Qualitative Research: Methods and Practical Tips: References: Methodology Books

Qualitative Research: Methods
and Practical Tips
Dr. Caleb H. Chen

huaychen@must.edu.mo
Macau University of Science and Technology
Qualitative Research © 2021
References: Methodology books
Yin, R.K. (2003). Case study research: design and methods

(3rd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Naumes, W., & Naumes, M.J. (2006). The art & craft of
case writing (2nd edition). New York: M.E. Sharper.
Richards, L. (2009). Handling qualitative data (2nd edition).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Academic papers: search author “Eisenhardt”
Qualitative Research 2 © 2021
1
Outline
What is qualitative research?

Step by step:
(1-3) Research design
(4-6) Data & report
I believe I can fly: Practical tips
Bonus: Tips for thesis writing
2
Qualitative vs Quantitative
Qualitative Quantitative
White cup 1 cup
Robust aroma 12 ounces
Creamy taste 65ºC
Latte art flower HK$40
Qualitative Quantitative
Pretty & handsome 80 students
Professional & charming 53 ladies, 27 gentlemen
A lovely group 2-year programme
Highly energetic average age 21
3
Qualitative data Quantitative data
Deal with descriptions Deal with numbers

Data can be observed but Data can be measured
not measured
Use qualitative/quantitative methods to describe/measure his emotion:
4
Quantitative vs Qualitative
Explores a central phenomenon

Asks participants broad, general questions
Collects detailed views of participants in the form of words
or images
Analyzes and codes the data for description and themes
Interprets the meaning of the information
5
Advantages of qualitative research
Issues can be evaluated in depth and in detail.

Data and findings are more compelling and powerful.
Smaller sample size.
Research framework can be revised, basing on available data.
Practical implications.
Qualitative research traditions

Dimension Biography Phenomenology Grounded Theory Ethnography Case Study
Focus ▪ Exploring the ▪ Understanding ▪ Developing a ▪ Describing and ▪ Developing an in-
life of an the essence of theory interpreting a depth analysis of
individual experiences grounded in cultural and
a single case or
about a data from the social group
phenomenon field multiple cases
Data ▪ Primarily ▪ Long ▪ Interviews ▪ Primarily ▪ Multiple sources:

Collection interviews interviews with with 20-30 observations documents,
and up to 10 individuals to and interviews
archival records,
documents people “saturate” with additional
categories artifacts during interviews,
and detail a extended time observations,
theory in the field physical artifacts
Data ▪ Stories ▪ Statements ▪ Open coding ▪ Description ▪ Description
Analysis ▪ Epiphanies ▪ Meanings ▪ Axial coding ▪ Analysis ▪ Themes
▪ Historical ▪ Meaning ▪ Selective ▪ Interpretation
▪ Assertations
content themes coding
▪ General ▪ Conditional
description of matrix
the experience
Narrative ▪ Detailed ▪ Description of ▪ Theory or ▪ Description of ▪ In-depth study of
Form picture of an the “essence” theoretical the cultural a “case” or
individual’s of the model behavior of a
“cases”
life experience group or an
individual
6
Sample paper A1:
Politics of strategic decision making
in high-velocity environments:
Toward a midrange theory
Research design
Topic
Purpose
Definition of politics & Research questions
(what to observe  interviews  findings)
Research framework/model
Research setting: Cases & participants
7
Data collection
Discussion
Interview
❖ Who: why 2 sources?
❖ Process?
❖ Questions?
Reflection:
❖ Research questions  Interview design?
❖ What information/data would get from the interview questions?
8
Analysis & findings
Analytical process (Read 3rd paragraph, P742)
1. Develop preliminary hypotheses
2. Search for patterns (variable relationships)
(pair, similarities & differences)
3. Confirm patterns & underlying dynamics (back to each case)

4. Final: propositions & modelling/mapping
Side issue: qualitative + quantitative data (P741,744)
Analysis & findings
Reflection: RQ & Propositions/findings
9
Presentation of results
Structure:
❖ 3 parts = 3 RQs
❖ Each part divided by propositions
RQ & literature review

Finding summary
Proposition
Evidence
❖ Table: indicators & quotes
❖ Description & quotation
❖ Cross-case analysis  patterns
Summary & Discussion with literature
Step by step:
Qualitative research procedure
10
1. Research topic
Identify the subject area or topic: a phenomenon/ problem…

(profession/company/industry-based)
Specify the research problem: the practical issue that leads to
a need for your study
Narrow & Select a topic by asking:
∆ What sub-topics relate to the broader topic?
∆ What do you find interesting about the topic?
∆ So what? – This study needs to be conducted because …
(Research purpose: “explore”, “understand”, “discover”, “identify”)
1. Research topic
Research purpose includes:

∆ “The purpose of this study….”
∆ The central phenomenon/issue
∆ Use qualitative words:
“explore”, “understand”, “discover”, “identify”
∆ Participants
∆ Research site
11
2. Research questions
Types of questions:
“What” (dimensions)
∆ “What difficulties do ethnic minorities face in employment?”
∆ “What are the characteristics of entrepreneurs?”
“Why” (reasons)
∆“Why do women accept international assignments?”
∆ “Why do young people take jobs typically for retirees?”
“How” (processes)
∆ “How do different HR philosophies influence employee behaviors?”
∆ “How does company X attract “silver generation” workers?”
2. Research questions
Check research questions with topic & purpose:

∆ What aspect of the topic you will explore?
∆ What do you need to know and answer to achieve the purpose?
∆ Are there other questions you should answer?
∆ Are there questions outside of your purpose?
Evaluate your research questions:

∆ Is your question clear & focused?
∆ Is your question appropriately complex?
∆ Is your question worth investigating?
∆ Is your question feasible?
12
3. Framework
“What” (dimensions)
3. Perspective & framework

“Why” (reasons)
13
3. Perspective & framework
“How” (process)
How to organize logics of multiple questions in a framework:

(transform your research questions into a framework)
14
3. Framework
A framework shows your logics in answering research

questions.
An initial framework have “question marks”, which need you
to collect data.
After filling findings into your framework, you’ll build a
model finally.
Practice
Please draw a framework for your study
(a very rough version)
15
4. Data collection
(1) Identify research sites & subjects
Can the sites and subjects help us learn about the central
phenomenon? (purposefully select)
Single or multiple sources (e.g. subordinate, supervisor)
Do you have access and permissions?
How many sites and subjects should you study? (keep sample
size small; but should be large enough to obtain feedback for
most or all perceptions.)
4. Data collection
(1) Identify research sites & subjects
Sample size:
∆ No standard rule
∆ “Saturation”: when adding more participants does not result in
additional perspectives/information.
-- complexity of the phenomenon
-- heterogeneity of population/subjects
-- complexity of research design/purpose
-- quality of data & collection methods
-- time, budget, & resources available
∆ 8-15 interview participants (my suggestion for YOU)
16
4. Data collection
(2) Types of data
Secondary & primary data

Collection methods:
∆ Documents (literature, press releases, internal doc)
∆ Audio/visual materials
∆ Participant observation
∆ Interviews
4. Data collection
(3) Collection plan: 4 stages
Stage 1: Secondary data (for understanding the context)

Stage 2: Participant observation
Stage 3: Interviews
Stage 4: 2nd Interviews (optional, if S3 data are not enough)
17
4. Data collection
(4) Participant observation
The process of learning about the routine activities of participants
in the natural setting through observing and participating in the
activities.
Purpose: understand the context; adjust research design….
What to do:
∆ Participate in meetings, training seminars…
∆ Watch how people actually behave/interact…
∆ Informal interviews (low pressure; speak freely & openly)
∆ Take descriptive and reflective notes…
4. Data collection
(5) Interview – Question design
Research framework  key topics

Set key questions around the topics
(as many as you can; then select/revise)
Set sub-questions around key questions

(what information do you need?)
Sequence of questions:
∆ start from interviewee’s background/ story telling
∆ from comfortable topics  sensitive topics
∆ around the topics one by one; dig deep
18
4. Data collection
(5) Interview
Two interviewers cooperate
Types of interviews
∆ Unstructured interviews:
-- No specific set of predetermined questions;
based on interviewees’ responses
-- Interviewers usually have some key topics in mind (5-7)
-- Can be used in the stage of “Observation”
4. Data collection
(5) Interview
Types of interviews
∆ Semi-structured interviews:
-- set an interview outline (a list of topics & questions) in advance; but
will adjust questions and add new questions according to the
conversation.
-- depends on the interviewer’s experience and skills.
-- When to use:
1) have a number of areas to address;
2) only have one chance to interview someone;
3) the interviewer has enough skills & familiar with the study
19
4. Data collection
(5) Interview
Types of interviews
∆ Structured interviews:
-- Questions are created prior to the interview
-- Ask same questions in the same way (standardized)
-- When to use:
(1) a clear focus & well-developed understanding of the topic;
(2) questionnaire; telephone;
(3) multiple interview teams
4. Data collection
(5) Interview
Suggestion for YOU:

∆ Almost structured, but with some flexibility
∆ Prepare a well-designed question list
-- Set sequence of topics & questions
-- Around topics, you can ask additional questions for more info
-- add new sub questions if necessary
20
4. Data collection
(6) Tape record & transcription
Why record?
∆ Accuracy of data: transcripts  quoting, coding  analysis
Transcription
Sorting your data
∆ Each interview transcript is a separate document (Word file)
∆ Name the data documents
∆ Establish a file with interviewees’ information
(identifier, personal information, interview records/date…)
4. Data collection
Transcription: interview records  Word files
An Excel file with interviewees’ info [confidential]

(e.g. serial no., demographic info, contacts…)
21
4. Data collection
Practical tips
Interview skills
-- use open-ended questions
× “Do you like your job as an HR manager?”
√ “What is it like to work as an HR manager?”
-- avoid leading questions
× “How good is the working relationship with your supervisor?”
√ “How do you feel about working with your supervisor?”
-- probe issues in depth (stimulate more: silence, echo probe)
√ “I see. (repeat words). Then what happened?”
-- let the informant lead (especially in unstructured interviews)
let the informant define the content of discussion; get out of the way
4. Data collection
Practical tips
Don’t ask “research questions” directly:

∆ It’s your responsibility to “answer” research questions
∆ Ask interviewees for “stories/examples/experiences”
× “What competencies should be included in PA system?”
√ “Who do you think are best subordinates? Why? What he/she did?”
“Give me some examples of best subordinates...”
× “What factors attract talents?”

√ “What were you thinking when you accepted this job?”
22
4. Data collection
Practical tips
Don’t forget to collect personal information that is useful

(example: A1,P212):
∆ Purpose: 1) quotation; 2) trace interviewee; 3) relevant to theory
∆ Demographic data: name; sex; age; rank; department; company
∆ Other information relevant to your research
∆ method: observation; structured interview; or questionnaire
4. Data collection
23
5. Data analysis
Exploring your data

Quoting
Coding
Mapping (advanced, optional)
Meeting data Drawing it

Reading, opening up Grouping in themes;
to the data to get factors, processes
ideas
Revisiting
Research design data
Purpose, questions,
objectives, framework
Revising
design
Developing Reporting results Coding &

recommendations Themes; quotes; code Mapping
& deliverables structure; model; Transforming data
Basing on findings; answering questions into concepts
achieving objectives
24
Exploring data
Read through the transcripts for general meaning
Skim read  read thoroughly
Use a pencil to mark key words
Obtain a general sense of the data
“What is the interviewee telling?”
Conceptual & analytical thinking:
“What does it mean to my study?”
A hard copy on desk:
∆ research questions
∆ research framework (a rough version)
Exploring data
Check:
∆ Do I need more data?
-- Can I complete the research framework?
-- Can I answer research questions?
-- Any questions I missed in the interviews?
∆ Need to revise the research design?
-- What is unexpected?
25
Quoting
What are quotes?

-- Words/ phrases/ sentences/ paragraphs from interviewees
Quoting for what?

-- to understand the context
-- to illustrate key concepts/ codes/ ideas
-- to support your arguments/ claims
Presenting quotes as evidence (credibility):

Original data help readers make their own judgments
Quoting
“Gaining experience”
 why undertake expatriation
26
Quoting
Tips
Select quotes:
-- sharp (clear, touching…)
-- representative of your research findings
-- don’t quote too long or too many
Mark key words/phrases when you read the transcripts (when

you explore data) for further quoting & coding.
Coding
What are codes?

-- tags, names or labels
What is coding?
-- the process of putting tags/names/labels against pieces of the data (i.e.
segments of the transcribed text data)
-- assigning labels is to attach meaning to the pieces of data
Why do coding?
-- the starting activity & the foundation for subsequent analysis
-- coding is central, for discovering regularities in the data
-- to understand the structure of data
27
ATLAS.ti
“Just do it”: don’t think too much for 1st-time coding
WORD – “Comment”
28
Coding
Group 1st-level codes & extract higher-level themes
Vegetable
Plant
Fruit
Seafood
Animal
Meat
EXCEL
❖ List codes
❖ Group codes in a structure (3 levels)
29
Structure of codes (A2,P11)
59
Qualitative Research © 2021
Structure of codes (A2,P11)
In-Vivo codes Categories of codes Themes

Quotes
(1st-level codes) (2nd-level codes) (3rd-level codes)
…… Career
Career growth
…… CV
…… International experience
…… Objectives Gaining experience
…… Work experience
…… Autonomy
Career contribution
…… Challenges Personal goals
…… Prove yourself
…… Culture
Immersion in local Cultural understanding
……
understanding
…… …… ……
…… …… …… Family life
Financial
…… …… ……
preconditions
30
A1: Another way of presenting codes
How “power centralization” was got (Table 2, P744)

How “use of politics” was got (Table 3, P746)
Practical tips for coding
Follow sample paper A2 or A1.

The main idea is to:
∆ identify key words from transcripts
∆ Interpret the meaning
∆ Extract themes (“variables” of your framework)
Operation:
∆ You don’t have a software like ATLAS.ti or Nvivo
∆ You can use Word & Excel to code and manage codes
31
Mapping
Seek for relationships among codes/themes

Visualize your analysis by mapping
Build your research model
(pack research findings)
Examples:
A1, P766
A2, P18
A3, P8
Summary: Analytical procedure
Explore data  preliminary ideas (2 * 1 author)

Search for patterns across cases (compare similarities & differences)
Go back to each case:
❖ Confirm relationships between variables
❖ Develop the underlying mechanisms
Develop propositions
Build final model
32
6. Report findings (results)
(Example: A1)
Summarize the settings
∆ research site(s)
∆ Participants (listed in a table, with demographic info)
∆ methods and procedure of data collection
∆ methods of analysis
Use tables to show how themes emerge

Discuss the themes one by one, with: (P743 & 748)
∆ quotes for explanation
∆ contextual details & interactions in the case
∆ explanations of logics/relationships between the themes
Table 2: Power centralization

Table 3: Use of politics
RQ1: Why do politics emerge?
P743
33
P748
“The executives felt that politics were necessary to counter the

power of the chairman and to get things done.” (Proposition 1)
6. Report findings (results)
Report key findings

∆ to answer your research questions
∆ to generate propositions
Presenting your final research model
34
Practice
Design questions if you haven’t done interviews
Try coding/mapping if you have collected data
Writing
a degree project report
35
Structure of a degree report
SHRM MHRM
Introduction
• Project background • Project background
• Why the study was undertaken • Issues / Research questions
• What issue were addressed • Research objectives
• Theoretical/practical justification
• Theoretical/practical justification
Literature review
for the approach taken
Methodology
• Data sources & collection methods • Data collection methods
• Data analysis
• Data analysis & conclusions Research findings
• Benchmarking of best practices • Limitations

• Recommendations and deliverables • Recommendations
• Suggested implementation • Implementation programme
programme • Appendix
1. Introduction
Project background
- Issue/problem in the company [Topic]
- a brief introduction (company, history of the issue)
Why the study was taken
- why meaningful to do this project
- why you
What issues were addressed
- identify the key/focus
- Research questions & objectives
36
2. Theoretical/ practical justification
Purpose?
∆ as background to understand your topic and study
∆ as theoretical (or practical) foundation to build your study
You are expected to show that you can:

∆ recognize relevant & important literature
∆ understand the topic & what you are doing
∆ identify a gap/problem & know where to go
2. Theoretical/ practical justification
Theoretical: Previous research on your topic

∆ well-established & “theory” papers
∆ recent relevant research
How to organize literature review?
∆ around key themes (theoretical model/framework)
∆ around debates
∆ by different approaches
∆ from distant to close (research development)
∆ from general to specific
Practical: Previous approaches/ steps/ processes/…
37
3. Methods
Qualitative/Case study method (see Yin (2008) etc.)

Sample selection: company & interviewees
Company information (in addition to project background)
Data collection (process & methods)
Analytical procedure
4. Results
Summarize the collected data

∆ A brief summary of the subjects & data
Research findings
∆ Code structure
∆ Discuss themes with quotes
∆ Discuss relationships between themes
∆ Build final research model (advanced & optional)
38
5. Discussion & conclusion
Benchmarking of best practices

Recommendations and deliverables
Suggested implementation programme
5. Appendixes
Interview questions
Data appendixes
Full version of implementation plans / recommendations etc.
39
References: Methodology books
Yin, R.K. (2003). Case study research: design and methods

(3rd edition). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Naumes, W., & Naumes, M.J. (2006). The art & craft of
case writing (2nd edition). New York: M.E. Sharper.
Richards, L. (2009). Handling qualitative data (2nd edition).
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
40

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Qualitative Research: Methods

and Practical Tips

Dr. Caleb H. Chen

Qualitative Research © 2021

References: Methodology books

Yin, R.K. (2003). Case study research: design and methods

Qualitative Research 2 © 2021

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative Research 3 © 2021

What is qualitative research?

Qualitative Research 4 © 2021

Qualitative Research 5 © 2021

Qualitative Research 6 © 2021

Qualitative data Quantitative data

Deal with descriptions Deal with numbers

Qualitative Research 7 © 2021

Qualitative Research 8 © 2021

Qualitative Research 9 © 2021

What is qualitative research?

Explores a central phenomenon

Qualitative Research 10 © 2021

Issues can be evaluated in depth and in detail.

Qualitative Research 11 © 2021

Qualitative research traditions

Data ▪ Primarily ▪ Long ▪ Interviews ▪ Primarily ▪ Multiple sources:

Qualitative Research 12 © 2021

Qualitative Research 13 © 2021

Qualitative Research 14 © 2021

Qualitative Research 15 © 2021

Qualitative Research 16 © 2021

3. Confirm patterns & underlying dynamics (back to each case)

Side issue: qualitative + quantitative data (P741,744)

Qualitative Research 17 © 2021

Analysis & findings

Reflection: RQ & Propositions/findings

Qualitative Research 18 © 2021

RQ & literature review

Summary & Discussion with literature

Qualitative Research 19 © 2021

Qualitative Research 20 © 2021

Identify the subject area or topic: a phenomenon/ problem…

Qualitative Research 21 © 2021

Research purpose includes:

Qualitative Research 22 © 2021

Qualitative Research 23 © 2021

Check research questions with topic & purpose:

Evaluate your research questions:

Qualitative Research 24 © 2021

Qualitative Research 25 © 2021

3. Perspective & framework

Qualitative Research 26 © 2021

Qualitative Research 27 © 2021

How to organize logics of multiple questions in a framework:

Qualitative Research 28 © 2021

A framework shows your logics in answering research

Qualitative Research 29 © 2021

Qualitative Research 30 © 2021

Qualitative Research 31 © 2021

∆ 8-15 interview participants (my suggestion for YOU)

Qualitative Research 32 © 2021

Secondary & primary data

Qualitative Research 33 © 2021

Stage 1: Secondary data (for understanding the context)