VOLUME I –

GENERAL NOTES ON TRANSIENT

STABILITY AND CONTROLS
 Table of Contents

Table of Contents

SECTION A BASIC CONCEPTS ON TRANSIENT POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS

SECTION A.1 INTRODUCTION TO POWER SYSTEM STABILITY AND NEED FOR PERFORMING
STUDIES
SECTION A.2 GENERATOR SWING AND ROTOR OSCILLATIONS DYNAMIC EQUATIONS
SECTIONA.2.1 GENERATOR SWING EQUATION
SECTION A.2.2 ROTOR OSCILLATIONS DYNAMIC EQUATIONS
SECTION A.2.3 EQUAL AREA CRITERION OF STABILITY IN LIEU OF SWING EQUATION
SECTION A.3 SYNCHRONOUS GENERATOR EQUIVALENT CIRCUIT MODEL IN D-Q AXIS
SECTION A.4 INTRODUCTION TO BASIC CONTROL SYSTEM THEORY AND ITS APPLICATIONS IN
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY
SECTION A.4.1 DERIVATION OF LAPLACE BLOCK DIAGRAM RELATED TO TYPICAL SPRING MASS
DAMPER SYSTEM & RLC CIRCUIT FOR SOLVING USING ETAP USER DEFINED
DYNAMIC MODEL (UDM)
SECTION A.4.2 BASIC CONTROL SYSTEMS TRANSFER FUNCTIONS SECTION A.4.3 EXAMPLE OF
TUNING OF PID CONTROLLER
SECTION A.4.4 MODELING OF SIMPLE INTEGRATOR WITH WINDUP AND NON-WINDUP LIMITERS
WITH/WITHOUT ZERO INITIAL CONDITIONS

SECTION B ASPECTS OF TYPICAL GENERATOR CONTROL MODEL

SECTION B.1 UNDERSTANDING TYPICAL CONTROL LOOPS ASSOCIATED WITH GENERATOR
AND TURBINE- GOVERNOR MODEL
SECTION B.2 FUNDAMENTALS ON TURBINE-GOVERNOR DROOP MODE OF OPERATION
SECTION B.3 FUNDAMENTALS ON AVR-EXCITER QUADRATURE DROOP AND CROSS-CURRENT
COMPENSATION
SECTION B.4 GENERAL DISCUSSION ON SMALL SIGNAL STABILITY & PSS REQUIREMENTS
SECTION B.4.1 SMALL SIGNAL DISTRUBANCE STABILITY ISSUES
SECTION B.4.2 PSS REQUIREMENTS
SECTION B.5 DISCUSSION ON VOLTAGE STABILITY
 SECTION A BASIC CONCEPTS ON
TRANSIENT POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS
SECTION A.1 INTRODUCTION TO POWER
SYSTEM STABILITY AND NEED FOR
PERFORMING STUDIES
 Advanced Training on
Power System Dynamics and Stability
- Introduction to Power System Stability
 Basic Concepts of Power System Stability
 Power Systems (PS) are subjected to wide range of disturbance such as
o Load or generation changes,
o circuit changes
o faults or
o equipment outages.

 Stable operation of Power System is desired, post disturbance i.e. transition from one
equilibrium to another in a secure manner

 The course covers review of stability of PS subject to disturbance of transients which

includes: -
o Review of concept of PS transient stability
o Review of PS stability classification based on phenomena.
o Review of synchronization for satisfactory PS operation.
o Review of PS dynamic equation.
o Synchronous machine dynamics.

© 2011 Operation Technology, Inc. PROPRIETARY & CONFIDENTIAL

Basic Concepts of Power System Stability
 Normal Power system = Synchronous system i.e. all machines are synchronised with
each other
 Typical disturbance –
o Short circuits -> Abnormal system condition i.e. system voltage ↓ and system
branch currents ↑
o Study to check whether “Synchronous system” will continue to operate in
synchronism after the fault clearance
o Faulted transients are mainly studied to ensure stability of PS.

 Other disturbance includes:

o Generation Outages
o Load loss
o Network changes
o Outages etc.
o Small changes in generation or loads, which are examples of small disturbances
Basic Concepts of Power System Stability
 Power systems are “Dynamic systems” since synchronous machines have rotating
mass and are rotating at synchronous speed

 Disturbance -> Change in system “dynamics” -> Shift in operating equilibrium

 If after a disturbance, the system may not find a new operating equilibrium or
synchronously operating condition, the system becomes unstable under such
disturbances.

 Power system instability -> loss of synchronism (i.e. machine going out of step/
disturbance)

 Disturbance -> Mismatch in turbine-generator input mechanical power and output

electrical load -> Speed change or rotor angle change with respect to synchronously
rotating reference

 To determine system stability, Rotor Dynamics study is required

Basic Concepts of Power System Stability
 Voltage stability, frequency stability and inter area oscillations are also of concerns

 Voltage stability is ability of the system to maintain voltage so that when load
admittance is increased, load power will increase and so that both voltage and power
are controllable.

 Voltage Collapse occurs if voltage instability causes black out or very low voltage in
many parts of the system.

 Frequency Stability refers to the ability of a power system to bring the system frequency
to steady state acceptable limit following a severe system upset resulting in a significant
imbalance between generators and load.

 Voltage instability caused by Outage of heavily loaded transmission line leading to

increased current & VAR losses
Basic Concepts of Power System Stability
 Line or generator outages can result in system islands leading to generation & load
mismatch in each of them
o When Load > Generation -> machines will slow down (decelerate)
o When Generation > Load -> machines will speed up (accelerate)

 If controllers cannot respond then system island frequencies may deviate from
normal, leading to frequency instability that could result in machine tripping.

 Stability could thus be classified as:

 Asynchronous or Rotor angle instability
 Voltage stability
 Frequency stability
Basic Concepts of Power System Stability
• Rotor angle instability is typically the main stability problem in most system.

• Understanding type of instability and their interrelation is essential for the satisfactory
power system operation. Stability Phenomena relates to
o Condition of equilibrium between two opposing forces, where during steady
state mechanical torque is equal to electrical torque.
o Small disturbance which causes change in electrical torque, where
∆Te = Ks∆δ + Kd∆ω
∆Te = ∆Tsync + ∆Tdamp
= Synchronizing torque component + Damping torque component

o ∆Te can be plotted in speed-rotor angle complex plane for assessing the
synchronizing or damping components of the torque.
• Lack of synchronising torque results in instability through aperiodic drift in rotor
angle.
• Lack of damping torque results in oscillatory instability.
Basic Concepts of Power System Stability
 CIGRE task force definition of Power System Stability -
“PS stability is ability of the system, for a given initial operating condition, to regain a state
of new or old operating equilibrium after being subjected to a disturbance, with all system
variables bounded (i.e. voltage frequencies, rotor angle) so that practically the system
remains intact.”

 Due to highly non-linear behaviour, PS stability study involves study of non-linear

dynamics of large systems. Stability can only be studied for -
o One initial operating condition.
o Nature & magnitude of disturbance

 Because of non-linearity involved, for same operating point & nature of disturbance,
system may be stable for one condition and unstable for other.

 Similarly, for a given disturbance, the system may be stable for one operating point
but unstable for another operating point.
Basic Concepts of Power System Stability
 A typical PS has large number of devices having dynamic characteristics such as
generators, with AVRs & speed governors, transformer with OLTCs.

 PS can thus be considered as a large multivariable dynamic system with varying

characteristics that may be linear or non-linear will different response rates. Due to large
complexity simplifying assumptions are adopted to analyse PS stability based on specific
types of problems. Classification involves-
o Physical nature of stability based on study of variable such as rotor angle or voltage
or frequency.
o Size of disturbance (whether large or small disturbance) which governs methods of
analysis. For small disturbance, linearized model of system can be adopted around
the operating point whereas for large disturbance, non-linear model is used.
o Time span of analysis based on which devices are modelled.
Basic Concepts of Power System Stability
 Rotor angle Stability

o Small segment stability usually short term 2 to 15 seconds.

o Transient Stability

 Frequency Stability

o Short term
o Long term (usually for long term minutes)

 Voltage Stability

o Small signal stability

o Large signal stability
o (Both for long & short term / depending on need to consider slow
controllers like OLTC).
Basic Concepts of Power System Stability
 Rotor angle instability can be classified into various categories

o Small-signal (or small-disturbance) stability

 Is the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism under small but
sudden disturbances (always present due to change in load and generation?)
 System equations can be linearized due to small disturbances. instability
that may result can be of two forms.
 increase in rotor angle due to lack of synchronizing torque.
 Rotor oscillation of increase amplitude due to lack of sufficient
damping torque.
 Without AVR (constant field Voltage) the instability is due to lack of
sufficient synchronizing torque (non - oscillatory).
 With AVR instability is normally through oscillations of increasing amplitude.
Basic Concepts of Power System Stability
Classification of Stability –
 Transient stability.
o It is the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism when subjected to a
severe transient disturbance.
o Instability depends on both initial operating point and severity of disturbances.
 Dynamic stability.
o It is used for small signal stability with automatic voltage regulators.
 Long term stability
o Long term stability concerns slower and longer duration phenomena that
accompany large scale upsets that involves the actions of slow processes controls
and protectors. These include boiler dynamitic penstock and conduit dynamics,
AGC, Power plants and transmission system protection/controls, transformer
saturation and off nominal frequency effects on loads and networks.
 Mid-term stability.
o Represents the transition between short term and long term responses. It is
concerned with synchronizing power oscillations between machine including the
effect of some slower phenomena and possibility large voltage and frequency
excursions.
Basic Concepts of Power System Stability

 Classification of stability.

Analysis of stability problems includes identification of essential

factors that contributes instability and formation of cases for study
methods to improve stability are greatly facilitated by classification
of stability.
 Advanced Training on
Power System Dynamics and Stability
 Need for Transient
Stability Studies in
Industrial Applications
When Need Stability Studies
 Typical industrial power system design process
Plant Layout
Production Capacity
Operating Modes
Electrical Codes

Load and Supply Planning

Short Circuit and

Selecting Voltage Levels Selecting System Network
Dynamic Analysis

System Earthing

Surge Protection
Power Factor Correction
Relay Protection and
Selectivity

Harmonics

Operation and Control

Specification and
Procurement
When Need Stability Studies
 System planning phase
o Distribution requirements
o Voltage support (VAR supply)
 System design phase
o Excitation control
o Power system stabilizers
o Relay settings
o Load shedding schemes
 Operation phase
o Various operating margins
o Contingency back-up
System/Plant
Factors Affect System Stability
 From Torque Equation
o T (prime mover)
o  f (Rotor MMF – field winding)
o r (Air-Gap Flux – electrical system)

T  KT f  r sin 
Factors Affect System Stability
• From Swing Equation
o Pm (mechanical power – prime mover)
o Pe (electrical power – network)
o M (inertia)
o D (damping)

d 2δ
dδ
M 2 +D = Pmech − Pelec
dt dt
Factors Affect System Stability
 From Power Transfer Capability Curve
o Xtotal (Synchronizing impedance from machine and
network)
o Vs (System voltage) P Pmax VsE g
P  sin
o Eg (Internal voltage – Xtotal
exciter)
o δ0 (Initial rotor angle –
operating condition) Pm
o Tc (Fault clearing time
– relays) 

0 90 180
Typical Stability Studies




 Fault
o 3-phase and 1-phase fault
o Clear fault
o Fault isolation (line trip)
o Critical Fault Clearing Time (CFCT)
o Critical System Separation Time (CST)
 Loss of excitation
 Prime mover failure
Typical Stability Studies

 Loss of in-plant generation

 Loss of utility connection/system islanding
o Frequency stability
o Voltage stability
 Fast Bus Transferring
o Motor reacceleration
 Load Shedding
o Under-frequency load shedding
o Under-voltage load shedding
Typical Stability Studies

 Motor dynamic acceleration

o Induction motor
o Synchronous motor
 Impact loading
 Switching operation
Typical Stability Studies

 Maximum exporting/importing power

 Voltage, frequency, power, current relay setting
and validation
 Generator AVR action
 Generator reactive power limit
Typical Stability Studies

Any sudden large change in

load and/or generation
Typical Issues for Industrial
Power Customers (1)
No. Studies Issues

1 Assessment of out-of-step margin for short-circuit fault Generator out-of-step by delayed fault clearing

2 Voltage recovery after short-circuit fault Slow voltage recovery or generator reactive power
capability limit violation
3 On-site generator trip Frequency and voltage dips and oscillations

4 System islanding Frequency and/or voltage instability when system

becomes islanded
5 Switch grid power supply Excessive power flow and/or rotor angle oscillation due
to switching transmission/distribution connections
6 Limitations on motor starting in isolated operating Low voltage condition due to motor starting in isolated
system
7 Generator AVR setting Voltage and VAR support

8 Stability margin on maximum power exchange with grid Find optimal power exchange to balance stability
requirement and economical operation incentive
9 Loss of generation or distribution with subsequent load Motor restart following losing primary power source;
transfer prime mover temperature limits
10 Under frequency loading shedding Frequency decay due to loss of real power generation
Typical Issues for Industrial
Power Customers (2)
No. Studies Issues

11 Prime mover or governor faults Generator over current, frequency decay.

12 Excitation system faults Generator over current, voltage dip

13 Emergency shut down Over-voltage, over-frequency

14 Back-up start Restart schedule set up

…
ETAP Transient Stability Study
Action and disturbance Types
Device Type Actions

Bus 3-Ph Fault L-G Fault Clear Fault

Branch Fraction Fault Clear Fault

PD Trip Close Reopen Reclose

Generator Droop / Isoch Start Loss Exc. P Change V Change Delete

Grid V Change Delete

Motor Accelerate Load Change Delete

Lumped Load Load Change Delete

MOV Start

Wind Turbine Disturbance Gust Ramp

MG Set Emergency Main

VFD Frequency Change

Relays Instantaneous actions

UDM Control actions

Critical Fault Clearing Time
 CFCT is the time to clear fault without losing
stability
 Start from an unclear fault and find unstable
time tus (δ reaches 180˚ or -180 ˚)
 Reduce fault clearing time by 1 cycle each time
from tus until reach 1st time generator is stable
Fault Clear fault Clear fault Clear fault Clear fault

1 cycle 1 cycle Cycle

unstable
unstable

unstable
stable

CFCT tus
Critical Separation Time
 CSST is the time to separate system (fault
isolation) without losing stability
 Start from an unclear fault and find unstable
time tus (δ reaches 180˚ or -180 ˚)
 Reduce separation time by 1 cycle each time
from tus until reach 1st time generator is stable
Fault Separation Separation Separation Separation

1 cycle 1 cycle

unstable
unstable

unstable
stable

Cycle
CSST tus
Load Shedding
 To protect system from low frequency due to
imbalance in load and generation
 Done by intentional automatic tripping of loads
to arrest frequency decay
 Traditional use frequency relays to trip blocks of
load at different set-points (e.g. 10% at 98.5 Hz,
10% at 98% Hz, …)
 Modern schemes combine frequency relays
with PLC to trip calculated blocks of load
 It is a Remedial Action Scheme (RAS)
Load Shedding
 Need to know how fast system frequency decay
(FRC, governor response, inertia, …)
 Need to know how fast load shedding action to
take (relay time delay, CB tripping time, …)
 Need to know load priority (critical, load
dependency, …)
 For intelligent load shedding:
 Pre-fault generation, loading, power exchange
 Post fault generation, loading
 Generator spin reserve
 System configuration (load status, …)
Load Shedding
• Some quick evaluation
• Total H N

∑H × MVA
i=1
i I
Htotal =
N

∑ MVA
i=1
I

• Time to reach a decayed frequency

f − fo
dfpu
t( f ) = fo ×2H = ×2H
Pgen − Pload dPpu
Pgen
Load Shedding

 Frequency decay curve (no governor actions)

Hz
For given H
60
25% Over Load (dP = -0.25 pu)
59
50% Over Load (dP = -0.5 pu)
58
f
75% Over Load (dP = -0.75 pu)
57

56

55 Sec.
t
Load Shedding by Frequency
Relay
 Typical 81 relay configuration
Motor Fast Bus Transfer
 Transfer motor from the normal source to the
alternate source on a planned or an emergency
basis
Normal Alternate
G G
Source Source

Normal Alternate
Source Source
Breaker Breaker
Motor Bus

M
Motor Fast Bus Transfer
• Fast bus transfer requirements
o Ttransfer ≤ 10 cycles
o δ≤ 90 degrees
o ER ≤ 1.33 per unit per hertz (133%)
ES
ES = System equivalent per unit
δ volts per hertz
EM
EM = Motor residual per unit per
ER hertz
ER = Resultant vectorial voltage
ER = ES2 + EM2 − 2E S EM cos δ in per unit volts per hertz
Motor Fast Bus Transfer
 When a motor losses power, its flux starts to
collapse and terminal voltage goes spiral (residual
voltage)
 Magnitude reduces exponentially
 Phase angle cycles from 0˚ to 360˚
G

V(α)

M
Motor Fast Bus Transfer
 Standard of fast transfer or reclosing
o ANSI C50.41-2000
 Combination of the following two conditions
o Maximum phase angle δ does not exceed 90
degrees, and
o The resultant volts per Hz ER does not exceed 1.33
per unit volts per hertz on the motor rated voltage
and frequency basis
Some Solutions to Stability
Problems
 Improve system design
o Increase synchronizing power (interconnection)
o Reduction of transmission system reactance
 Design and selection of rotating equipment
o Use of induction machines
o Increase moment of inertia
o Reduce transient reactance
Some Solutions to Stability
Problems
 Improve generator control
o Voltage regulator and exciter characteristics (high
speed, high ceiling, negative forcing, …)
o Governor and prime mover (fast valving, …)
 Improve protection and reduce disturbances
o High-speed fault clearing
o Single pole switching
When Need Stability Studies
 Application of power system stabilizers (PSS)

 Add system protections

o Fast fault clearance
o Load shedding
o System separation
o Out-of-step relay
 Operate system with larger stability margin
  





 

  

 
 

 



 
 


 

  


 
 




 
 

  




 
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The voltage equation of machine is

[v] = [R] [ i ] + d/dt ( [L] [ i ] )

Where LA = L1 + L2 + L3 Cos ( 2 )

The inductance L of each phase is dependent on t and hence it is time varying and
the equations are difficult to solve

The time-varying machine equations are transformed to a time invariant sets, making the
calculations simple for both for steady state and transient conditions, using. R.H.Park
transformation method

where fa, fb, fc can be either stator voltage, current or flux linkage of the stator winding a, b
and c.

Where [Cp] is defined by

The equations then will look

Refer next section for details










 















 

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 SECTION A.4.1

DERIVATION OF LAPLACE BLOCK DIAGRAM REALTED

TO TYPICAL SPRING MASS DAMPER SYSTEM & RLC
CIRCUIT FOR SOLVING USING ETAP USER DEFINED
DYNAMIC MODEL

cover sheet
FILE NAME : LAPLACE TRANSFORMER
 LAPLACE TRANSFORM
∞ -st
L [ f ( t) ] = f (s) = ∫ f (t) . e dt ( s=σ+jω)
°
f (t) f (s)

δ (t) 1

u (t) 1
s

t 1
₂
s

tn n!
s n+1

eat 1
s-a
ω
sin ωt ₂ ₂
s +ω
s
cos ωt ₂ ₂
s +ω
b
eat sin (bt) ₂ ₂
(s a) b

s-a
eat cos (bt) ₂ ₂
(s - a) + b
d y(t)
s y(s) - y (0)
dt
₂
dy ₂
-

₂ = y''(t) s y(s) - sy (0) - y(0)

dt
n n
dy n-1 n-2
>

s y(s) - s y(0) - s y(0) .......

n
dt

Euler's formula :-
jωt -jωt jωt -jωt
e + e e - e
cos ωt = sin ωt =
2 2j
jωt
e = cos ωt + j sin ωt
-jωt
e = cos ωt - j sin ωt

Integration by Parts rule :-

∫ u.dv = u.v - ∫ V du
SHEET-5
FILE NAME : LAPLACE TRANSFORMER
 Conversion of Dynamical Equations from Time domain to s (laplace transform) domain & preparing
control system laplace transform block diagram for solving equations

CASE 1: TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS OF MASS SPRING

DAMPER

FILE NAME : TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS OF MASS SHEET-1

 Damper dampens motion of mass
k = spring constant

Fdrv Mass
b

k M
Fs

Fdrv = Driving force (+ve)

Fs = Spring force = -kx (-ve)
dx (-ve)
Fd = Dampening force of damper = -b
dt
Convention +ve

-ve

Free body diagram

Fdrv

dx
Fd = -b = -bx
dt
Fs = -kx

2
dx
Fnet = m 2 = ma
dt

Fnet = Fdrv - Fs - Fd

= Fdrv - ( Fs + Fd )

FILE NAME : TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS OF MASS SHEET-2

 2
dx
m d x = Fdrv - kx + b
2 dt
dt

2
m d x2 + kx + b dx = Fdrv
dt dt

2
dx -kx
m d x2 = Fdrv - b
dt dt

2
dx 1 dx -kx
2
= Fdrv - b
dt m dt

1
x = Fdrv - bx - kx
m

1
x = Fdrv - ( bx + kx )
m

x
∫ = x =
∫ x

To derive x , x has to be integrated twice as above

Equation is 1
x = Fdrv - ( bx + kx )
m

FILE NAME : TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS OF MASS SHEET-3

 A block diagram of equation can be developed like below

∫ ∫
1 x x x
Fdrv m

b k

Development of Laplace transform block diagram

for simulation of spring mass damper

1 x 1 x 1 x
Fdrv m s s

b k

Let Fdrv be a unit step force excitation

FILE NAME : TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS OF MASS SHEET-4

 Laplace transform block diagram of spring mass
damper system

Apply unit step function signal to input & study output response

Plot
1 x 1 x 1 x
Fdrv
m s s

b k

Model in ETAP & simulate output input & note results for x with M=10: b=2 & k=5

FILE NAME : TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS OF MASS SHEET-5

Etap Procedure:
The mass, spring & damper system equations can be put in UDM of ETAP & step input can
be provided to see the response.
Note results for x with M= 10; k=5 and b = variable as 0 or 0.5 or 1 or 2

b= zeta Output Response

1. b= 0 Undamped
2. 0< b< 1 Underdamped
3. b=1 Critically Damped
4. b>1 Overdamped

Case1: b= 0 Case2: b= 0.5

Output Response: Undamped Output Response: Under damped
Transfer function model in etap UDM:

Perform the following 4 cases with change in b value and observe the output response.

Case 1: Case 2:
R=0; Undamped response R=0.5; under damped response
L=0.1; L=0.1;
R/L =0; R/L =5
1/LC=50 1/LC=50

Case 3: Case 4:
R=1; critically damped response R=2; Overdamped response
L=0.1; L=0.1;
R/L =10 R/L =20
1/LC=50 1/LC=50
Case3: b= 1 Case4: b= 2
Output Response: Critically damped Output Response: Over damped
 CASE 2: Time Domain equations & laplace transform block diagram for RL series circuit
( First order differential equation)

L.s. I(s)
R I(s)

V i (s)

Step input

Time Domain equations can be converted to 's' domain equations by using laplace
transform.

V R (t) = R i(t) ; V R (s) = R I R (s) = R. I(s)

V L (t) = L di(t) ; V L (s) = L.s. I L (s)

dt

V i (s) = V R (s) + V L (s)

= R . I(s) + L. s. I(s)
V i (s) = (R + L.s.) I(s)

I (s) I
=
V i (s) Ri + L.s

FILE NAME : TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS OF MASS SHEET-6

 The T.F can be written in standard format as ;

I (s) I
=
V i (s) R ( s. L + I )
R

I (s) I/R
=
V i (s) s. L + I )
R

The RL series circuit can be modelled & tested in ETAP as below

(Use ETAP udm file saved as '' MSD_RL_RLC_EQ.udm)

V i (s) I/R I (s)

s. L + I
R

CASE 1 :-

R = 0.5 & L = 0.1

V i (s) 2 I (s)
0.2 s + 1

FILE NAME : TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS OF MASS SHEET-7

 CASE 3: Time Domain Equations & Laplace transform block diagram for RLC series
circuit ( second order differential equation )

RI(s) L.s.I ( s )

Vi ( s )
1
I ( s) = V C ( s )
Cs

Step
i/p

VR ( t ) = R i(t) ; V R ( s ) = R I R ( s ) = RI ( s )

VL ( t ) = L di ( t ) ; VL ( s ) = L s I ( s )
dt

1 t 1
VC ( t ) =
C
0
∫ i ( t ) dt ; VC ( s ) =
Cs
I(s) 1

Vi ( s )
I(s) = ------- Substitute I ( S ) value in Equation 1
1
R + sL +
Cs

1
VC ( s ) = I(s) ------- by equation 1
Cs

1 Vi ( s )
=
Cs 1
R + sL +
Cs

VC ( s ) 1 1 1 1
= 2
=
Cs Cs 2
Vi ( s ) RCs + s LC + 1 RCs + s LC + 1
Cs Cs

1
=
2
RCs + s LC + 1
1
=
R 2 1
LC s +s +
L LC

FILE NAME : TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS OF MASS SHEET-8

 VC ( s ) 1 / LC
= = T.F
Vi ( s ) 2 R 1
s + s +
L LC

1 / LC
Vi ( s ) VC ( s )
2 R 1
s + s +
L LC

Also
Vi ( s )
I(s) =
R + sL + 1
Cs

Vi ( s )
I(s) =
R + sL + 1
Vi ( s ) Cs

Cs
=
2
RCs + s LC + 1

I(s) Cs
= 2
Vi ( s ) LCs + RCs + 1

1 / LC
Vi ( s ) VC ( s )
2 R 1
s + s +
L LC

Cs I (s)
2
LCs + RCs + 1

FILE NAME : TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS OF MASS SHEET-9

 We know that the spring (K) is analogous to the capacitor, the viscous damper (R) is analogous
to the resistor, and the mass (M) is analogous to the indicator.

Consider :
Inductor L = M=0. 1;
Resistor R = B = variable valuse 0 or 0.5 or 1 or 2;
Capacitor C = 1/K = 1/5 = 0.2
1/LC = 50
The RLC circuit can be created in S domain and can be modelled and tested in etap.

1 / LC
Vi ( s ) VC ( s )
2 R 1
s + s +
L LC

FILE NAME : TIME DOMAIN EQUATIONS OF MASS SHEET-10

Transfer function model in etap UDM:

Case 1: Case 2:

Case 3: Case 4:




 


 
 
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f t L 1
F s F s L f t f t  L 1 F s F s L f t

1 1
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s  a2
2

s a
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s
2
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2
 a2
3 2
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s
2
 a2 s
2
 a2
s s
2
a2 s s
2
 3a 2
13. cos at at sin at 2 14. cos at  at sin at 2
s
2
 a2 s
2
 a2
s sin b  a cos b s cos b a sin b
15. sin at b 16. cos at b
s
2
a 2
s
2
a 2

a s
17. sinh at 18. cosh at
s
2
a 2
s
2
a2
b s a
e sin e cos
at at
19. bt 2 20. bt 2
s a b 2
s a  b2
b s a
e sinh e cosh
at at
21. bt 2 22. bt 2
s a b2 s a b2
n! 1 s
23. t
n
e ,
at
n  1, 2, 3, 1 24. f ct F  
a
n
s c c

cs
uc t u t c e t c cs
25. 26. e
Heaviside Function s Dirac Delta Function

27. uc t f t c e
cs
F s 28. uc t g t e
cs
L g t c
e c  1, 2, 3, 1
ct n n
,
n
29. f t F s 30. t f t n F s

1 t
F s
31.
t
f t
 s
F u du 32.  0
f v dv
s
T


st
t
e f t dt
33.  0
f t g d F s G s 34. f t T  f t 0
sT
1 e
35. f
t sF s f 0 36. f

t s F
2
s sf 0 f
0
1 2 2 1
37. f
n
t s F
n
s s n
f 0 s n
f
0
sf n
0 f
n
0
 Table Notes
1. This list is not a complete listing of Laplace transforms and only contains some of
the more commonly used Laplace transforms and formulas.
2. Recall the definition of hyperbolic functions.
cosh t 
e  e
t t

sinh t 
e e
t t

2 2
3. Be careful when using normal trig function vs. hyperbolic functions. The only
difference in the formulas is the q a for the normal trig functions becomes a
2

s a for the hyperbolic functions!

2

4. Formula #4 uses the Gamma function which is defined as

 t 
0
e x
x
t 1
dx

If n is a positive integer then,

 n  1  n!

The Gamma function is an extension of the normal factorial function. Here are a
couple of quick facts for the Gamma function
 p  1  p p

 p n
p p 1 p 2
p  n 1 
 p

1
  
2

 

,-


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-


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,
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!- 

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- #
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.
-

-) )
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"-



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/,

/
 
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#*+(.'

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"  "

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+-,
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 ETAP Workshop Notes

Control Systems-main Transfer Functions

A. Block diagram of First order transfer function model

A.1 UDM model for first order transfer function with zero initial condition and with
TA=1; KA=250

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A.2 UDM model for first order transfer function with initial condition set to 350 and
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A.3 UDM model for first order transfer function with initial condition set to 350 & with
no step input (TA=1; KA=250)

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Control Systems-main Transfer Functions

B. Block diagram of Second order transfer function model

B.1 UDM model for second order function with zeta=0, Wn2 =9

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B.2 UDM model for second order function with zeta=0.33, Wn2 =9

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Control Systems-main Transfer Functions

B.3 UDM model for second order function with zeta=1, Wn2 =9

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Control Systems-main Transfer Functions

B.4 UDM model for second order function with zeta=1.5, Wn2 =9

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Control Systems-main Transfer Functions

C Block diagram of Lead Lag function model

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Control Systems-main Transfer Functions

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Control Systems-main Transfer Functions

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Control Systems-main Transfer Functions

C.1 UDM model for lead function with step input & with T1=1.587; T2=0.157 (Lead
system T1>T2)

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Control Systems-main Transfer Functions

C.2 UDM model for lead-lag function with step input & with T1=0.157; T2=1.587 (Lag
system T1<T2)

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Control Systems-main Transfer Functions

C.3 UDM model for lead-lag function with sine input & with T1=1.587; T2=0.157
(Lead system T1>T2)

Ø can be calculated as shown below:

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Control Systems-main Transfer Functions

Ø= (2*pi*f) * (t1-t2)

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C.4 UDM model for lead-lag function with sine input & with T1=0.157; T2=1.587
(Lag system T1<T2)

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Control Systems-main Transfer Functions

Ø can be calculated as shown below:

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D. Block diagram of washout function (High pass filter)

UDM model for washout function

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SHEET - 1
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
Changes in real power affect mainly the system frequency, while reactive power is less sensitive to changes in frequency
and is mainly dependent on changes in voltage magnitude. Thus, real and reactive powers are controlled separately. The
load frequency control (LFC) loop controls the real power and frequency and the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) loop
regulates the reactive power and voltage magnitude. Load frequency control (LFC) has gained in importance with the
growth of interconnected systems and has made the operation of interconnected systems possible. Today, it is still the
basis of many advanced concepts for the control of large systems.

BASIC GENERATOR CONTROL LOOPS

In an interconnected power system, load frequency control (LFC) and automatic voltage regulator (AVR) equipment are
installed for each generator. Figure 12.1 represents the schematic diagram of the load frequency control (LFC) loop and
the automatic voltage regulator (AVR) loop. The controllers are set for a particular operating condition and take care of
small changes in load demand to maintain the frequency and voltage magnitude within the specified limits. Small changes
in real power are mainly dependent on changes in rotor angle and , thus, the frequency.

The reactive power is mainly dependent on the voltage magnitude (ie., on the generator excitation). The excitation system
time constant is much smaller than the prime mover time constant and its transient decay much faster and does not affect
the LFC dynamic. Thus, the cross-coupling between the LFC loop and the AVR loop is negligible, and the load frequency
and excitation voltage control are analyzed independently.

SHEET - 2
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
Schematic diagram of LFC and AVR of synchronous generator
Excitation Automatic voltage
system regulator (AVR)

Gen. field Voltage sensor

Steam

Y
Turbine G Y
Y
P
P Q
Valve control
Ptie
mechanism

P Load frequency Frequency

control (LFC) sensor

SHEET - 3
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
GENERATOR MODEL
Swing Equation
2H d2
= Pm - Pe
s dt 2

In terms of small deviation in speed

d
s 1
= ( P m - Pe )
dt 2H

with speed expressed in per unit

d 1
= ( Pm - Pe )
dt 2H

Taking Laplace transform

1
(s) = [ Pm (s) - Pe (s) ]
2Hs

The avove relation is shown in block diagram from in

figure

Z (s)
1
Pm (s)
2H

Pe (s) SHEET - 4
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
LOAD MODEL
The Load on a power system consists of a variety of electrical devices. For resistive loads, such as lighting and heating loads, the electrical power is
independent of frequency. Motor loads are sensitive to changes in frequency. How sensitive it is to frequency depends on the composite of the speed-load
characteristics of all the driven devices. The speed-load characteristic of a composite load is approximated by

Pe = PL +D
Where, PL is the nonfrequency - sensitive load change, and D is the frequency-sensitive load change. D is expressed as percent change in load divided by
percent change in frequency. For example, if load is changed by 1.6 percent for a 1 percent change in frequency, then D = 1.6. Including the load model in the
generator.
LOAD MODEL GENERATOR & LOAD MODEL
1
Pm (s)
(s) PL (s)
2H

1
Pe (s) Pm (s)
2H
+ D (s)

PL (s)

1
Pm (s) (s)
2H

D
SHEET - 5
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
PRIME MOVER MODEL
The source of mechanical power, commonly known as the prime mover, may be hydraulic turbines at waterfalls, steam turbines whose
energy comes from the burning of coal, gas, nuclear fuel, and gas turbines. The model for the turbine relates changes in mechanical
power out Pm to changes in steam valve position Pv. Different types of turbines vary widely in characteristics. The simplest prime
mover model for the nonheart steam turbine can be approximated with a single time constant TT, resulting in the following transfer
function.

G T (s) P m (s) 1
=
P V (s) 1+TTs

The block diagram for a simple turbine is shown

1
P V (s) P m (s)
1 + TTs

The time constant TT is in the range of 0.2 to 2.0 seconds.

SHEET - 6
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
GOVERNOR MODEL
When the generator electrical load is suddenly increased, the electrical power exceeds the mechanical power input. This power deficiency
is supplied by the kinetic energy stored in the rotating system. The reduction in kinetic energy causes the turbines speed and,
consequently, the generator frequency to fall. The change in speed is sensed by the turbine governor which acts to adjust the turbine
input valve to change the mechanical power output to bring the speed to a new steady-state. The earliest governors were the Watt
governors which sense the speed by means of rotating flyballs and provides mechanical motion in response to speed changes. However,
most modern governors use electronic means to sense speed changes. Figure 12.6 shows schematically the essential elements of a
conventional Watt governor, which consists of the following major parts.
To governor controlled
SPEED GOVERNING SYSTEM valves

Lower

Ralse
To close

Speed changer

To open

Speed Governor

SHEET - 7
Hydraulic amplifier
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
For stable operation, the governors are designed to permit the speed to drop as the load is increased. The steady-state characteristics of
such a governor is shown in
1.06
Speed changer set to give
= 1.0, at P = 0.625 pu
1.04
Speed changer set to give
= 1.0, at P = 1.0 pu
1.02

1.00
R=
P
0.98
P
0.96
0 0.25 0.50 0.75 1.0 1.25

P, pu
Governor steady - state speed characteristics.

The slope of the curve represents the speed regulation R. Governors typically have a speed regulation of 5-6 percent from zero to full load.
The speed governor mechanism acts as a comparator whose output Pg is the difference between the reference set power Pref and the
power 1/R as given from the governor speed characteristics, i.e.,
1
Pg = P ref
R

Pg (s) = Pref (s)

1
(s)
R
SHEET - 8
 TURBINE -GENERATOR CONTROL
The command Pg is transformed through the hydraulic amplifier to the steam valve position command Pv. Assuming a linear
relationship and considering a simple time constant Tg, we have the following s-domain relation.

1 P g (s)
P v (s) =
1 + Tg

Pg 1
Pref (s) P v (s)
1 + Tg S
-

1 /R (s)

PL (s)

Pg Pv Pm
1 1 1
Pref (s) (s)
1 + Tg s 1 + TT s 2H
+ d

Governor Turbine Rotating mass

and load

1
R

Load frequency control block diagram of an isolated power system

SHEET - 9
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
OPEN LOOP TRANSFER FUNCTION OF LOAD FREQUENCY CONTROL BLOCK DIAGRAM

1 1
KG ( s ) H ( s ) =
R (2Hs + D) ( 1 + Tg S) ( 1 + TTS )

and the closed-loop transfer function relating the load change PL to the frequency deviation is

(s)
( 1 + TgS ) ( 1 + TTS )
=
PL (s) (2Hs + D) ( 1 + Tgs ) ( 1 + TTs ) + 1 / R

LFC Block diagram with input PL (s) and output
(s)

1
P L (s) (s)
2H +
-

1
R(1 + TgS ) (1 +TTS)

The load change is a step input, i.e. PL (s) = PL/s. Utilizing the final value theorem, the steady-state value of is

1
ss = lim s (s) = (- PL )
s 0 D+1/R

SHEET - 10
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL

It is clear that for the case with no frequency-sensitive load (i.e with D=0), the steady-state deviation in frequency is determined by the
governor speed regulation, and is:

ss =( PL ) R

-state deviation in
frequency is given by

1
ss =( PL )
D + 1 / R1 + 1 / R2 + ...... 1 / Rn

SHEET - 11
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
REACTIVE POWER AND VOLTAGE CONTROL
The generator excitation system maintenance generator voltage and controls the reactive power flow. The generator excitation of older
systems may be provided through slip rings and brushes by means of dc generators mounted on the same shaft as the rotor of the
synchronous machine. However, modern excitation systems usually use ac generators with rotating rectifiers, and are known as brushless
excitation.

As we have seen, a change in the real power demand affects essentially the frequency, whereas a change in the reactive power affects
mainly the voltage magnitude. The interaction between voltage and frequency controls is generally weak enough to justify their analysis
separately.

The primary means of control of generator reactive power and voltage is the generator excitation control using AVR. The role of generator
AVR is to hold the terminal VOLTAGE OF THE GENERATOR at specified voltage level.

An increase in the reactive power load of the generator is accompanied by a drop in the terminal voltage magnitude. The voltage
magnitude is sensed through a potential transformer on one phase. This voltage is rectified and compared to a dc set point signal. The
amplified error signal controls the exciter field and increases the exciter terminal voltage. Thus, the generator field current is increased,
which results in an increase in the generated emf. The reactive power generation is increased to a new equilibrium, raising the terminal
voltage to the desired value. We will look briefly at the simplified models of the component involved in the AVR system.

SHEET - 12
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
AVR AMPLIFIED MODEL
The excitation system amplifier may be rotating amplifier or modern electronic amplifier.

Exciter

+ +
Vref Ve
Y
Amplifier VR Vf
G Y
- -
Y
P
Q
Stabilizer

Rectifier

A typical arrangement of a simple AVR

The amplifier is represented by a gain KA and a time constant TA and the transfer function is

V R (S ) KA
Ve (s)
=
1 + TA S

Typical values of KA are in the range of 10 to 400. The amplifier time constant is very small, in the range of 0.02 to 0.1 second, and often is
neglected.
SHEET - 13
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
EXCITER MODEL
There is a variety of different excitation types. However, modern excitation systems uses ac power source through solid-state rectifiers
such as SCR. The output voltage of the exciter is a nonlinear function of the field voltage because of the saturation effects in the magnetic
circuit. Thus, there is no simple relationship between the terminal voltage and the field voltage of the exciter. Many models with various
degrees of sophistication have been developed and are available in the IEEE recommendation publications. A reasonable model of a
modern exciter is a linearized model, which takes into account the major time constant and ignores the saturation or other nonlinearities.
In the simplest form, the transfer function of a modern exciter may be represented by a single time constant E and a gain KE, i.e.

VF (s) KE
=
VR (s) 1 + TE S

The time constant of modern exciters are very small

GENERATOR MODEL
The synchronous machine generated emf is a function of the machine magnetization curve, and its terminal voltage is dependent on the
generator load. In the linearized model, the transfer function relating the generator terminal voltage to its field voltage can be represented
by a gain KG and a time constant TG, and the transfer function is
Vt (s) KG
VF (s)
=
1 + TGS
These constant are load dependent, KG may vary between 0.7 to 1, and G between 1.0 and 2.0 seconds from full-load to no-load.

SHEET - 14
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
VOLTAGE SENSOR MODEL
The voltage is sensed through a potential transformer and, in one form, it is rectified through a bridge rectifier. The sensor is modeled by a
simple first order transfer function, given by
VS (s) KR
Vt (s)
=
1 + TRs

R is very small, and we may assume a range of 0.01 to 0.06 second.

Ve (s) KA VR(s) KE VF(s) KG Vt (s)

Vref (s)
1 + TA s 1 + TE s 1 +TG S
VS(s)
Amplifier Exciter Generator

Sensor

KR
1 + TRs

A SIMPLIFIED AUTOMATIC VOLTAGE REGULATOR BLOCK DIAGRAM

The open-loop transfer function of the block diagram in Figure.

KA KE K G K R
KG(s) H(s) =
(1 +TA s ) (1 +TEs )(1 +TGs ) (1 +TR s )

and the closed-loop transfer function relating the generator terminal voltage Vt (s) to the reference voltage Vref (s) is
Vt (s) KA KE K G K R (1 +TR s )
=
Vref (s) (1 +TAs ) (1 +TEs )(1 +TGs ) (1 +TR s ) + KA KE KG KR SHEET - 15
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
EXCITATION SYSTEM RATE FEEDBACK STABILISE
AVR response not stable and satisfactory for which a controller is required to add a ZERO to the AVR open loop transfer function. One
way to do this is to add a rate feedback to the control system as shown in figure below. By proper selection of the values of KF & TF, a
satisfactory response can be obtained.

Ve(s) KA VR(s) KE VF(s) KG Vt (s)

Vref (s)
1 +TG s
1 + TA s 1 + TEs
Amplifier Exciter Generator

Stabilizer
KE
1 + TF s

Sensor

KR
1 + TRs

Block diagram of the compensated AVR system

SHEET - 16
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
EXCITATION SYSTEM STABILISER USING PID CONTROLLERS
One of the most common controllers available commercially is the proportional integral derivative (PID) controller. The PID controller is
used to improve the dynamic response as well as to reduce or eliminate the steady-state error. The derivative controller adds a finite zero
to the open-loop plant transfer function and improves the transient response. The integral controller adds a pole at origin and increase the
system type by one and reduces the steady-state error due to a step function to zero. The PID controller transfer function is

Gc (s) = K P+ K I+ K Ds
s

Ve KA VR KE VF KG Vt (s)
Vref (s) KP + KI + KD s
s 1 + TA s 1 + TEs 1 + TGs
VS (s) PID Amplifier Exciter Generator

Sensor
KR
1 + TRs

The Block diagram of an AVR compensated with a PID controller

SHEET - 17
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
Block diagram of Speed-Governor-Turbine-Inertia active Power frequency control block diagram data is as below

To Workspace

PL
1
K 1 10s + 0.8
0.2s + 1 0.5s + 1
Sum Inertia, load
Sum 1 Governor Turbine

20

1
R

1
7 s

KI Integrator

SHEET - 18
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL

Block diagram of AVR-Exciter Generator reactive Power voltage control block diagram data is as below

Vref

10 1 1
0.1s + 1 0.4s + 1 s+1
Step
Amplifier Exciter Gen. L
t

Mux

Scope
Vt
1
.05s + 1 To Workspace
Sensor

SHEET - 19
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL

The coupling of governor control & AVR control would require incorporation of coupling coefficients due to rotor angle and stator emf.

It should be noted that there exists a weak coupling between the Speed governor active power frequency control system and the AVR-
Exciter reactive power and voltage control systems.

The coupling effect can be studied by linearization to include exciter and governor.

Small change in real power or torque in PU is the product of following

Synchronising power coefficient PS or K1 and Change in the power angle

And voltage

Due to small impact of voltage upon real powera linearized equation of power change due to power or load angle and voltage can be
developed as follows

PE = Ps* + K2* Eq
or

PE = K1* + K2* Eq

Where K2 is the change in electrical power for small change in stator emf.

SHEET - 20
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL

Also including small effect of rotor angle on generator terminal voltage, the effect of small change in terminal voltage due to rotor angle
and stator emf can be worked out as per linearised equation below

Vt = K5* + K6 * Eq

Where

K5 is the change in terminal voltage from small change in rotor angle at constant stator emf. AND

K6 is the change in terminal voltage for small change in stator emf at constant rotor angle.

The stator emf Eq after modifying generator field transfer function to include effect or rotor angle is as given below

Eq = [KG/(1+STG)] * EFD [KG/(1+STG)] * K4 *

Eq = [KG/(1+STG)] * [EFD (K4 * )]

SHEET - 21
 TURBINE-GENERATOR CONTROL
The coupling between LFC & AVR & generator is shown in block diagram form as in below figure
20
1
R

1 Step
6 s
P L1 Scope 1
Integrator

K 1 1 1
0.2s + 1 0.5s + 1 10s + 0.8 s

Governor Turbine Inertia, load Integrator

Pe

Ps
1.5

K2
0.2
Step

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 ETAP Workshop Notes


 





Generator Transients

Theoretical concepts
Single Generator Transients

Pmech:

Pelect:
Steady State Condition (Pre-Transient Condition)

Transient Condition






 ETAP Workshop Notes

Generator Transients

Generator model for calculation at the end of transient







 ETAP Workshop Notes

Generator Transients

Droop mode of generator

100% Load Throw off Case

Droop for generator






 ETAP Workshop Notes

Generator Transients

100% Load Application Case






 ETAP Workshop Notes

Generator Transients

Isochronous mode of generator






 ETAP Workshop Notes

Generator Transients

Case 1- Machines with equal droop

Case 2 Machine 1 - Isochronous and Machine 2 - droop setting = R2

Load Sharing and frequency control in different modes

Droop Isochronous






 
 


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Case of signal machine connected to infinite bus
Et BB

Zeo = R E + jX E

Neglect RE

Try increasing voltage by small

Need for Power System Stabilizer is to provide necessary compensation of generator torque lag using lead filter
as part of PSS which is explained in following sheets.

SHEET-9
Tm = Turbine Mechanical Torque
Te1 = Component from is synchronizing Torque
Te3 = Component from is damping Torque
Te2 = Generator air gap torque
Te2 typically due to generator, exciter, gain etc. tends to lag. Provision of PSS helps to compensate for the
Te2 lag as in the following figure
 Te2 lags due to generator, exciter gain and other parameters. Once the lag of Te2 is known the PSS can
be designed to compensate by providing a lead compensation block such that the lead achieved by PSS
compensates for the lag in Te2.
The damping torque quadrant with PSS but due to generator and exciter gain and lag parameters is shown as
below

Due to negative damping the generator collected to Grid may experience small disturbance with Undamped
oscillations.

PSS provides the compensation to Te2 in lead direction from the 4th quadrant to 1st quadrant thereby ensuring
generator in parallel with grid results in small disturbance damped oscillations by use of PSS.
 



  



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