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KENYATTA UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF PURE AND APPLIED SCIENCES

DEPARTMENT OF BIOCHEMISTRY AND BIOTECHNOLOGY

SCH 101: Introduction to Physical Chemistry

LEVEL:1 SEMESTER: I ACADEMIC YEAR: 2019/2020

Series -1 (Properties of Gases and KMT)
Dr. Eric Masika MRSC
Physical Chemistry and Nanotechnology
Office: Biochemistry – Room No. 31
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Consultation Hours: Monday 2:00- 4:00 and Thursday 9:00 -11:00

Course Purpose and Objective & Content

Purpose of the course:
To provide insights on properties of gases, equilibria and
electrochemical processes. In addition, develop scientific
knowledge, observational skills and analytical ability in
students.
Course Content (Existing)
Properties of gases: The gas laws, kinetic molecular theory of gases,
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution, Real Gases. Physical equilibria:
Liquid-Vapour equilibria, Raoults Law. Chemical equilibria:
equilibrium constants Kc and Kp, Le Chatelier’s Principle. Ionic
Equilibria: pH of acids and bases, hydrolysis of salts and buffers;
Solubility and solubility products. Electrochemical processes:
Electrolysis, Cells, Electromotive force, Redox reactions. Chemical
Kinetics: Rates of reactions, rate constant, order, rate law and initial
rates. 2

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Expected Learning Outcomes

At the end of this course, learners will be able to:
1. Describe how a given amount of gas responds to changes in pressure, volume,
temperature and the quantity.
2. Predict how a reaction at equilibrium would shift when temperature, pressure,
concentrations of substances in the equilibrium are changed.
3. Calculate the concentration of each species present in a solution formed by
mixing an acid and a base.
4. Explain the causes of deviation from ideal behavior for solutions.
5. Describe the effect of solute concentration on the vapour pressure of a two
component solution.
6. Identify species that are “oxidized” and/or “reduced” and to identify those
species that are “oxidizing agents” and/or “reducing agents” in an oxidation-
reduction reaction.
7. Define a galvanic cell, represent a cell on a diagram, and write the anode,
cathode and cell reaction for a given cell.
8. Solve problems relating to various subtopics; gas laws and equilibria.
9. Recognize precipitation reactions and use solubility rule.
10. List the factors which affect reaction rates
11. Describe how the rate of a chemical reaction changes as a function of time.
12. Apply skills and techniques learnt, including safe work practices in the
laboratory 3

S/No. Week(s) Topic(s) Subtopic(s)

1 1 -4 Introduction to  Introduction to Properties of gases: The gas laws, kinetic
Gas Laws and molecular theory of gases.
Background  Explain Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution
 Real Gases. Physical equilibria: Liquid-Vapour equilibria.
 Illustrate Raoults Law.
Tutorial Questions: Set I
CAT 1 (14th October 2019)
2 5 -7 Equilibria and Le.  Chemical equilibria: equilibrium constants Kc and Kp, Le
Chatelier’s Chatelier’s Principle.
Principle  Ionic Equilibria: pH of acids and bases, hydrolysis of salts
and buffers
 Solubility and solubility products
Tutorial Questions: Set II
3 8-9 Electrochemical  Redox reactions.
Cells  Electrochemical processes:
 Electrolysis, Cells representation
 Electromotive force
CAT 2 (4th November 2019)
4 10 -11 Chemical Kinetics  Factors that affect chemical Kinetics.
 Rates of reactions, rate constant, order.
 Rate law and initial rates.
5 12 -14 Revision/Exams Examinations (Nov/Dec 2020)
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Methodology and Assessment

Mode of delivery
Face to face lectures, class discussions, learner presentations, online
activities, laboratory experiments and assignments.
Instruction materials /equipment
Lecture notes, power point presentations, Moodle forum
discussions, lab work and online materials.

Course assessment

Mode of assessment Marks

2 Continuous Assessment Tests 20 %
3 – 6 Pre-selected Practicals 10 %
End of Semester examination 70 %
Total 100 %
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Reference Books and Materials

CORE READING MATERIALS FOR THE COURSE
1. Atkins, P.W, Elements of Physical Chemistry; 7th Edition, 2017,
Oxford India
2. Petrucci R. H. and Harwood W. S., “General Chemistry:
Principles and Modern Applications”. 11th edition,
2016. Prentice Hall. New Jersey.
3. B.R Puri., L.R Sharma and Pathania. 46th edition, Principles of
Physical Chemistry. Vishal Publishing Company, 2012.
4. http://kusoma.ku.ac.ke
5. SCH 101 Online Course module
RECOMMENDED REFERENCE MATERIALS
1. Raymond Chang, “Chemistry, The central Science”. McGraw-
Hill Companies, Inc. Toronto
2. Laidler, K. J., John H. M. and Bryan C. S.( 2003), Physical
Chemistry with student CD (4th Ed.) Houghton Mifflin.
3. Any other college physical chemistry text book.
4. Internet Search WWW 6

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solids liquids gases

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Collisions of Gas Particles

Kinetic Theory of Matter

Matter is composed of a large number of small particles—
individual atoms or molecules—that are in constant motion.

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Kinetic Molecular Theory

Postulates of the Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases
1. A gas consists of very small particles, each of which has a mass.
Example:
An inflated basketball weighs more than a deflated basketball.

2. The particles are so small, compared with the distances between

them, that the volume (size) of the individual particles can be assumed
to be negligible (zero).

3. The particles are in constant random motion, colliding with the walls of
the container. These collisions with the walls cause the pressure exerted
by the gas.

4. Collisions of gas particles with each other or with the walls of the container are
perfectly elastic.
Unlike “bouncing balls,” no energy of motion is lost.

5. The average kinetic energy of the gas particles is directly proportional

to the Kelvin temperature of the gas.

6. Gas particles exert no force on one another. Attractive forces between gas
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particles is assumed to be zero.

Kinetic Molecular Theory

Postulates Evidence
1. Gases are tiny molecules in mostly The compressibility of gases.
empty space.

2. There are no attractive forces Gases do not clump.

between molecules.

3. The molecules move in constant, Gases mix rapidly.

rapid, random, straight-line motion.

4. The molecules collide classically Gases exert pressure that

with container walls and one another. does not diminish over time.

5. The average kinetic energy of the Charles’ Law

molecules is proportional to the Kelvin
temperature of the sample.
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Kinetic Molecular Theory (KMT)

 explains why gases behave as they do
 deals with “ideal” gas particles…

1. …are so small that they are assumed to have zero volume

2. …are in constant, straight-line motion

3. …experience elastic collisionsin which no energy is lost
4. …have no attractive or repulsive forces toward each other
5. …have an average kinetic energy (KE) that is proportional
to the absolute temp. of gas (i.e., Kelvin temp.)

AS TEMP. , KE
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Elastic vs. Inelastic Collisions

v1 POW v2
8

elastic collision

v3 v4
8

inelastic collision

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Elastic Collision

v1
8

before

v2
8

after

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Kinetic Molecular Theory

• Particles in an ideal gas…

– have no volume.
– have elastic collisions.
– are in constant, random, straight-line motion.
– don’t attract or repel each other.
– have an avg. KE directly related to Kelvin temperature.

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Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

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Real Gases

• Particles in a REAL gas…

– have their own volume
– attract each other

• Gas behavior is most ideal…

– at low pressures
– at high temperatures
– in nonpolar atoms/molecules

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Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

Characteristics of Gases

Gases expand to fill any container.

– random motion, no attraction
Gases are fluids (like liquids).
– no attraction
Gases have very low densities.
– no volume = lots of empty space

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Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

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Characteristics of Gases

• Gases can be compressed.

– no volume = lots of empty space
• Gases undergo diffusion & effusion.
– random motion

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Courtesy Christy Johannesson www.nisd.net/communicationsarts/pages/chem

Properties of Gases
Gas properties can be modeled using math.
Model depends on:

V = volume of the gas (liters, L)

T = temperature (Kelvin, K)
P = pressure (atmospheres, atm)
n = amount (moles, mol)

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Pressure - Temperature - Volume Relationship

P n
T V
1
Boyle’s P a ___
V
Charles V aT

Gay-Lussac’s P T a
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Ideal vs Real Gases

• How do gas volumes respond under a range of
conditions (such as changing pressures and
temperatures)?
• If a gas is ideal, the graph of PV/RT vs P for
one mole of gas will have a slope of 1.

• http://intro.chem.okstate.edu/1314F97/Chap
ter10/RealGas.html

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Deviations from Ideality

For an ideal gas:

PV = nRT or V = nRT/P

When you actually measure gas

volume at high pressures and low
temperatures, the Vexperimental
often does not match Vtheoretical

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Deviations from Ideality

Why doesn’t Vexp = Vtheor ?

If Vexp > Vtheor:

Some gas particles do repel each
other so volume is greater than
predicted.
Gas particles do have a volume so
volume cannot be reduced beyond a
certain point.
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Deviations from Ideality

Why doesn’t Vexp = Vtheor ?

If Vexp < Vtheor:

Some gas particles do attract
each other so volume is reduced
more than expected.

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Corrections for Deviations

from Ideality
Johannes van der Waals modified
the ideal gas law to account for
deviations.
P x V = nRT
[Pexp + a(n/V) ] x (V-nb) = nRT
2

[Pexp + a(n/V)2] corrects for

attractive or repulsive forces (“a”
depends on the particle)
V-nb corrects for particle volume
(“b” is a measure of particle volume) 26

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Physical Characteristics of Gases

Physical Characteristics Typical Units
Volume, V liters (L)

Pressure, P atmosphere
(1 atm = 1.015x105 N/m2)
Temperature, T Kelvin (K)

Number of atoms or mole (1 mol = 6.022x1023

molecules, n atoms or molecules)

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Boyle’s Law
 Pressure and volume
are inversely related at
constant temperature.
 PV = K
 As one goes up, the other
goes down.
 P1V1 = P2V2
“Father of Modern Chemistry”
Robert Boyle
Chemist & Natural Philosopher
Listmore, Ireland
January 25, 1627 – December 30, 1690 28

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Boyle’s Law: P1V1 = P2V2

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Boyle’s Law apparatus

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Below are some results of an experiment

Pressure p Volume V PxV

1.1 40 44

1.7 26

2.2 20

2.6 17

• Calculate pV (pressure x volume) for each set of results.

What do you notice?
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Boyle’s Law Graphical: P1V1 = P2V2

Pressure vs. Volume
for a Fixed Amount of Gas
(Constant Temperature)
600
Pressure Volume PV
(Kpa) (mL)
500 100 500 50,000
150 333 49,950
400 200 250 50,000
Volume (mL)

250 200 50,000

300 166 49,800
300
350 143 50,500
400 125 50,000
200 450 110 49,500

100

0 100 200 300 400 500

Pressure (KPa) 32

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SAQ 1

A deep sea diver is

working at a depth where
the pressure is 3.0
atmospheres. He is
breathing out air bubbles.
The volume of each air
bubble is 2 cm3. At the
surface the pressure is 1
atmosphere. What is the
volume of each bubble
when it reaches the
surface?

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Charles’ Law
 Volume of a gas varies
directly with the absolute
temperature at constant
pressure.
 V = KT
 V1 / T1 = V2 / T2
Jacques-Alexandre Charles
Mathematician, Physicist, Inventor
Beaugency, France
November 12, 1746 – April 7, 1823

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Charles’ Law: V1/T1 = V2/T2

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Charles' Law
When the temperature of a gas
at a constant pressure
is increased,
its volume increases
• At constant pressure, when the
temperature of a gas is increased, what
happens to its volume
• T =
• P=C
• V =

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Charles' Law
When the temperature of a gas
at a constant pressure
is decreased,
its volume decreases
• At constant pressure, when the
temperature of a gas is decreased, what
happens to its volume
• T =
• P=C
• V =

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Charles’ Law: V1/T1 = V2/T2

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SAQ 2
Determine the new volume of a gas whose
volume is 150 mL at 20˚C and constant
pressure increase to 40˚C.
Step 1: Convert T1 and T2 to Kelvin
Step 2: V1 = V2 becomes 150ml = V2
T1 T2 293K 313K
Step 3: Rearrange and solve
313K x 150ml = V2 = 160.23 ml
293K

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Avogadro’s Law

At constant temperature

and pressure, the volume of
a gas is directly related to
the number of moles.
V = K n
V1 / n1 = V2 / n2
Amedeo Avogadro
Physicist
Turin, Italy
August 9, 1776 – July 9, 1856

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Avogadro’s Law: V1/n1=V2/n2

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Gay-Lussac Law
 At constant volume,
pressure and absolute
temperature are
directly related.
P= kT
 P1 / T1 = P2 / T2

Joseph-Louis Gay-Lussac
Experimentalist
Limoges, France
December 6, 1778 – May 9, 1850
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Dalton’s Law
The total pressure in a container
is the sum of the pressure each
gas would exert if it were alone
in the container.
The total pressure is the sum of
the partial pressures.
PTotal = P1 + P2 + P3 + P4 + P5 ...
(For each gas P = nRT/V) John Dalton
Chemist & Physicist
Eaglesfield, Cumberland, England
September 6, 1766 – July 27, 1844
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Dalton’s Law

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Avogadro's Law: Volume and Moles

In Avogadro’s Law

• the volume of a gas

is directly related to
the number of
moles (n) of gas.
• T and P are
constant.
V1 = V2
n1 n2 45

Avogadro's Law: Example

If 0.75 mole helium gas occupies a
volume of 1.5 L, what volume will 1.2
moles helium occupy at the same
temperature and pressure?
Solution
STEP 1 Conditions 1 Conditions 2
V1 = 1.5 L V2 = ???
n1 = 0.75 mole He n2 = 1.2 moles He

STEP 2 Solve for unknown V2

V2 = V1 x n2
n1
STEP 3 Substitute values and solve for V2.
V2 = 1.5 L x 1.2 moles He = 2.4 L 46

0.75 mole He

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The Ideal Gas Law

PV = nRT
P = Pressure (in kPa) V = Volume (in L)
T = Temperature (in K) n = moles
R = 8.31 kPa • L
K • mol
R is constant. If we are given three of P, V, n,
or T, we can solve for the unknown value.
From Boyle’s Law:
PiVi = PfVf or PV = constant
From combined gas law:
PiVi/Ti = PfVf/Tf or PV/T = constant 47

The Ideal Gas Law

PV/T = constant. What is the constant?
At STP: T= 273K, P= 101.3 kPa, V= 22.4 L/mol
Because V depends on mol, PV = constant
we can change equation to: T • mol
Mol is represented by n, PV = R
constant by R: Tn
Rearranging, we get: PV = nRT
At STP: (101.3 kPa)(22.4 L) = (1 mol)(R)(273K)
R = 8.31 kPa • L Note: always use kPa, L, K,
K • mol and mol in ideal gas law
questions (so units cancel) 48

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The Ideal Gas Law: Example

How many moles of H2 is in a 3.1 L sample of
H2 measured at 300 kPa and 20°C?

PV = nRT P = 300 kPa, V = 3.1 L, T = 293 K

(300 kPa)(3.1 L) = n (8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(293 K)
(300 kPa)(3.1 L)
= n = 0.38 mol
(8.31 kPa•L/K•mol)(293 K)

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van der Waals equation of state for a real gas

At higher densities, the equation PV = n RT does not work well
for a gas. Many empirical equations have been put forward.
The most common one is van der Waal’s eqn.:
Let  
V  P + a  v - b  = RT
v
n  v2 
a  
comes from interactions among gas molecules.
v2

b comes from volume of the molecules themselves.

a and b are different for different gases.

We draw the isotherms for this equation.
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Practice Questions
1. Compare the pressure predicted for 0.8 l of 0.5 moles CO2 at 273
K using
(a) The ideal gas equation
(b) The Van der Waals equation
2. During the course of a reaction, 0.25 moles of gas phase reactant
becomes 0.50 moles of gas phase product. The initial volume of
the gaseous reactant is 125 cm3. What is the volume of the
gaseous product?
3. 1 l of an ideal gas at 0.4775 atm and 12.2˚C undergoes a change
in volume and pressure to 5.3 l and 1.22 atm. What is the new
temperature of the gas?
4. A helium balloon has a volume of 2 l. How many moles of helium
will the balloon hold if it is filled to a pressure of 1.01 atm at a
temperature of 24˚C? How many grams of helium does it
hold?
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