INTRODUCTION TO GEOGRAPHY

Definition of Geography
 Geography is the study of location and
spatial variation in natural and human
phenomena on Earth.
 The study of the earth and its features and
of the distribution of life on the earth,
including human life and the effects of Geo: ‘the earth’
human activity. Graphein: ‘to
 Geography is the science that studies the write/description’
lands, features, inhabitants, and
phenomena of Earth. A literal translation
would be "to describe or write about the
Earth". The first person to use the word
"geography" was Eratosthenes (276-194
BC).
Field of Geography
Physical
Geography
Physical geography focuses on
geography as an Earth science. It
aims to understand the physical
problems and issues of :
lithosphere, hydrosphere,
atmosphere, and global flora
and fauna patterns
Human
Geography
Human Geography is a branch
of geography that focuses on
the study of patterns and
processes that shape human
interaction with various
environments. It encompasses
human, political, cultural, social,
and economic aspects.
Geographic Coordinate System
 A geographic coordinate system is a coordinate
system that enables every location on the Earth to
be specified by a set of numbers or letters. The
coordinates are often chosen such that one of the
numbers represents vertical position, and two or
three of the numbers represent horizontal position.
A common choice of coordinates is latitude,
longitude and elevation
Latitude
 Latitude is a geographic
coordinate that specifies the
north-south position of a point
on the Earth's surface.
 Latitude ranges from 0° at
the Equator to 90° (North or
South) at the poles.
 Latitude is used together with
longitude to specify the
precise location of features
on the surface of the Earth.
Lines of Latitude
Some Important Latitudes

Equator (0 latitude)

Tropic of Cancer
(23.5north latitude)

Tropic of Capricorn (23.5

south latitude)

Arctic Circle (66.5 north

latitude)

Antarctic Circle (66.5

south latitude)
Geographical Regions (GR) of the Earth

Tropical Temperate

Equatorial Polar

GR
Equator

The Equator refers to the Earth's equator

and is an imaginary line on the Earth's
surface equidistant from the North Pole
and South Pole, dividing the Earth into the
Northern Hemisphere and Southern
Hemisphere.

The latitude of the Equator is 0° (zero

degrees). The length of Earth's equator is
about 40,030.2 kilometres (24,873.6 mi).
Tropic of Cancer

Tropic of Cancer also referred to as the

Northern tropic, is the circle of latitude on
the Earth that marks the most northerly
position at which the Sun may appear
directly overhead at its zenith.

This event occurs once per year, at the time

of the June solstice, when the Northern
Hemisphere is tilted toward the Sun to its
maximum extent.
Tropic of Capricorn

Tropic of Capricorn or Southern tropic

marks the most southerly latitude on the
Earth at which the Sun can be directly
overhead.

This event occurs at the December solstice,

when the southern hemisphere is tilted
towards the Sun to its maximum extent.
Arctic Circle

The Arctic Circle is the most northerly of the

five major circles of latitude that mark
maps of the Earth. The region north of this
circle is known as the Arctic, and the zone
just to the south is called the Northern
Temperate Zone.
Antarctic Circle

The Antarctic Circle is the most southerly of

the five major circles of latitude that mark
maps of the Earth.

The region south of this circle is known as

the Antarctic, and the zone immediately to
the north is called the Southern Temperate
Zone
Longitude
 Longitude is a geographic
coordinate that specifies
Longitude
the east-west position of
a point on the Earth's
surface.
 It is an angular
measurement, usually
expressed in degrees,
minutes and seconds.
Prime Meridian (Longitude)
 The Prime Meridian is the
meridian (line of longitude) at
which the longitude is defined
to be 0°.
 The Prime Meridian and its
opposite the 180th meridian
(at 180° longitude), which the
International Date Line
generally follows, form a great
circle that divides the Earth into
the Eastern and Western
Hemispheres.
Equatorial Regions

Equatorial regions are located in a band around the

Equator and cover about 6% of the Earth's surface.
They are often in lowland areas and have a climate Democratic Republic of the
Congo, Uganda, Kenya,
that is hot and wet all year round. Tropical rainforests
grow in the equatorial regions.
Tropical Regions

The tropics are the region of the Earth near to the

equator and between the Tropic of Cancer in the Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bo
northern hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn in the livia, Colombia,Venezuela,
southern hemisphere. This region is also referred to as Guyana, Suriname
the tropical zone and the torrid zone.
Temperate Regions

Temperate region of Earth lie between the tropics and The United
the polar regions. The temperatures in States, Canada,Uruguay,
these regions are generally relatively moderate, all of Europe, Northern
rather than extremely hot or cold, and the changes Africa, the Middle
East, Japan and New
between summer and winter are also usually moderate.
Zealand.
Polar Regions

The polar regions of Earth, also known as Earth's frigid

zones, are the regions of Earth surrounding its
geographical poles (the North and South Poles).
Canada, Denmark (Greenla
These regions are dominated by Earth's polar ice caps,
nd),Norway, Finland, Swede
the northern resting on the Arctic Ocean and the n, Iceland, and Russia
southern on the continent of Antarctica.
Location of Bangladesh
20034’ north latitude to 26038’ north latitude and 88001’ east longitude to
92041’ east longitude
Climate of Bangladesh

Bangladesh has a subtropical monsoon climate characterized by

wide seasonal variations in rainfall, high temperatures and humidity.

There are three distinct seasons in Bangladesh:

A hot, humid A cool, rainy

summer from monsoon season
March to June from June to
October

A cool, dry winter

from October to
March
Summary of lecture
Thank You
Thin Gaseous envelope

Earth's Atmosphere
 The atmosphere is
- the vast gaseous envelope of air
- that surrounds the Earth.
 Its boundaries are not easily defined.
 The atmosphere contains a complex system of gases and
suspended particles.
 It reaches over 560 km (348 miles) from the surface of the Earth,
so we are only able to see what occurs fairly close to the ground.
 99% of atmospheric gases, including water vapor, extend only
30 kilometer (km) above earth's surface.
 Most of our weather, however, occurs within the first 10 to 15
km.
 Nearly 150 million kilometers separate the sun and earth, yet
solar radiation drives earth's weather.
 Composition of Atmosphere
 Nitrogen - 78%
 Oxygen - 21%
 Water Vapor – 0 to 4%
 Carbon Dioxide - 0 .037%
 Other gases make up the rest

Lapse Rate
 The rate at which air temperature decreases with height.
 The standard (average) lapse rate in the lower
atmosphere is about 6.5°C per 1 km or 3.6°F per 1000 ft.
• Five distinct layers have been identified using
• thermal characteristics (temperature changes),
• chemical composition,
• movement &
• density.

• The Earth's atmosphere extends from ground surface to

the edge of interplanetary space. There are basically 5
(five) atmospheric layers.
• Troposphere
• Stratosphere
• Mesosphere
• Thermosphere
• Exosphere
Atmospheric Layers
Troposphere:
The troposphere starts at the Earth's surface and extends
8 to 14.5 kilometers high (5 to 9 miles). This part of the
atmosphere is the most dense. As you climb higher in this
layer, the temperature drops from about 17 to -52 degrees
Celsius. Almost all weather is in this region. The
boundary that divides the troposphere from the
stratosphere is called the "tropopause", located at an
altitude of around 5 miles in the winter, to around 8
miles high in the summer, and as high as 11 or 12 miles
in the tropics. The tropopause and the troposphere are
known as the lower atmosphere.
Stratosphere:
The stratosphere starts just above the troposphere and extends
to 50 kilometers (31 miles) high. Compared to the troposphere,
this part of the atmosphere is dry and less dense. The
temperature in this region increases gradually to -3 degrees
Celsius, due to the absorbtion of ultraviolet radiation. The ozone
layer, which absorbs and scatters the solar ultraviolet radiation,
is in this layer. Ninety-nine percent of "air" is located in the
troposphere and stratosphere. The stratopause separates the
stratosphere from the next layer.

Mesosphere:
The mesosphere starts just above the stratosphere and extends
to 85 kilometers (53 miles) high. In this region, the temperature
again falls as low as -93 degrees Celsius as you increase in
altitude. The mesopause separates the mesosphere from the
thermosphere.
 Thermosphere:
The thermosphere starts just above the mesosphere
and extends to 600 kilometers (372 miles) high. The
temperatures go up as you increase in altitude due to
the Sun's energy. Radiation absorbing gas are present
which absorb energy from solar radiation warming
the air. Temperatures in this region can go as high as
1,727 degrees Celsius. Chemical reactions occur much
faster here than on the surface of the Earth. This
layer is known as the upper atmosphere.

 Exosphere:
The exosphere starts at the top of the thermosphere
and continues until it merges with interplanetary
gaps, or space. In this region of the atmosphere,
Hydrogen and Helium are the prime components and
are only present at extremely low densities.
 Weather & Climate

 Weather is an area’s short term temperature, precipitation, wind

speed, cloud cover and other physical conditions of the lower
atmosphere over a short period of time.
Weather is comprised of the elements of:
 a) air temperature
 b) air pressure
 c) humidity
 d) clouds
 e) precipitation
 f) visibility
 g) wind

 Climate represents long-term (e.g. 30 yr) averages of weather.

Average temperature and average precipitation are the two main
factors determining climate.
Controls of weather and climate
Factors responsible for global and local climate

 Solar radiation reaching the area.

 Earth’s daily rotation at his own axis
 Annual rotation at his orbit (around the sun)
 Air circulation over the surface
 Global distribution of landmasses and water
 Circulation of ocean currents
 Elevation of the landmasses (altitude)
SPHERES OF EARTH

HYDROSPHERE
OVERVIEW OF LECTURE

o What is Hydrosphere?
o Relationship among different spheres
o Structure of Hydrosphere
o Hydrological cycle
o Importance of Hydrological Cycle
o Processes of Hydrologic Cycle
o Impacts of human activities on
Hydrological Cycle
Hydrosphere
 HYDROSPHERE
 The hydrosphere describes the waters of the earth.
 About 71% of the Earth’s surface is covered by water.
Water of the hydrosphere exists in three states: liquid, solid and
gaseous (water vapor).
 Water occurs in two general chemical conditions, fresh and salty.
It also occurs as standing water (in oceans and lakes) and running
water (in rivers and streams).
 It consist of water in the oceans; lakes, streams, rivers,
swamps on the surface of the land & under the ground
(ground water).
 It also consists of water frozen as ice and snow-icebergs,
glaciers, polar ice, on mountains and in the frozen layers of soil
and as water vapor in the atmosphere.
THE STRUCTURE OF HYDROSPHERE

 Oceans and seas - 96.5 % of water

 Fresh water – 3.5 % of water

Fresh water distribution:

 Ice: 1.762%
 Groundwater: 1.7%
 Surface Fresh Water: 0.014%
 Atmosphere and Soil: 0.002%
 Solid forms of water (forms of ice):

Icebergs: a large piece of freshwater ice floating in open

waters.
Glaciers: any large mass of ice that moves slowly over land.
Permafrost: ground that is permanently frozen.
 THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE
Significance of the hydrologic cycle

Water moves from one store to another by various processes and

 these movements take place between the atmosphere, lithosphere

and biosphere and

 in this way the water cycle integrates most of the other

important environmental systems.

 Earth is not the only planet to contain water but conditions on

Earth are particularly suitable for the continuous cycling of water,
which in turn drives many other important systems.
The hydrologic cycle involves the continuous recycling of
water between the atmosphere, land and oceans.

 It is the transfer of water from the oceans to the

atmosphere, from the atmosphere to the land and back to the
oceans. The processes involve evaporation of water from the
oceans; precipitation on land; evaporation from land ; runoff
from streams, river and subsurface groundwater.

The hydrological cycle is driven by solar energy, which

evaporates water from oceans, fresh water bodies, soils and
vegetation.
Different processes of the hydrologic cycle

Evaporation
It takes place due to heat. Water from oceans, seas and water surfaces
on land, such as rivers, lakes etc. is changed from water droplets to
water vapor in the atmosphere, which is known as evaporation.

Transpiration
Water lost from vegetation - trees and plants, mainly from their leaves
is known as transpiration.

Evapo-transpiration
Evapo-transpiration (ET) is a term used to describe the sum of
evaporation and plant transpiration from the Earth's land surface to
atmosphere.
Condensation
Air temperature decreases with height. As water vapor is carried
upwards by air it is cooled, leading to condensation. This is the
process by which water vapor (gas) is turned to liquid or solid.

. Precipitation
~ is any product of the condensation of atmospheric water vapor
that falls under gravity. Rain is the most common type but snow
and hail are included as well

Interception
When precipitation occurs, some are prevented from falling
directly on the ground by trees and plants which is known as
interception.
Run-off
Water flows over the ground surface, finding its way into rivers and
streams, known as run-off.

Infiltration
Water that seeps into the ground. It depends on soil
characteristics, land cover type, slope of the ground.

Groundwater flow
Storage of water at underground. After precipitation a certain
portion of it seeps into the ground.

In general, the term groundwater or subsurface water refers to

the water that occurs below the surface of the earth. The main
source of groundwater is infiltration.
HOW PEOPLE ARE AFFECTING THE HYDROLOGICAL CYCLE?

 Withdrawing large amount of water from stream, lakes and underground

sources.

Effects:
Groundwater depletion:
-land subsidence

Salt water intrusion:

- Water become unusable for domestic purpose
- Corrosion of industrial process
- Crop damage
- Ecosystem loss
Deforestation

Clearing vegetation and urbanization.

• Increases in runoff
• Soil erosion
• Sedimentation in river: flooding
THANK YOU
Lithosphere
 Overview of the Lecture
• Size and shape of the Earth
• Earths structure
– Core
– Mantle
– Crust
• Composition of Earths Crust
• Plates
• Plate Boundaries
• Biosphere
Size and Shape of the Earth
• The Earth has a surface
area of 510 million km2
• It is an oblate spheroid
• The study of the shape of
the earth is called
Geodesy
• Modern geodesic survey is
greatly assisted by
developments in remote
sensing
 Earth’s Structure

▪ Earth’s internal zones:

• Core
- Inner core
- Outer core

• Mantle

• Crust
- Oceanic crust
- Continental crust
Figure: Structure of the Earth
• Core
- The inner most part of the earth
- Temperature of the centre of the core is between
40000C & 50000C.
- This part is composed of iron, nickel & cobalt &
known as Nife.
- Density is very high
- It has two layers
฀ a liquid exterior-outer core- 2250 km
(thickness)-made of liquid Fe, Ni
฀ a solid interior-inner core-1200 km (thickness)-
made of solid Fe, Ni
• Mantle
- layer between the core & the crust
- a thick layer (2900 km) of mostly molten rock
Lithosphere: The outer part of the mantle is rigid and behaves as
a solid and this layer mostly merges with the crust. Lithosphere
consist of the crust and part of upper mantle, which is about 100
km thick. The lithosphere is the earth’s solid crust and upper
mantle. Lithosphere contains non-renewable fossil fuels and
minerals we use as well as renewable soil chemicals that
organisms need to live, grow and reproduce.
Asthenosphere: The layer just beneath the lithosphere is known as
asthenosphere. Its materials behave more like flowing plastic than
solid rock and is about 200 km thick.
• Crust
- the outer shell of the earth which varies in thickness
from 5-50 km.
- It is solid & generally consists of low density materials
- May be divided into two parts
฀ upper crust/continental crust- up to 100 km thick
under the mountains
฀ lower crust/oceanic crust- only 5 km thick under
the oceans
- The upper crust is also known as ‘sial’ as rocks of this
part is composed mainly of silica & aluminium.
- The lower crust is called ‘sima’ as silica & magnesium
are the most common minerals here.
 Composition of Earth’s Crust
▪ Only 8 elements make up 99% of the weight of Earth’s
crust. These are, in order of abundance,

• Oxygen 47%
• Silicon 28%
• Aluminum 8%
• Iron 5%
• Calcium 4%
• Sodium 3%
• Potassium 2%
• Magnesium 2%

▪ All other elements make up only 1% of the weight of

Earth’s crust.
 Plates & Plate Tectonics
▪ Plates: Various-sized areas of Earth’s lithosphere
that moves slowly around on the mantle’s flowing
asthenosphere
▪ Earthquakes and volcanoes occur around the
boundaries of these plates

▪ Plate tectonics: Theory of geophysical processes

that explains the movements of Earth’s plates
and the processes that occur at their boundaries
▪ Lithospheric plates have
3 types of boundaries:
• Divergent
• Convergent
• Transform

Figure:
Types of boundaries
between Earth’s
lithospheric plates.
Biosphere
▪ Zone of the Earth where life is found
▪ The biosphere consists of all living things, plant and
animal
▪ Cycling of matter in this sphere involves not only
metabolic reactions in organisms, but also many
abiotic chemical reactions
▪ Also called Ecosphere
Biosphere extends from less than 11 km below sea level to
the tropopause, which is less than 17km above sea level.
 Human Impacts on Biosphere

• Environmental pollution
• Habitat removal or damage
• Changing the structure and distribution of
vegetation and soils
• Over exploitation of renewable resources
• Introducing exotic organism
• Inappropriate disposal of waste
• Disturbing the equilibrium of important
environmental system
 ENV-103
ENV 103

Branches of Geography
 ENV-103

OVERVIEW OF THE LECTURE

• PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY AND HUMAN GEOGRAPHY

• BRANCHES OF PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY
• BRANCHES OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
• ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
• FACTORS AFFECTING ECONOMIC GEOGRAPHY
 ENV-103
Branches of Geography

Physical Geography

Physical geography focuses on geography as

an Earth science. It aims to understand the
physical problems and issues of : lithosphere,
hydrosphere, atmosphere, and global flora
and fauna patterns.

Human Geography

Human Geography is a branch of geography

that focuses on the study of patterns and
processes that shape human interaction with
various environments. It encompasses human,
political, cultural, social, and economic aspects.
 ENV-103
Sub branches of Physical Geography

Biogeography is the study of the

distribution of species (biology),
organisms, and ecosystems in
space and through geological
time.

Distribution of Elephants in Africa

Meteorology is the
interdisciplinary scientific study
of the atmosphere.

The Short term weather of a location

 ENV-103
Sub Fields of Physical Geography

Geomorphology is the scientific

study of landforms and the
processes that shape them.

Landforms: A natural arch

Pedology is the study of soils in

their natural environment

Soil Profile
 ENV-103
Sub Fields of Physical Geography
Coastal geography is the study of
the dynamic interface between
the ocean and the land,
incorporating both the physical
geography and the human
geography of the coast.
Coast

Hydrology is the study of the

movement, distribution, and
quality of water on Earth and other
planets, including the hydrologic
cycle, water resources.

Hydrological Cycle
 ENV-103
Sub Fields of Physical Geography

Hydrography is the
measurement of the depths,
the tides and currents of a
body of water and
establishment of the sea,
river or lake bed topography
and morphology. Sea Floor Mapping

Glaciology is the study of

glaciers, or more generally ice
and natural phenomena that
involve ice.

Ice
 ENV-103
Sub Fields of Physical Geography

Oceanography, also called oceanology or marine science, is the

branch of Earth science that studies the ocean. It covers a wide
range of topics, including marine organisms and ecosystem
dynamics; ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid
dynamics; plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor.

Ocean Current
 ENV-103
Sub Fields of Physical Geography

Environmental resource management

is a purposeful activity with the goal to
maintain and improve the state of an
environmental resource affected by Save the Tree
human activities.
 ENV-103
Sub Fields of Physical Geography
Geodesy is a branch of earth
sciences, is the scientific
discipline that deals with the
measurement and
representation of the Earth,
including its gravitational field,
in a three-dimensional time-
varying space. Coordinate Calculation

Palaeogeography is the study

of what the geography was in
times past.

Palaeogeography
 ENV-103
Divisions of Human Geography
Social Geography which deals with the growth and
distribution of population, settlement types and their
distribution and human cultural features such as religion,
language etc.
Political Geography which is connected with political units,
their territorial areas, boundaries and capitals, with the
elements of national power and with international politics
which are considered from geographical point of view.
Economic Geography is the study of the exploitation of
natural resources, the production of commodities, the
location and distribution of manufacturing industries and
international trade and communications.
 ENV-103
Economic Geography
Economic geography refers to the field of study focused
on the location of economic activity at the local,
national and world scale. According to Professor Miller:
‘’Economic Geography is the study of man’s economic
activities and their relation to physical environment’’.
The Economics of a Geographical area can be influenced by:

Geology
Socio-
Climate political
factors

Influencing
Factors
 ENV-103

Climate

Climate can influence natural

resource availability (particularly
agriculture and forestry products),
and working conditions and
productivity.
 ENV-103

Geology

Geology can affect resource

availability, cost of transportation,
and land use decisions.
 ENV-103

Social and Political Factors

The social and political institutions

that are unique to a region also have
an impact on economic decisions.
 ENV-103

Thank You
 Economic Man

– Economic men are those Homo-Sapiens who are never satisfied with
their present standard of living.
– In order to achieve a better standard of living and to achieve the goals
they always try to engage themselves in maximum number of
economic activities.
– They involve themselves in primary, secondary and tertiary activities.
– They always try to conduct their activities in a cost effective manner.
– The cost effective activities entail maximization of profit and
minimization of cost.
 Characteristics of Economic man:

– Almost 90% Homo Sapiens are Economic men.

– Economic men are not satisfied with their present standard of living.

– Try to involve economic activities to increase their income.

– Conduct their activities in a cost effective manner.

– Increase income so that they achieve better standard of living.

 Economic Activity
– Economic activity is the work that
people do to enhance their quality
of life.
– Economic activity is the activity of
making, providing, purchasing, or
selling goods or services. Any action
that involves producing,
distributing, or consuming products
or services is an economic
activity. Economic activities exist at
all levels within a society.
Economic activities include thing
that people do to get, refine or use
natural resources.
Factors affecting Economic Activities

– Determinants of Economic activities

mean variables those determine or help
the economic activities.
Divided into two types
– Natural (nature induced-created by
mother nature)
– Cultural (man induced created by man)
 Nature induced

Temperature River system

Precipitation Vegetation
& Soils
 Nature induced Factors

Temperature:
– The temperature near equator and near tropic is high. On the
other hand, temperature in the temperate region and polar area is
cool. It has a great impact in the cropping pattern of the area.
This pattern differs from place to place and thus has impact on
economic activity of man.
Precipitation:
– Precipitation happens in the form of rainfall, snowfall or hail. Annual
Precipitation of an area determines the crop pattern as well as agriculture of
that area. It is also responsible for establishment of an industry. Some
industry need dry climate while some others need a certain amount of
precipitation for their growth. So it is an important influencing factor for
determining the pattern of economic activity of an area.

River System:
– River system of an area also acts as determining factor of economic activity.
Riverside economic activity differs with economic activity of other areas.
Vegetation & Soils:
– In equatorial and tropical area soil is fertile due to climatic
condition. So these areas are appropriate for the growth of
natural vegetation. But if we go towards pole soil is not in
very good condition and the environment is not friendly
also.

Coffee Production Map

 Man induced parameters

– Man induced parameters are those economic

parameters, which are created by economic man. We
also call it cultural landscape. It is the function of
different kinds of economic activities conducted by
economic man. The secondary and tertiary economic
activities are dominated by man induced parameters.
So those regions, which are engaged in secondary and
tertiary economic activities or has the influence of man
induced parameters are the urbanized and the
developed regions.
 Man induced
parameters

Socio- Demographic Historical Political

Economic
 Man induced parameters
Socio-Economic:
– Socio economic condition of an area has an impact on the type of
economic activity. Different level of education or income level give rise
to different types of economic activity.

Demographic:
– Demographic parameters indicate people’s age, sex, and natural
increase etc. Age and sex have also their influence on dependent and
independent population of any society.
Historical:
– Historical parameters is influenced by different types of historical
events of a nation. In our country we always try to follow our previous
historical rules, which was introduced by British.

Political
– Government policy to conduct or making any event has an important
influence. These policies always help us to start or activate any kinds of
activity.
THANK YOU
PRIMITIVE PRIMARY ACTIVITIES
 ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES

◦ Any action that involves producing, distributing, or

consuming products or services is an economic activity.
In other words, any activities involving money or the
exchange of products or services are economic
activities.
◦ Primitive economy is an underdeveloped economy in
which communities use primitive tools and methods to
harvest and hunt for food, often resulting in little
economic growth.
Primitive People

◦ People can be considered primitive when their

material culture is simple in form and function.

◦ Another way to recognize primitive people as being

almost completely preoccupied with securing food
and other necessities of survival.
◦ TYPES OF PRIMITIVE ECONOMY
◦
There are three types of primitive economy

◦ Primitive Gathering Gathering

◦ Primitive Hunting
◦ Primitive Nomadism
Activi
ties
Nomadic
Hunting
Herding
Primitive Gathering

◦ Lowest order of economic activity.

◦ Primitive gathering is the oldest economic activities in
which human being supported themselves by collecting
a variety of products provided by nature.
◦ People collect fruits, nuts, berries, roots leaves, and
fiber from trees, shrubs and smaller plants.
◦ They plant few seeds and spend no time for
cultivating the soils.
◦ They don’t try to improve and control their habitat.
Primitive Gathering
◦ Gathering requires the least amount of capital
investment and effort, but considerable space is
required.
◦ A very low man land ratio occurs in such areas, not
more than 2 persons per square miles
◦ Written language is unknown.
◦ Overall health is generally poor.
◦ Their life expectancy is short.
◦ Only a few thousand people currently practice this
form of livelihood.
 Location: Primitive Gathering

◦ Isolated pockets in low

latitudes areas, Amazon basin
(Brazil, Peru, Ecuador and
Venezuela), few stretches of
tropical Africa, northern fringe
of Australia, interior of New
Guinea, Burma, Thailand,
China.

◦ For Example: Semang

People of Malaya
Location: Primitive Gathering
Primitive Hunting

◦ Primitive hunters share many characteristics with the primitive

gatherers.
◦ Both groups know how to use fire, prepare food,
manufacture tools and implement the tools.
◦ Hunters know how to construct shelter.
◦ Both groups generally don’t know how to domesticate food
plants, domesticate animals and permanent settlement.
◦ Hunters differ from gatherers in that they employ more
sophisticated methods to secure foods and depend much
more on animals.
Location : Primitive Hunting
◦ Occurs in high latitudes area, particularly in Arctic,
where temperature is very low and summer is very short.
◦ For Example: North American Eskimos, Yukaghirs of
Siberia
Location : Primitive Hunting
Nomadic Herding (Pastoral Nomadism)
◦ It is a more advanced economic activity than either
gathering or hunting.
◦ They depend on domestication of animals.
◦ Animals supply food (milk, cheese and meat), materials
for clothing (fibers and skin), shelter (skin), fuel and
tools (bones).
◦ Make at least some investment to enhance natural
production
◦ Product is animal and investment is labour.
◦ Migration is a basic feature of this people.
Nomadic Herding (Pastoral Nomadism)

◦ Nomads started the first economic activity.

◦ Started their activities near the river valley and started
settled down.
◦ Started agriculture 15000 years ago near river valley.
◦ This agriculture known as primitive agriculture such as
shifting, burn, jhum cultivation.
◦ They started barter or informal trade near the river valley
areas.
 Location: Nomadic Herding
◦ Less precipitation area (mainly grassland)
◦ Grasses and shrubs comprise the natural vegetation.
◦ The region extends from 5 degree south latitude (On
the east coast of Africa) to 50 degree north latitude in
central Asia.
◦ A lesser region of herding is found in northern Eurasia,
extending into Alaska. In the southern hemisphere, too
there are small areas in south west Africa and on the
Island of Madagaskar.
Location: Nomadic Herding
Location of Gathering, Hunting and Herding
Thank
You
PCE MECHANISM
PCE Mechanism
◦ Earth as a whole is an accumulation of numerous market
places for economic men. The tool of function in this market
is a complex system named PCE mechanism.

◦ PCE mechanism refers to any process that increases economic

value of a commodity beyond the value of its raw materials
inputs.

◦ PCE mechanism is an economic system under which

economic men conduct their economic activities in a cost
effective manner in the market place.

◦ PCE mechanism is the combination of production,

consumption and exchange regimes.
PCE Mechanism

Production

PCE

Consumptio
Exchange
n
Production
◦ Primary production includes age-old activities such as
hunting, gathering, agriculture, fishing, mining activities.
Primary producers might be labeled Red-collar workers due
to the outdoor nature of their work.
 Production
◦ Secondary production increases the value of a previously
existing item by changing its form. Such activities include
manufacturing and processing activities. They labeled as
blue collar labour force.
 Production
Tertiary production involves the service sector
rather than tangible goods. This work refers to a
range of personal and business services involving a
rapidly growing share of the labour force in highly
developed areas. They might be labeled as pink
collar labour force.
 Production
Quaternary services represent a special type of
service work, focusing on professional and
administrative services, including financial and
health service work, information processing,
teaching, government service as well as
entertainment activity. This group is known as
white collar labour force.
Production
◦ Quinary services include high-level managerial and
executive administrative positions. Scientific research and
development services also considered as same services. This
group is also known as gold collar labour force.
Exchange
◦ Exchange refers to a process by which goods and
services are transferred or traded from one location
to another location where they have more worth to
end users.

◦ This exchange is known to increase place utility of

a commodity.

◦ It works as a link between the producers and

consumers
Exchange
Consumption

◦ The term refers to the

final or direct use of
goods and services to
satisfy the wants and
needs of human beings.

◦ This system is very much

dependent on the
consumers and their
income as demand for
quantity and variety of
products depend on the
income of the population
 PCE Mechanism

Market Place

Production Consumption
Production
Help to
of goods Threshold
Produce
and Population,
goods in
services Sustained
a cost
demanded demand
effective
by the
manner
consumers
Producer Consumer

Entrepreneurs
(Exchange
Element) Help Consumers to avail the goods
and services demanded by them
Thank
You
Primary Economic Activities:

Fishing and Forestry and Mining

 Primary Economic Activities

• Primary economic activities are

those economic activities by which
Homo sapiens conduct economic
activity to produce primary
products.
• Primary goods are also called
tangible goods. For example: rice,
wheat, fish.
 Characteristics

• Primary activities are conducted by Homo sapiens to

produce primary products.
• These are the products, which can be characterized by
least processing and mass production directly from
the field.
• Primary products fetch least price in the market.
• In primary economic activities net return may not be
cost effective in some cases.
 Characteristics

• Producers involved in these economic activities may remain

poor.
• Primary economic activities belong to the production
sector.
• Contribution to GDP from primary sector is less in
developed countries (5%) and underdeveloped is about
60%-70%.
Different Sectors of Primary Economic
Activity

• Agriculture
Growing of crops and raising of domesticated animals under human
supervision.
• Fishing
The harvesting of fish from fresh and salty water.
• Mining
The extraction of minerals and natural resources from nature
Forestry
Cutting and collection of timber/wood from natural or forest areas.
 Fishing

• Fishing is a primary economic activity

by which different types of fish are
caught from water bodies. The
production is bulk in size and in raw
form.
• Fish provide an important source of
protein in the diet for much of the
world’s population
• For many parts of the third world, fish
are the predominant source of high
quality animal protein.
 Fishing
Water bodies Fishing ground
There are two types of  Fishing grounds are those

water bodies. spaces of the water body

where most of the fish are
- Saline water bodies:
found.
ocean.
 There are two types of
- Fresh water bodies: fishing.
river, lake, pond, canal
 Capture fishing:
etc.
nature induced
• Most of the fish are  Culture fishing: man
found in saline water induced
bodies.
 Capture Fishing
• Capture fishing is that
fishing activities where the
fishermen only capture
fish from natural water
bodies without getting
involved in maturing the
fish.
• Biggest fishing ground is
situated near Peru, Chile
and Argentina (South
America)
 Culture Fishing
• Culture fishing is the fishing activity where
people culture/cultivate fish in man made
water bodies.
 Commercial Fishing Activity
• Commercial fishing activity occurs predominantly in northern
hemisphere ocean waters.
• Coastal margins of the middle to higher latitudes are the biggest
producing areas.
• The largest producing areas for commercial fish are shallow waters on
the continental shelf.
 Commercial Fishing Activity

yellow areas= continental shelf/ shallow areas=better for fishing.

 Importance of Fishing
• Many jobs, both fulltime and part time, depend upon
fishing.
• Apart from fishing itself, there is also work in related
processing industries, such as canning, freezing for
human use.
• Many of the smaller fish and other organisms, are
processed in factories to make pet food, animal feed and
fertilizers.
• There are related industries like boat building, making
nets and fishing tackle and ice production.
 Fishing in Bangladesh

• The total annual fish production of Bangladesh is

estimated to be in the range of 1.5 to1.7 million tons.
• 2 million families directly dependent on fishing as their
principal livelihood.
• But only 5 to 6 percent of the national GDP is from
fisheries sector.
• Fisheries provide 60% of the animal protein intake of the
entire population of the country.
 Forestry

• Forestry is a primary economic activity by which people

extract necessary things (wood, timber, leaves, honey, etc.)
from nature.
• There are two types of forest.
-Natural forest (nature induced)
-Social forest (man induced)
• Timbering is the most widespread and dominant type of
forestry activity.
• Wood consumption occurs as fuel (cooking and heating users)
and industrial purpose also.
 Forestry
Hard wood
Soft wood
 Soft wood is mainly used
 Hard wood is used for construction
of houses, buildings, railway line, for making paper, pulp,
electric poles, furniture, etc.
etc.
• Location: Hard wood is mainly
found in the low latitude region
(equatorial area). Most of the hard  Location: Soft wood is
wood found in Amazon River valley. mainly found in high
latitude area.
• Example: Seraya, Meranti,
Mahogany, Ironwood and Ebony.  Example: spruce, pine,
fir, larch and hemlock
 Commercial Forestry
• Commercial forests occur in two huge global belts.

• The first virtually encircles the world in the higher

latitudes of the northern hemisphere.

• Second forest gathering realm lies in the tropical

equatorial zone, including a large part of South America
and Central Africa.
Commercial Forestry
 Mining
• Mining is a primary economic activity by which people
extract minerals and natural resources from nature.
• Mining is an activity which has taken place for thousands of
years from the time when man first learned the value of
metals for making implements.
• The great development of this extractive industry came with
the Industrial Revolution and the needs of our modern
machine age.
• It becomes increasingly important as greater quantities of
minerals are used.
• Many people though their number is comparatively small, earn
a livelihood by mining.
Simplified World Active Mining Map
 Effects of Mining on Environment

• Hydraulic mining techniques are used for mining gold at Amazon

Rainforest. The method involves blasting at the banks of the river
which has caused irreversible damage to trees, birds and
animals.
• While separating the sediment and mercury from the gold-
yielding gravel deposits, small-scale miners who are less
equipped than industrial miners , may ignore release of some
mercury into the river.
• Highly poisonous compound 'cyanide' is also used to separate
gold from sediment and rock.
 Effect on Land
• Deforestation
• Loss of Biodiversity
• Pollution
Effect on Water
• Pollution:
• Loss of Aquatic Life:
Thank
You
Primary Economic Activities:
Agriculture
 Agriculture

• Agriculture is very important, old and traditional type

of economic activity.

• It is an economic activity conducted by Homo sapiens

to grow crops and raise livestock directly from the
field under their direct supervision.
 Types of Agriculture
Based on the mode of production, there are two types of
agriculture.

Subsistence Commercial
agriculture agriculture

Types of
Agriculture
 Subsistence Agriculture

• Subsistence agriculture is that type of agriculture

practice by which farmers try to meet their own
demand by producing the necessary agricultural
products.
• There should not be any profit motive in
producing those agricultural commodities.
However, in intensive agriculture people often
do their activity to make or gain profit.
 Types of Subsistence Agriculture
• There are two types of subsistence agriculture, such as:

Primitive Intensive
agriculture/ agriculture/
Primitive Intensive
subsistence subsistence
agriculture agriculture

Types of
Subsistence
Agriculture
 Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

• Primitive agriculture is the function of the south (People

living in the developing and under developed areas).
• It is also known as traditional agriculture.
• It manifests only rudimentary technical management
of the land, and limited amounts of time, effort and
capital are devoted to this activity.
For example: shifting cultivation, slash/burn
agriculture etc.
 Primitive: Slash-and-Burn Agriculture
• Slash-and-burn is an agricultural technique which involves
cutting and burning of forests or woodlands to create
fields.
• There are an estimated 250 million slash-and-burn farmers
across the world.
• In 2004 it was estimated that, in Brazil alone, 500,000 small
farmers were each clearing an average of one hectare of
forest per year.
 Primitive: Slash-and-Burn Agriculture
• In slash-and-burn agriculture, forest will
be cut months before a dry season.
• The "slash" is permitted to dry, and
then burned in the following dry
season.
• The resulting ash fertilizes the soil, and
the burned field is then planted at the
beginning of the next rainy season with
crop such as upland rice, maize,
cassava, or other staple crop.
• Most of this work is typically done by
hand, using axes, hoes, and other
such basic tools.
Location of Primitive Subsistence Agriculture

• Central Africa, south East Asia and the adjacent islands. On the
mainland of Asia, primitive cultivation tend to be confined to
the interior Myanmar, Thailand, Cambodia, adjacent portions of
India and china, Amazon and Congo forest area
 Intensive Subsistence Agriculture

• When the farmers produce the goods in a cost effective

manner it is known as intensive agriculture.
• The main objective of this agriculture is to gain profit by
minimizing the cost.
• This type of agriculture mainly related with rice cultivation.
• Location: coastal and delta areas of India, Southeast Asia,
southern china and Japan.
Difference between Primitive Subsistence Agriculture and
Intensive Subsistence Agriculture
Primitive agriculture is mainly different from intensive agriculture on
the basis of
• Mode of production: primitive subsistence agriculture is absolutely non-
cost effective. There is no tendency to maximize the profit. On the other
hand, intensive agriculture is cost-effective.
• Cropping intensity: is a function of frequency of occurrence of crops in
a given year. For primitive agriculture cropping intensity is single
cropping.
But, in intensive agriculture the cropping intensity is double or multiple
cropping.
• Fragmentation of land: fragmentation of land is very low in primitive
agriculture and on the other hand, very high in the intensive agriculture.
 Commercial Agriculture

• Commercial agriculture is mainly profit oriented or business

oriented.

• These are also known as modern agriculture system.

 Commercial Agriculture
• Mainly two types:

Commercial
Plantation
grain
agriculture
farming

Types of
Commercial
Agriculture
 Commercial Grain Farming
• In commercial grain farming
producers always produce the
goods in a cost effective manner
and make profit.
• All the equipments are
mechanized.
• It is mainly seen in the North
region of the world. Crops,
which are produced in this
agriculture system, are wheat,
rice, corn etc.
• Location: North American short
grass land, Russia, Western
Europe, South America.
 Plantation Agriculture
• Plantations are a technique for organizing land and labour in the
tropics and supply mid latitudes markets with certain products.
• Plantation of tea, rubber, coffee, pineapple, coco tree are known
as plantation agriculture. Growing cash crops. Mainly it is the
activity of south.
• Location: the majority of the world’s plantation occurs in the
tropics.
 Plantation Agriculture: Some Examples

• Mid American countries: sugar, banana, coffee

• North eastern and western part of South America: cocoa, palm oil, sugar,
coffee and cotton
• South east part of Africa: tea, rubber, palm oil, coconuts, sugar
• India, Srilanka, Bangladesh: Tea
• Indonesia, Malaysia: coffee, rubber, palm oil
 Green Revolution

• A significant increase in agricultural productivity resulting from the

introduction of high-yield varieties of grains, the use of pesticides,
and improved management techniques.
• It was introduced during mid 1960s.
 Success of the Green Revolution

• For Farmers
• Yields increase by three times or more for farmers able to afford
HYVs and fertilizers
• Faster growing plants allow more than one crop per year (multiple
cropping)
• Increased output creates a surplus for sale, raising rural incomes
and standard of living
• For the Country
• Less dependence on imported food or food aid
• Lower rates of malnutrition and reduced risk of food
shortages
• Reduced rates of rural to urban migration due to
higher standards of living in rural areas.
 Failures of the Green Revolution

• For farmers
• Yields do not change as many poor farmers unable to afford new
seeds and fertilizers.
• Sometimes farmers cannot pay back the borrowed money and end
up in debt.
• Gap between large-scale rich and poor-scale farmers widens.
 Cropping Intensity

Frequency of occurrence of crops in a given region over a given period of

time. Three types of cropping intensity are:
• Single cropping intensity (cultivate land once in a year, country where
population density is low and do agriculture with manual tools)
• Double cropping intensity (cultivate land twice in a year, country where
population density is medium and do agriculture with the help of
technology)
• Multiple cropping intensity (cultivate land three times in a year country
where population density is high and do agriculture with the help of
technology)
By applying different cropping intensity cultivator can change the
production amount from the same piece of land.
 Sustainable Agriculture

 Ecologically sound.
 Economically viable.
 Socially & culturally appropriate.
 Based on holistic scientific approach.
 Its aim to produce food and fiber on a sustainable
basis and repair the damage caused by destructive
practices.
Appropriate Technology in Sustainable
Agriculture

• Irrigation
• Organic fertilizers
• Mixed cropping
• Natural predators
• New seeds and plant varieties
• Power from living resources (biofuels, biogas)
Thank
You
 PRIMARY ECONOMIC
ACTIVITIES: AGRICULTURE
VON THUNEN’S MODEL
 VON THUNEN’S MODEL/
AGRICULTURAL LAND USE MODEL

 The Von Thunen model of agricultural land use was developed by amateur
economist J.H. Von Thunen (1783-1850) in 1826 (but it wasn't translated into
English until 1966).
 ASSUMPTIONS OF VON THUNEN’S MODEL

Von Thunen's model was developed before industrialization and is based on the following limiting
assumptions:

 The city is located centrally within an "Isolated State" which is self sufficient and
has no external influences.

 The Isolated State is surrounded by an unoccupied wilderness.

 The land of the State is completely flat and has no rivers or mountains to
interrupt the terrain.

 The soil quality and climate are consistent throughout the State.

 Farmers in the Isolated State transport their own goods to market via oxcart,
across land, directly to the central city. Therefore, there are no roads.

 Farmers act to maximize profits.

 DESCRIPTION OF THE MODEL

In an Isolated State with the assumptions being true, Von

Thunen hypothesized that a pattern of rings around the
city would develop.

There are four rings of agricultural activity surrounding

the city.
DAIRYING AND INTENSIVE FARMING

1. Dairying and intensive farming occur in the ring

closest to the city. Since vegetables, fruit, milk and other
dairy products must get to market quickly, they would
be produced close to the city
 TIMBER AND FIREWOOD

2. Timber and firewood would be produced for fuel and building

materials in the second zone. Before industrialization (and coal
power), wood was a very important fuel for heating and
cooking. Wood is very heavy and difficult to transport so it is
located as close to the city as possible.
 EXTENSIVE FIELD CROPS (GRAINS)

3. The third zone consists of extensive field crops such

as grains for bread. Since grains last longer than dairy
products and are much lighter than fuel, reducing
transport costs, they can be located further from the
city.
RANCHING/ ANIMAL PRODUCTS

4. Ranching is located in the final

ring surrounding the central city.
Animals can be raised far from
the city because they are self-
transporting. Animals can walk to
the central city for sale or for
butchering.

 Beyond the fourth ring lies the

unoccupied wilderness, which is
too great a distance from the
central city for any type of
agricultural product.
Von Thunen’s Model

Intensive
Farming &
Dairying

Forest (Timber
& Firewood)
Centra
l City
Extensive Field
Crops (Grains)

Ranching/
Animal Products
 Implications

 Even though the Von Thunen model was created in a time

before factories, highways, and even railroads, it is still an
important model in geography.

 The Von Thunen model is an excellent illustration of the

balance between land cost and transportation costs.
As one gets closer to a city, the price of land increases.

 The farmers of the Isolated State balance the cost of

transportation, land, and profit and produce the most
cost-effective product for market. Of course, in the real
world, things don't happen as they would in a model.
Implications

 The Von Thunen model depicts how commercial

farmers figure out which crops and animals to
cultivate based upon the market location.
 A commercial farmer cultivates land for the purpose of
making a profit. A critical variable in this model that these
commercial farmers take note of is the cost of land
versus the cost of transporting products to markets
because their goal is to make a high profit.
 Transportation cost depends on the distance from
the market and the different kind of products.
Locational Rent

 Locational rent is a term used by Von Thunen to explain

his theory which is the equivalent to land value.

 It corresponds to the maximum amount a farmer

could pay for using the land, without making losses.
Locational Rent Equation

The equation is
L = Y (P − C) − YDF

 L= locational rent,
 Y= Yield,
 P= Market price of the crop,
 C= Production cost of the crop,
 D= Distance from the market,
 F= Transport cost
Location Rent Curves and Production Zones for
Milk, Potatoes and Wheat
TTHANK YOU