Archdiocese of Lingayen – Dagupan Catholic Schools GENERAL BIOLOGY 2

Mapandan Catholic School

Camia St. Poblacion, Mapandan, Pangasinan 2429
075-696-0158/09198511883/09175038348 GRADE 12 – ST. JOHN (GAS)
S.Y. 2021 - 2022
MODULE 1 & 2(WEEK 1 – WEEK 8 ) TEACHER: JOHN MICHAEL LOPEZ
NAME:
UNIT I: ORGANISMAL BIOLOGY
CHAPTER 1A: PLANT AND ANIMAL ORGAN SYSTEMS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
OBJECTIVES
 Compare and contrast the following processes in plants and animals: reproduction, development, nutrition, gas
exchange, transport/circulation, regulation of body fluids, chemical and nervous control, immune systems, and
sensory and motor mechanisms
FORMATIVE QUESTIONS: How do you explain what negative feedback is?
Enabling Question: What is the difference of positive feedback and negative feedback?
Structure and Functions of an Animal
Cell grow, mature, and undergo differentiation in multicellular animals. Tissues are formed as a result of cell differentiation.
There are four types of tissues found in animals:
 Epithelial Tissues
 Connective Tissues
 Muscular Tissues
 Nervous Tissues
A group of different tissues united to perform a common function forms an organ. Several organs that perform together for a common
function make up an organ system. The human body is made up of 11 organ systems.
Organ Systems: Major Organs and Their Functions
System Major Structures Functions
Protects against injury, infection, and fluid loss
Integumentary Skin, nails, and hair
Provides structure and support
Moves limbs and trunk
Muscular Skeletal, smooth, and cardiac muscular tissues Moves substances through the body
Provides structures and support
Protects and supports the body organs
Skeletal Bones and joints
Interacts with the skeletal muscles
Heart, blood vessels, blood, lymph nodes and
Circulatory Transports nutrients, gasses, ions, hormones, and wastes
vessels, and lymph
Regulates behavior
Maintains homeostasis
Nervous Brain, spinal cord, nerves and sense organs
Regulates other organ systems
Controls sensory and motor functions
Extracts and absorbs nutrients from food
Mouth, esophagus, stomach, liver, pancreas, and
Digestive Removes wastes
small and large intestines
Maintains water and chemical balances
Moves air into and out of the lungs
Respiratory Lungs, nose, mouth, and trachea
Controls gas exchange between blood and lungs
Removes wastes from the blood
Excretory Kidneys, urinary bladder, ureters, and urethra
Regulates concentration of body fluids
Regulates body temperature, metabolism, development, and
reproduction
Endocrine Hypothalamus and pituitary gland
Maintains homeostasis
Regulates other organ systems
Testes and penis in males; ovaries and uterus in
Reproductive Produces gametes and offspring
females
White blood cells, lymph nodes and vessels, and
Immune Defends against pathogens and diseases
skin
Structure of a plant
Plants are made up of many cells. Groups of similar cells work together in a tissue.
There are two main types of plant tissues:
 Meristematic tissues – are responsible for the growth and development of the plant by producing permanent tissues.
 Permanent tissues – include surface, fundamental, and vascular tissues. Surface tissues protect the different organs of the
plant. Fundamental tissues fill body space and produce and store food. Vascular tissues conduct water, minerals, sugars, and
amino acids.
 Dermal tissues cover a plant. A thin layer of epidermis covers non-woody parts. Several layers of cork cover woody plants.
Each tissue has its job to do. For example, dermal tissue covers the leaves, flowers, roots and stems of plants. Dermal tissue has
several functions, including preventing the plant from losing too much water. Tissues work together in organs. Important plant organs
include:
 roots
 leaves
 the stem
 reproductive organs, such as male and female sex organs in flowers.
The functions of plant organs

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In plants, each organ has several jobs, or functions.
 Roots keep a plant in the ground. They also take in water and nutrients from the soil.
 Leaves absorb sunlight, and make food for the plant by photosynthesis. The waste product of photosynthesis, oxygen,
escapes through tiny holes in the leaves.
 The stem supports the leaves and flowers. It also transports water and nutrients between the roots and the leaves.
 Reproductive organs allow a plant to produce new plants.
Life processes
All living organisms carry out these seven processes. The phrase MRS GREN is one way to remember them:
 Movement - all living things move, even plants
 Respiration - getting energy from food
 Sensitivity - detecting changes in the surroundings
 Growth - all living things grow
 Reproduction - making more living things of the same type
 Excretion - getting rid of waste
 Nutrition - taking in and using food
LIFE
PLANTS ANIMALS
PROCESSES
 Plants move towards sunlight Animals do this to look for food and shelter, and to
 Roots grow into the soil escape from danger. They can move because their
 They move slower than animals bodies are supported by:
 Endoskeleton
 Bones/cartilage are inside
 Grows as animals grow
MOVEMENT  Exoskeleton
 Hard outer shells
 Does not grow
 Shed and replaced
 Hydrostatic
 No bones
 Internal fluids held within body
Plants respire all the time because their cells need The process by which nutrients taken in are
energy to stay alive, but plants can only converted to energy. Respiration is a chemical
photosynthesize when they are in the light. reaction and occurs in every cell in living things.
RESPIRATION *respiration is the opposite of photosynthesis Glucose +Oxygen=Energy
Time of day Photosynthesis Respiration produces by-products e.g. CO2, water
day active active
night none active
Plants are also sensitive to their surroundings: Animals use their five senses:
 Gear towards sunlight and water  Sight
 Respond to touch(e.g. Venus Flytrap&  Hearing
SENSITIVITY
mimosa)  Smell
 Touch
 Taste
Most plants grow from seeds. Animals grow at a fairly and steady pace until they
reach adulthood. Every day as the get older their
bodies are changing. Their skeleton grows with
GROWTH them, each bone getting bigger over time.
Arthropods- insects, spiders, crabs, and other
animals with external skeletons – grow by shedding
their skeleton and grow a new one.
Plants grow from: Animals have babies from:
 Seeds  Giving birth
REPRODUCTIO  Spores  Laying eggs
N  Asexual reproduction  Asexual reproduction
 Plant grafting & budding Animals may have resemblance with the parents or
some undergoes partial/complete metamorphosis.
Plants break down waste products at a much slower In animals, excretion gets rid of the carbon dioxide,
pace than animals. During: water and harmful substances from your body.
 Respiration(night) CO 2+ H 2 O Lungs – excrete carbon dioxide as you breath out
EXCRETION Kidneys – Filter out nasties to produce urine,
 Photosynthesis (day) O
removing nitrogen waste from your body
Other plant wastes include resins, saps, latex and
Skin – Sheds excess salt through sweat
tannins
Plants make its own food and get nutrients by: Animals get nutrients to survive:
 Absorbing them from the soil  From food and water
 Forming sugars through photosynthesis  By hunting
Photosynthesis=light energy+CO 2∧water Animals can be categorized into the type food they
NUTRITION eat:
sugar Carnivores Herbivores Omnivores
Eat only meat Eat only plant Eat both meat
sources and plants

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Page 2 of 12

 CHAPTER 1B: FEEDBACK MECHANISMS
OBJECTIVES
 Explain how some organisms maintain steady internal conditions that possess various structures and processes
 Describe examples of homeostasis (e.g., temperature regulation, osmotic balance and glucose levels) and the major
features of feedback loops that produce such homeostasis

Key points
 Homeostasis is the tendency to resist change in order to maintain a stable, relatively constant internal environment.
 Homeostasis typically involves negative feedback loops that counteract changes of various properties from their target
values, known as set points.
 In contrast to negative feedback loops, positive feedback loops amplify their initiating stimuli, in other words, they move the
system away from its starting state.

What's the temperature in the room where you're sitting right now? My guess would be that it's not exactly 37 ℃ . Yet, your body
temperature is usually very close to this value. In fact, if your core body temperature doesn't stay within relatively narrow limits
35 ℃ ¿ 41.7 ℃ —from about —the results can be dangerous or even deadly. The tendency to maintain a stable, relatively constant
internal environment is called homeostasis. The body maintains homeostasis for many factors in addition to temperature. For instance,
the concentration of various ions in your blood must be kept steady, along with pH and the concentration of glucose. If these values
get too high or low, you can end up getting very sick.

Homeostasis is maintained at many levels, not just the level of the whole body as it is for temperature. For instance, the stomach
maintains a pH that's different from that of surrounding organs, and each individual cell maintains ion concentrations different from
those of the surrounding fluid. Maintaining homeostasis at each level is key to maintaining the body's overall function.
So, how is homeostasis maintained? Let's answer this question by looking at some examples.
Maintaining homeostasis
Biological systems like those of your body are constantly being pushed away from their balance points. For instance, when you
exercise, your muscles increase heat production, nudging your body temperature upward. Similarly, when you drink a glass of fruit
juice, your blood glucose goes up. Homeostasis depends on the ability of your body to detect and oppose these changes.
Maintenance of homeostasis usually involves negative feedback loops. These loops act to oppose the stimulus, or cue, that
triggers them. For example, if your body temperature is too high, a negative feedback loop will act to bring it back down towards
the set point, or target value, of 37 ℃ .
How does this work? First, high temperature will be detected by sensors—primarily nerve cells with endings in your skin and
brain—and relayed to a temperature-regulatory control center in your brain. The control center will process the information and
activate effectors—such as the sweat glands—whose job is to oppose the stimulus by bringing body temperature down.

Of course, body temperature doesn't just swing above its target value—it can also drop below this value. In general, homeostatic
circuits usually involve at least two negative feedback loops:
 One is activated when a parameter—like body temperature—is above the set point and is designed to bring it back down.
 One is activated when the parameter is below the set point and is designed to bring it back up.
To make this idea more concrete, let's take a closer look at the opposing feedback loops that control body temperature.

Homeostatic responses in temperature regulation

If you get either too hot or too cold, sensors in the periphery and the brain tell the temperature regulation center of your brain—in
a region called the hypothalamus—that your temperature has strayed from its set point.
For instance, if you’ve been exercising hard, your body temperature can rise above its set point, and you’ll need to activate
mechanisms that cool you down. Blood flow to your skin increases to speed up heat loss into your surroundings, and you might also
start sweating so the evaporation of sweat from your skin can help you cool off. Heavy breathing can also increase heat loss.

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Page 3 of 12

 On the other hand, if you’re sitting in a cold room and aren’t dressed warmly, the temperature center in the brain will need to
trigger responses that help warm you up. The blood flow to your skin decreases, and you might start shivering so that your muscles
generate more heat. You may also get goose bumps—so that the hair on your body stands on end and traps a layer of air near your
skin—and increase the release of hormones that act to increase heat production.
Notably, the set point is not always rigidly fixed and may be a moving target. For instance, body temperature varies over a 24-
hour period, from highest in the late afternoon to lowest in the early morning. Fever also involves a temporary increase in the
temperature set point so that heat-generating responses are activated at temperatures higher than the normal set point.

Disruptions to feedback disrupt homeostasis

Homeostasis depends on negative feedback loops. So, anything that interferes with the feedback mechanisms can—and usually
will!—disrupt homeostasis. In the case of the human body, this may lead to disease.
Diabetes, for example, is a disease caused by a broken feedback loop involving the hormone insulin. The broken feedback loop
makes it difficult or impossible for the body to bring high blood sugar down to a healthy level.
To appreciate how diabetes occurs, let's take a quick look at the basics of blood sugar regulation. In a healthy person, blood sugar
levels are controlled by two hormones: insulin and glucagon.
Insulin decreases the concentration of glucose in the blood. After you eat a meal, your blood glucose levels rise, triggering the
secretion of insulin from β cells in the pancreas. Insulin acts as a signal that triggers cells of the body, such as fat and muscle cells, to
take up glucose for use as fuel. Insulin also causes glucose to be converted into glycogen—a storage molecule—in the liver. Both
processes pull sugar out of the blood, bringing blood sugar levels down, reducing insulin secretion, and returning the whole system to
homeostasis.
Glucagon does the opposite: it increases the concentration of glucose in the blood. If you haven’t eaten for a while, your blood
glucose levels fall, triggering the release of glucagon from another group of pancreatic cells, the α cells. Glucagon acts on the liver,
causing glycogen to be broken down into glucose and released into the bloodstream, causing blood sugar levels to go back up. This
reduces glucagon secretion and brings the system back to homeostasis.
Diabetes happens when a person's pancreas can't make enough insulin, or when cells in the body stop responding to insulin, or
both. Under these conditions, body cells don't take up glucose readily, so blood sugar levels remain high for a long period of time after
a meal. This is for two reasons:
Muscle and fat cells don't get enough glucose, or fuel. This can make people feel tired and even cause muscle and fat tissues to
waste away.
High blood sugar causes symptoms like increased urination, thirst, and even dehydration. Over time, it can lead to more serious
complications.

Positive feedback loops

Homeostatic circuits usually involve negative feedback loops. The hallmark of a negative feedback loop is that it counteracts a
change, bringing the value of a parameter—such as temperature or blood sugar—back towards it set point.
Some biological systems, however, use positive feedback loops. Unlike negative feedback loops, positive feedback
loops amplify the starting signal. Positive feedback loops are usually found in processes that need to be pushed to completion, not
when the status quo needs to be maintained.
A positive feedback loop comes into play during childbirth. In childbirth, the baby's head presses on the cervix—the bottom of the
uterus, through which the baby must emerge—and activates neurons to the brain. The neurons send a signal that leads to release of the
hormone oxytocin from the pituitary gland.
Oxytocin increases uterine contractions, and thus pressure on the cervix. This causes the release of even more oxytocin and
produces even stronger contractions. This positive feedback loop continues until the baby is born.
Formative Question: How does Blood clot relate to Homeostasis?

Blood clotting is considered part of the Positive Feedback Loop. This is defined as an effector that will amplify the effect of the
Negative Feedback Loop. For instance, when there is a hemorrhage (loss of blood), it will cause a sequential activation of clotting
factors. Here, a single clotting factor results in the activation of many more clotting factors. This is also known as a Positive Feedback
cascade. This overall process will give the completion of the Negative Feedback Loop because blood loss was prevented with the
clotting factors, resulting in Homeostasis.

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Page 4 of 12

SYNTHESIS:
Negative feedbacks is your body's response to keep things normal or stable, whereas positive feedbacks exacerbate
certain effects on the body by repeating functions deliberately. In essence, negative feedbacks preserve your body's
original or 'set' condition and positive feedbacks do the opposite and change you body more by constantly pushing certain
types of growth or development in the same direction until something has been accomplished.

UNIT II: GENETICS

OBJECTIVES
 Predict genotypes and phenotypes of parents and offspring using the law of inheritance
 Explain sex linkage and recombination
 Describe modifications to Mendel’s classic ratios(gene interaction)
 Illustrate the molecular structure of DNA, RNA, and proteins
 Diagram the steps in DNA replication and protein synthesis
 Outline the processes involved in genetic engineering
 Discuss the applications of recombinant DNA

CHAPTER 1: MENDEL’S LAW OF INHERITANCE

Formative Questions: Why was the pea plant used in Mendel’s experiments?
Enabling Question: How does genetics affect your daily lives?
MENDEL'S LAWS OF INHERITANCE
Inheritance can be defined as the process of how a child receives genetic information from the parent. The whole process of heredity is
dependent upon inheritance and it is the reason that the offsprings are similar to the parents. This simply means that due to inheritance,
the members of the same family possess similar characteristics.
It was only during the mid-19th century that people started to understand inheritance in a proper way. This understanding of
inheritance was made possible by a scientist named Gregor Mendel, who formulated certain laws to understand inheritance known as
Mendel’s laws of inheritance.

Between 1856-1863, Mendel conducted the hybridization experiments on the garden peas. During that period, he chose some distinct
characteristics of the peas and conducted some cross-pollination/ artificial pollination on the pea lines that showed stable trait
inheritance and underwent continuous self-pollination. Such pea lines are called true-breeding pea lines.
Mendel’s basis on selecting a pea plant for his experiments:
1. The pea plant can be easily grown and maintained.
2. They are naturally self-pollinating but can also be cross-pollinated.
3. It is an annual plant, therefore, many generations can be studied within a short period of time.
4. It has several contrasting characters.
Mendel conducted 2 main experiments to determine the laws of inheritance. These experiments were:
1. Monohybrid Cross Experiment
2. Dihybrid Cross Experiment
While experimenting, Mendel found that certain factors were always being transferred down to the offspring in a stable way. Those
factors are now called genes i.e. genes can be called the units of inheritance.
Mendel’s Experiments
Mendel experimented on a pea plant and considered 7 main contrasting traits in the plants. Then, he conducted both the experiments to
determine the aforementioned inheritance laws. A brief explanation of the two experiments is given below.
 In this experiment, Mendel took two pea plants of opposite traits (one short and one tall) and crossed them. He
found the first generation offsprings were tall and called it F1 progeny. Then he crossed F1 progeny and
Monohybrid obtained both tall and short plants in the ratio 3:1.
Cross  Mendel even conducted this experiment with other contrasting traits like green peas vs yellow peas, round vs
wrinkled, etc. In all the cases, he found that the results were similar. From this, he formulated the laws of
Segregation and Dominance.
 In a dihybrid cross experiment, Mendel considered two traits, each having two alleles. He crossed wrinkled-
green seed and round-yellow seeds and observed that all the first generation progeny (F1 progeny) were round-
Dihybrid
yellow. This meant that dominant traits were the round shape and yellow color.
Cross
 He then self-pollinated the F1 progeny and obtained 4 different traits wrinkled-yellow, round-yellow, wrinkled-
green seeds and round-green in the ratio 9:3:3:1.

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Page 5 of 12

After conducting for other traits, the results were found to be similar. From this experiment, Mendel formulated his second law of
inheritance i.e. law of Independent Assortment.

Conclusions from Mendel’s Experiments

 The genetic makeup of the plant is known as the genotype. On the contrary, the physical appearance of the plant is known as
phenotype
 The genes are transferred from parents to the offsprings in pairs known as allele.
 During gametogenesis when the chromosomes are halved, there is a 50% chance of one of the two alleles to fuse with the
other parent.
 When the alleles are the same, they are known as homozygous alleles and when the alleles are different they are known as
heterozygous alleles.
MENDEL’S LAWS
The two experiments lead to the formulation of Mendel’s laws known as laws of inheritance which are:
1. Law of Dominance
2. Law of Segregation
3. Law of Independent Assortment
Law of Dominance
This is also called Mendel’s first law of inheritance. According to the law of dominance, hybrid offsprings will only inherit the
dominant trait in the phenotype. The alleles that are suppressed are called as the recessive traits while the alleles that determine the
trait are known as the dormant traits.
Law of Segregation
The law of segregation states that during the production of gametes, two copies of each hereditary factor segregate so that offspring
acquire one factor from each parent. In other words, allele (alternative form of the gene) pairs segregate during the formation of
gamete and re-unite randomly during fertilization. This is also known as Mendel’s third law of inheritance.
Law of Independent Assortment
Also known as Mendel’s second law of inheritance, the law of independent assortment states that a pair of trait segregates
independently of another pair during gamete formation. As the individual heredity factors assort independently, different traits get
equal opportunity to occur together.
Key Points on Mendel’s Laws
 The law of inheritance was proposed by Gregor Mendel after conducting experiments on pea plants for seven years.
 The Mendel’s laws of inheritance include law of dominance, law of segregation and law of independent assortment.
 The law of segregation states that every individual possesses two alleles and only one allele is passed on to the offspring.
 The law of independent assortment states that the inheritance of one pair of genes is independent of inheritance of another
pair.
SYNTHESIS
Mendel picked pea plant in his experiments because the pea plant has different observable traits. It can be grown easily in large
numbers and its reproduction can be manipulated. Also, pea has both male and female reproductive organs, so they can self-pollinate
as well as cross-pollinate.

CHAPTER 2: SEX LINKAGE

FORMATIVE QUESTION: Do all species with X and Y chromosomes have the Sex determining region of Y gene?
Enabling Question: What differentiates dominant from recessive allele?
Sex linkage applies to genes that are located on the sex chromosomes. These genes are considered sex-linked because their
expression and inheritance patterns differ between males and females. While sex
linkage is not the same as genetic linkage, sex-linked genes can be genetically linked.
SEX CHROMOSOMES
Sex chromosomes determine whether an individual is male or female. In humans
and other mammals, the sex chromosomes are X and Y. Females have two X
chromosomes, and males have an X and a Y.
Non-sex chromosomes are also called autosomes. Autosomes come in pairs of
homologous chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes have the same genes arranged in
the same order. So for all of the genes on the autosomes, both males and females have
two copies.
A female’s two X chromosomes also have the same genes arranged in the same
order. So females have two copies of every gene, including the genes on sex
chromosomes.
The X and Y chromosomes, however, have different genes. So for the genes on the
sex chromosomes, males have just one copy. The Y chromosome has few genes, but the X

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Page 6 of 12

chromosome has more than 1,000. Well-known examples in people include genes that control color blindness and male pattern
baldness. These are sex-linked traits.

INHERITANCE OF SEX CHROMOSOMES IN MAMMALS

Meiosis is the process of making gametes, also known as eggs and sperm in
most animals. During meiosis, the number of chromosomes is reduced by half, so
that each gamete gets just one of each autosome and one sex chromosome.
Female mammals make eggs, which always have an X chromosome. And
males make sperm, which can have an X or a Y.
Egg and sperm join to make a zygote, which develops into a new offspring. An
egg plus an X-containing sperm will make a female offspring, and an egg plus a Y-
containing sperm will make a male offspring.
 Female offspring get an X chromosome from each parent
 Males get an X from their mother and a Y from their father
 X chromosomes never pass from father to son
 Y chromosomes always pass from father to son

SEX CHROMOSOMES IN PIGEONS

The way sex determination works in birds is nearly the reverse of how it work in
mammals. The sex chromosomes in birds are Z and W. Male birds have two Z
chromosomes, and females have a Z and a W. Male birds make sperm, which always
have a Z chromosome. Female gametes (eggs) can have a Z or a W.
 Male offspring get a Z chromosome from each parent
 Females get a Z from their father and a W from their mother
 Z chromosomes never pass from mother to daughter
 W chromosomes always pass from mother to daughter
In birds, it’s the males that have two copies of every gene, while the females have
just one copy of the genes on the sex chromosomes. The W-chromosome is small with
few genes. But the Z-chromosome has many sex-linked genes, including genes that
control feather color and color intensity.

X & Y and Z & W are just two of the ways that sex is determined in animals. Some
animals can even change from one sex to another.

INHERITANCE OF SEX-LINKED GENES

For genes on autosomes, we all have two copies—one from each parent. The
two copies may be the same, or they may be different. Different versions of the
same gene are called “alleles” (uh-LEELZ). Genes code for proteins, and proteins
make traits.* importantly, it’s the two alleles working together that affect what we
see—also called a “phenotype.”

Variations in genes can affect our inherited characteristics, accounting for the
differences from one individual to the next. For examples, visit Observable
Human Characteristics and The Outcome of Mutation.

Female pigeons (ZW) have just one Z chromosome, and therefore just one
allele for each of the genes located there. One gene on the Z chromosome
affects feather color; three different alleles make feathers blue, ash-red, or brown.
In a female bird (ZW), her single color allele determines her feather color. But in
males (ZZ), two alleles work together to determine feather color according to
their dominance. That is, 'ash-red' is dominant to 'blue', which is dominant to
'brown'.
Having two copies of a gene can be important when one copy is “broken” or defective. A functional second copy can often work
well enough on its own, acting as a sort of back-up to prevent problems. With sex-
linked genes, male mammals (and female birds) have no back-up copy. In people, a
number of genetic disorders are sex-linked, including Duchenne muscular
dystrophy and hemophilia. These and other sex-inked disorders are much more
common in boys than in girls.
Red/green colorblindness is also caused by a defective gene on the X-
chromosome. You need at least one working copy of the gene to be able to see red
and green. Since boys have just one X-chromosome, which they receive from their
mother, inheriting one defective copy of the gene will render them colorblind. Girls
have two X-chromosomes; to be colorblind they must inherit two defective copies,
one from each parent. Consequently, red-green colorblindness is much more
frequent in boys (1 in 12) than in girls (1 in 250).
*Some genes code for functional RNAs, which also influence our traits.
The difference in sex chromosomes between males and females leads to specific inheritance patterns for sex-linked genes. (Above)
Female pigeons inherit their color allele from their father. Males inherit one allele from each parent. In humans (below), the pattern is
reversed.

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Page 7 of 12

RECOMBINATION AND SEX-LINKED GENES
When gametes (egg and sperm) form, chromosomes go through a process called
recombination. During recombination, homologous chromosomes pair up and
exchange stretches of DNA. Recombination makes new allele combinations, which
can then be passed to offspring.
When sex chromosomes don’t have a homologue (XY male mammals and ZW
female birds, for instance), the sex chromosomes do not recombine.* Instead, the sex
chromosomes pass unchanged from parent to offspring. But when sex chromosomes
do have a homologue (as in XX female mammals and ZZ male birds), the sex
chromosomes recombine to make new allele combinations.
In pigeons, color and dilute (color intensity) are controlled by two genes on the Z
chromosome. In males, recombination between homologous Z chromosomes can
make new combinations of color and dilute alleles (by chance, some offspring will
still receive the same allele combination as the father). But in females, where the Z
chromosome does not recombine, the two alleles always pass to offspring together.
* This isn’t entirely true. Portions of the X and Y chromosomes, called the “pseudo
autosomal regions,” do pair up and recombine. These regions have the same genes,
which are not considered sex-linked even though they’re on the sex chromosomes.

SEX-LINKED GENES CAN ALSO BE GENETICALLY LINKED

In pigeons, the color and dilute genes are not only sex-linked, they are also genetically
linked.
Unlinked genes, whether on the same or different chromosomes, are inherited separately
50% of the time. Genes that are genetically linked are inherited separately less than 50% of the
time. The closer together the linked genes are, the less likely it is that a recombination event will
happen between them. Color and dilute are separated by recombination about 40% of the time
(in males only, of course), so they are not very close together.
Gene 3 is more closely linked to Gene 2 than to Gene 4. Gene 1 and Gene 3 are not linked,
but by chance they will still stay together 50% of the time, the same as if they were on separate
chromosomes.

SYNTHESIS: No, not all of them. The molecular mechanisms of sex determination vary greatly among species, even those that use
an X-Y sex determination system. In most placental mammals, SRY is found on the Y chromosome and is used for sex determination.
However, the SRY gene is not present in other species with X-Y sex determination systems, such as fruit flies and other insects.

CHAPTER 3: CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR

BIOLOGY
FORMATIVE QUESTION: Why are protein-coding genes expressed in
two steps?
Enabling Question: How are chromosomes inherited from parents?
The ‘Central Dogma’ is the process by which the instructions in DNA are
converted into a functional product. It was first proposed in 1958 by Francis
Crick, discoverer of the structure of DNA.
 The central dogma of molecular biology explains the flow of
genetic information, from DNA to RNA, to make a functional
product, a protein.
 The central dogma suggests that DNA contains the information
needed to make all of our proteins, and that RNA is a messenger
that carries this information to the ribosomes.
 The ribosomes serve as factories in the cell where the information is
‘translated’ from a code into the functional product.
 The process by which the DNA instructions are converted into the
functional product is called gene expression.
 Gene expression has two key stages - transcription and translation.
 In transcription, the information in the DNA of every cell is
converted into small, portable RNA messages.
 During translation, these messages travel from where the DNA is in
the cell nucleus to the ribosomes where they are ‘read’ to make
specific proteins.
 The central dogma states that the pattern of information that occurs
most frequently in our cells is:
o From existing DNA to make new DNA (DNA replication)
o From DNA to make new RNA (transcription)
o From RNA to make new proteins (translation).

 Reverse transcription is the transfer of information from RNA to make new DNA, this occurs in the case of retroviruses, such
as HIV. It is the process by which the genetic information from RNA is assembled into new DNA.
SYNTHESIS
In known organisms, however, transcription is an essential part of gene expression. Even if cells somehow had a way to directly read a
DNA sequence and use it to build a protein (which they don't), there are reasons why transcription would still be a necessary step:

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Page 8 of 12

  One reason simply relates to location. In a eukaryotic cell, the DNA is locked up in the nucleus, while the ribosomes –
molecular machines used to make proteins – are found in the cytosol. Thus, a "messenger" is needed to carry information
from DNA out of the nucleus to the waiting ribosomes. Messenger RNAs (mRNAs) fill this role.
 Transcription also provides an important control point at which cells regulate how much of a polypeptide is produced.
Although other stages of gene expression can also be regulated, control of transcription is the most common form of gene
regulation. If the transcription stage were somehow removed, cells would lose much
of their control over which polypeptides were produced and when.
CHAPTER 4: RECOMBINANT DNA
FORMATIVE QUESTION: How rDNA applied in the development of transgenic
animals and clones?
Enabling Question: How is genetic engineering changing the world?
Recombinant DNA technology has dramatically impacted numerous fields – from medicine to
agriculture. Recombinant DNA technologies have helped create genetically altered plants,
which can withstand harsher environmental conditions and pesticides to yield larger crops.
They have also helped produce advances in medicine, such as treatments for cancer,
production of insulin and other recombinant proteins, and even vaccines.
It is a technique used in genetic engineering that involves the identification, isolation and
insertion of gene of interest into a vector such as plasmid or bacteriophage to form a
recombinant DNA molecule and production of large quantities of that gene fragment of
product encoded by that gene.
Formation of rDNA
In most cases, rDNA is created in a laboratory setting using a process of molecular cloning.
This method allows in vivo DNA replication, in the living cells of the subject.
A cloning vector is a DNA molecule that replicates inside a living cell and is used to form
rDNA. The cloning vector is usually a small part of a DNA strand that holds the genetic
information that is needed for the replication of cells. Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is another method that can be used to replicate
a specific DNA sequence and create rDNA, which is used to replicate DNA in a laboratory test tube.
5 Steps in Recombinant DNA Technology or rDNA Technology
 Identification and isolation of gene of interest
 Joining of this gene into a suitable vector (construction of recombinant DNA)
 Introduction of this vector into a suitable organism
 Selection of transformed recombinant cells with gene of interest
 Multiplication or expression of the gene of interest
An example of a product synthesized using rDNA technology
Humulin, is insulin developed using rDNA technology which is used to treat diabetes. Here insulin is synthesized inside bacterium
where we introduced human insulin gene. Thus bacterial system just works as biofactories for the synthesis of insulin.
SYNTHESIS:
Transgenic animal models can be created in 3 steps:
1) Healthy eggs from a female donor are removed and fertilized in vitro.
2) Desired genes from another species are identified, isolated, and cloned
3) The cloned genes are directly injected into the eggs and then surgically implanted into the female host.

REFERENCES:
http://www.dnaftb.org/13/index.html
http://www.dnaftb.org/1/
https://byjus.com/biology/mendel-laws-of-inheritance/
https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/pigeons/sexlinkage/
https://www.yourgenome.org/facts/what-is-the-central-dogma
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/gene-expression-and-regulation/translation/a/intro-to-gene-expression-central-
dogma
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/heredity/non-mendelian-genetics/a/sex-linkage-sex-determination-and-x-
inactivation
https://www.khanacademy.org/test-prep/mcat/biological-sciences-practice/biological-sciences-practice-tut/e/dna-technology--passage-
1
https://www.verywellhealth.com/organ-system-1298691
https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/topics/znyycdm/articles/zjchsrd
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/ap-biology/cell-communication-and-cell-cycle/feedback/a/homeostasis

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Page 9 of 12

 Archdiocese of Lingayen – Dagupan Catholic Schools
GENERAL BIOLOGY 2
Mapandan Catholic School
Camia St. Poblacion, Mapandan, Pangasinan 2494
075-696-0158/09198511883/09175038348 GRADE 12 – ST. JOHN (GAS)
S.Y. 2021 - 2022
WORKSHEET (WEEK 1 – WEEK 8) TEACHER: JOHN MICHAEL LOPEZ
NAME:

ACTIVITY 1: Explain the following questions. Consider the rubrics below:

Content – 3 points Structure – 2 points

1. Smooth muscles react and tire slowly. How might this be an advantage them?
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2. How are the organs of animals adapted to perform essential functions?

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3. How are the organs of animals adapted to perform essential functions?

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4. Why do you continually need to bring in essential substances into the body and get rid of waste?
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____________________________________________________________________________________________________

ACTIVITY 2: Explain the following questions. Consider the rubrics below:

Content – 3 points Structure – 2 points

1. How do you respond to environmental stimuli?

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2. How do hormones influence life’s processes?

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3. How do plants respond to environmental stimuli?

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ACTIVITY 3: Explain the following questions. Consider the rubrics below:

Content – 3 points Structure – 2 points

1. How do flowering plants reproduce asexually and sexually?

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GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Page 10 of 12

 2. How do animals reproduce?
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3. How do humans reproduce?

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ACTIVITY 4: Explain the following questions. Consider the rubrics below:

Content – 3 points Structure – 2 points

1. How does genetics affect your daily lives?

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2. How chromosomes inherited from parent?

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3. What differentiates dominant from recessives alleles?

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4. How did Gregor Mendel elucidate the basic pattern of inheritance using garden peas?
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5. How does an environmental factor affect the expression of traits?

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6. How do you determine the patterns of inheritance using a pedigree analysis?

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PERFORMANCE TASK: Organ System

GOAL Illustrate an organ system of human
ROLE Biology Teacher
AUDIENCE Students
SITUATION You are a biology teacher and will be presenting an illustration of the organ system.
PRODUCT/PERFORMANCE AND PURPOSE
Materials: ¼ illustration board, art materials, and plastic cover.
Choose one of the following Organ System:
1. Muscular System
2. Skeletal System
3. Digestive System
4. Circulatory system
5. Nervous system
STANDARD FOR SUCCESS

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Page 11 of 12

 Advance Proficient Developing Beginning
Criteria
(9-10) (6-8) (4-5) (1-3)
the artwork shows
the artwork shows
little evidence of
the artwork is the artwork is no understanding
Artistic Perception understanding the
planned carefully planned adequately of the concepts
concepts and
and instruction
instruction
the artwork
the artwork shows the artwork shows the artwork shows
shows
Creative Art Process average below average poor
outstanding
craftsmanship craftsmanship craftsmanship
craftsmanship
description and supporting details significantly lacks
supporting details
Aesthetic Valuing interpretation are are somewhat supporting details
are very few
very thorough thorough and interpretation.

PERFORMANCE TASK
GOAL Make a pedigree analysis in the learner’s family
ROLE Student
AUDIENCE Classmates and teacher
SITUATION Your teacher required you to create a pedigree of your family and present it to the class.
PRODUCT/PERFORMANCE AND PURPOSE
Materials: ½ Illustration Board, plastic cover
STANDARD FOR SUCCESS
Advance Proficient Developing Beginning
Criteria
(9-10) (6-8) (4-5) (1-3)
most of the not all of the
the pedigree were
the pedigree were pedigree were pedigree were
Organization completed and
completed completed and completed and
organized
organized organized
the artwork
the artwork shows the artwork shows the artwork shows
shows
Creativity average below average poor
outstanding
craftsmanship craftsmanship craftsmanship
craftsmanship
description and supporting details significantly lacks
supporting details
Aesthetic Valuing interpretation are are somewhat supporting details
are very few
very thorough thorough and interpretation.

COMMENTS AND SUGGESTION:

DATE ACCOMPLISHED: PARENTS SIGNATURE:

GENERAL BIOLOGY 2 Page 12 of 12