𝑎𝐶𝑟 𝛿
𝑈 𝑈
State Equation Form
State Equation Form

The general matrix equation of motion for multi-degree of free d om lumped

parameter systems is given by

where [M], [C], and [K] are the mass, damping and stiffness matrices and {q} and {f}
are the vectors of mass displacements and applied external forces, respectively.
This form can be converted into the state equation form
Conversion to State Equation Form

Introducing a state vector

and using the fact that

the state space form

can be obtained in terms of the mass, damping, and stiffness matrices

State Equation Form
Stability Analysis

 To study the stability, the roots of the characteristic equation is examined.

 The roots of the characteristic equation are also the eigenvalues of the system matrix
A.
 Eigenvalues of a square matrix A can be obtained using the Matlab command eig(A).
Roots of the Characteristic Equation
on Complex Plane
Stability Analysis

 This determinant is going to result in a quadratic characteristic equation.

Stability Analysis

 This gives a second order polynomial characteristic equation.

Stability Analysis
 For a system with a quadratic characteristic
equation, the necessary and sufficient condition is
that all three coefficients be positive.
 lt is clear that a1 and a2 are always positive -
remember that Cf and Cr, are both negative
guantities!
 Thus, the stability of the system will depend on a3.
 Stability Analysis

 After some manipulations, the expression for al can be reduced to :

Stability Analysis

 Therefore for a3 > 0, the condition to be satisfied is :

Stability Analysis

 Divide both sides by the positive

terms LR and CfCr where R is
the radius of curvaturel
Stability Analysis

Three distinct cases can be identified:

Stability Analysis
Stability Analysis
Steady State
 If a steady angle of steer,𝛿, is applied and held, a steady state where
 yawing and slip accelerations become zero
is reached.
Yaw Velocity and Lateral
Acceleration Gains

 Eliminate v to get Yaw Velocity Gain.

 Multiply r by U to get Lateral Acceleration
Gain
 Exercise : Obtain the expression for the side
slip velocity gain.
Handling Characteristics
 The neutral steer vehicle has yaw velocity gain in
direct proportion to its speed.
 The oversteer vehicle has yaw velocity gain above
that of neutral steering vehicle and reaches an infinite
value, indicating instability, at the critical speed.
 The understeer vehicle reaches a maximum gain at
the characteristic speed, and this value is one-half
that of the neutral steer vehicle.
Neutral Steering
Oversteer
 A critical speed is defined for an
oversteer vehicle.
 lt corresponds to the forward speed at
which the yaw velocity and lateral
acceleration gains both go to infinity.
 Thus the vehicle is stable for U<Ucr and
is unstable for U>Ucr.
Oversteer Dynamics
 Rear tire side slip angle ar exceeds limit
value.
 Rear tire side forces are saturated .
 Vehicle side slip angle and yaw
moment increase.
 Grip is lost and so is steerability,
rendering turning impossible.
Understeer
 A characteristic speed can be defined
for an understeer vehicle as that
forward speed at which the yaw
velocity and lateral acceleration gains
are one-half the corresponding gains
of a neutral steer vehicle.
 Alternatively, characteristics speed
corresponds to max. Yaw velocity
response of an understeer vehicle.
Summary
Front and Rear Slip Angles
Front and Rear Slip Angles
Front and Rear Slip Angles
 Thus, the front and rear slip angles can be related to the lateral acceleration.

 Thus, the front and rear slip angles can be related to the lateral acceleration.
Front and Rear Slip Angles

 A comparison of these equations reveals that the handling behavior of a vehicle

depends on the difference between the front and rear slip angles.
 The handling behavior of a vehicle can thus be interpreted in terms of the relative
magnitudes of the front and rear axle slip angles..
Front and Rear Slip Angles
 For an understeer vehicle the resulting front slip
angle is larger than the rear slip angle and thus
the generated centrifugal force tends to
cancel the effect of the side force.
Front and Rear Slip Angles
 For an oversteer vehicle the centrifugal
force tends to add to the side force as
now the rear slip angle is larger than the
front slip angle.
Front and Rear Slip Angles
 A neutral steer vehicle has the rear slip angle equal to
the front slip angle. So the vehicle simply moves
sideways and forward without rotation.
Conclusion
 The effect of any changes in the vehicle specifications on the handling behavior
can be judged by examining the changes induced in the front and rear slip
angles.
 Any change
 increasing the front slip angle will thus increase the understeer tendency,
whereas
 increasing rear slip angle will ad d an oversteering tendency.
Example
 What would be the effect on vehicle handling of
 underinflated front tires for an originally neutral steering vehicle?
 Underinflated front tires will result in reduced cornering force characteristics. Thus
for the same cornering maneuver, the required cornering force can only be
generated at a higher slip angle.
 This means the term 𝛼𝑓 - 𝛼𝑟 will get larger introducing a tendency towards
understeering.
Exercises
 What would be the effect on vehicle handling of
 front wheel drive as opposed to rear wheel drive,
 overloaded luggage compartment,
 overinflated rear tires,
 introduction of a positive camber to front (or rear) wheels,
 load transfer from inside to outside wheels during cornering?
Skid Pad Testing
Skid pad testing is
an important part
of a new vehicle
design. Valuable
information on tire
characteristics,
camber; traction,
and vehicle
handling can all
be determined
through skid
testing.
Skid Pad Testing
To perform a skid pad test according
to - ISO 4138 Steady State Clrcular
Test -the vehicle is driven through a
turn of a known diameter at
increasing speeds until the test driver
cannot keep the vehicle in the turn.
Lateral acceleration, steering wheel
angle, roll angle, vehicle side slip
angle are dynamic variables to
represent vehicle handling.
Vehicle Dynamic Testing
To perforn a test according to ISO7401 Step
Steering Wheel Input, the vehicle is driven at
the test speed on a straight line. Starting
from steady-state conditions in straight line,
a steering wheel input is applied as rapidly
as possible to reachnominal value.

This value is maintained constant for three seconds reaching a steady state; then the
steering wheel is set free for further three seconds. No adjustment in throttle position is
made to recover speed lass.
The maneuver is performed several times increasing steering wheel angle in each run
with steps of s•. Driver continues to increase the angle until it is no more possible to
reach a steady state condition.
Vehicle Dynamic Testing

To perform a test according to ISO/TR 3888 Double Lane Change the vehicle is driven
at the test speed on a straight line. Then it must Follow the designed route using
steering wheel angle and constant throttle.
Further Vehicle Dynamic Tests
 ISO/TR 8725 Sinusoidal Steering Angle Input (Frequency Response)
 ISO/TR 8726 Pseudo-Random Steering lnput
 ISO 7975 Braking In a Tum
 ISO 9816 Power-off Reaction In a Tum
Proving Ground
Critical Mistakes
 A mistake you should avoid:
 Critical speed is defined only for an oversteer vehicle!
 Thus, do not talk ab out critical speed for an understeer vehicle!
 Characteristic speed is defined only for an understeer vehiclel
 Thus do not talk about characteristic speed for an oversteer vehiclel
Critical Mistakes
 Another mistake you should not make :
 As defined in this course, the cornering stiffness is a negative quantity.
 Thus, when entering a value for the cornering stiffness in a vehicle model equation,
place a 'minus' sign in front of it, if it is specified as a positive value.
 Note, however, that this sign convention does not apply for Dugoff and Magic
Formula equations.
Critical Mistakes
 Basic assumptions for the linear bicycle model:
 Lateral acceleration < 0.3, otherwise roll degree of freedom must be added!
 Slip angles < 4°, otherwise linear tire characteristics cannot be used!
Critical Mistakes
 Lateral acceleration is not 𝑣ሶ
 Lateral acceleration is 𝑣ሶ + 𝑢𝑟

 For all equations either

 Compatible units must be used
 Unit conversions must be made
Exercise
 Write down the equations of motion
for the bicycle model in the state
equation form shown below.
% input: full sine with delay
% for lane change manoeuvre
input_amp=1.9 % [deg];
delay=1; [s];
input_duration=8; %[s]

deltad=input_amp*sin(pi*(t·delay)/(input_duration·delay)*2); % [deg]
deltad(t<delay)=0.0; % (deg]
deltad(t>input_duration)=0.0; % (deg]
deltar = deltad*pi/180; % [rad]
% Isim Solution for linear systems
sys=ss(A,B,C,D);
[x,T]=Isim(sys,deltar,t];
v=x{:,1); r=x(:,2);
Example – m file
 Enter your text using any word
processor; such as Notepad or
Word, and save the file with an
extension "m", i. e.
 «Bicycle.m»
Example – m file
Example – m file
Example – m file
Example – ODE Solution for Bicycle
Model
Example – ODE Solution for Bicycle
Model
Example – ODE Solution for Bicycle
Model
Example – ODE Solution for Bicycle
Model
Example – ODE Solution for Bicycle
Model
Example – ODE Solution for Bicycle
Model
Example – ODE Solution for Bicycle
Model
Example – ODE Solution for Bicycle
Model