“Earlier Christianity, Byzantium, Russia.

” “Hybridity”
Topic:
in architecture

Student name: Dmitrijs Kopendjuks

Student number: 001097782

Course coordinator Dr Marko Jobst

Tutor name: Robert Bagley

 EARLIER CHRISTIANITY, BYZANTIUM, RUSSIA.
“HYBRIDITY” IN ARCHITECTURE

Hybrid - there is no better word for the most development also absorbed the culture of
important characteristics of our time. building the peoples of the Iberian Peninsula,
Ancient Germany, Gaul and others, conquered
Gerfried Stocker by the empire. Rome adopted a lot from the art

T his essay considers the concept of hy- of the Etruscans, bearers of a highly developed
bridity in architecture in the context of culture, thanks to the influence of which some
the topic “Early Christianity, Byzantium, constructive approaches to construction and
Russia” on the example of famous buildings engineering structures appeared.
and show how the classic Byzantine style,
which combined the traditions of Roman ar-
chitecture and the Eastern school, adapted
to the Slavic traditions and technologies of
wooden architecture, has transformed into a
new hybrid style.
The concept of “hybridity” in architecture
developed since ancient times when children
from the marriage of a Roman with a non-Ro-
man woman or a free citizen with a slave were
called “hybrids”.
Today this concept has a rather positive
connotation.
Over time, the concept of “hybrid” began
to be used in various areas (in particular, as
a response to the development of culture and
society and the complication of life in general),
being a synonym for mixed, indefinite, multi- Figure 1. Roman Tabularium. 80s 1 c. B
dimensional, diverse, united, etc.
So, raising the problem of hybridization in In the 2nd - 1st centuries. BC. in Roman ar-
architecture and urban environment, one can- chitecture, they began to use a new plastic ma-
not but take into account its manifestation in terial - concrete. Vaulted structures are used in
art, literature and other related fields. Histo- construction. At this time, they began to erect
rians and culturologists attribute its origin to buildings for courts, trade, amphitheatres, cir-
the 15th century, the moment of the invention cuses, baths, libraries, markets.
of printing.
“Hybridity” in architecture, on the one
hand, often gives rise to collage and inconsis-
tency; on the other hand, can solve some glob-
al environmental and social problems.

A brief overview of social, economic,

financial aspects that influenced the
architecture of Rome and Constantinople

T he conquest of Greece brought Rome a new

perspective on culture and art. However,
Roman architecture not only copied Greek, but
Figure 2. Colosseum in Rome

The creation of the first triumphal arches

also made its own contribution to the develop-
ment of architecture.
The beginning of the development of Ro-
man architecture dates back to the 6-1 cen-
tury. BC. Ancient Roman architecture in its
and warehouses belongs to that period. Chan-
ceries and archives appeared.
Such rapid construction and the emer-
gence of buildings for various purposes is
caused by the expanding expansion, the sei- vaults made of bricks and the dome on the
zure of territories, the increase in the size of sails in the shape of a spherical triangle.
the state and the need for strict regulation of
the controlled territories.
The Christian religion had a wide influence
on the culture of Byzantium. In the architec-
ture of Byzantium, the stages of accumulation
and fusion of the experience of the Roman and
Eastern schools are well traced.

Figure 4. Sail dome

scheme

Figure 3. Top view of the Roman Pantheon Figure 6. Inside Hagia Sophia

In 1453, Constantinople was captured by

the Turks who gave the city a new name - Is-
tanbul.
Byzantine architects used local building
materials in their work: small stone and fired
plinth brick (square or rectangular bricks with
a thickness of 4 - 5 cm). The laying was car-
ried out on a lime mortar with the addition of
crushed brick. Often in the masonry 4 - 5 rows
of bricks alternated with several rows of ma-
sonry. This masonry was called “Byzantine”.
Figure 5. Cross-
No concrete technique was used. domed temple plan
In the early Byzantine period, the forma-
tion of domed structures and compositional The culmination of the development of
techniques of centric buildings took place; in arched-vaulted structures was the grandiose
the Middle Byzantine, a type of cross-domed domed basilica of the Cathedral of St. Sophia
temple was developed; the late Byzantine pe- in Constantinople.
riod - the time of monastic construction and Sophia Cathedral was the main building of
the abandonment of monumental temples in the Byzantine Empire and the court temple of
favour of small graceful churches. the emperor. Here the emperor has been ap-
Compared to Roman ones, Byzantine ar- peared to the masses, surrounded by his retinue
chitects created more economical systems of and clergy. In creating a strong emotional im-
vaulted structures. These include the cross pression, architecture was given the main place.
The domed basilica of the temple, as it were,
combined the features of the structure of out-
standing Roman buildings - the Basilica of Con-
stantine and the Pantheon. However, the overall
dimensions of the Cathedral of Sophia signifi-
cantly exceed them, and the structural basis is
significantly different from the prototypes. This
monument is the main symbol of Byzantium.
The ancient temples of Constantinople
were not demolished or immediately trans-
formed: they existed until the sixth centu-
ry, when they were adapted for secular use.
Some ancient works of art were appreciat-
ed, although they depicted naked gods and
goddesses.

Figure 7. Saint Sophie Cathedral. Istanbul

Figure 8. Plan of the Cathedral of Hagia Sophia

The formation of monasteries as a special
type of architectural complexes also belongs to
the Byzantine era. The most distinctive are the The viability of Byzantium and its survival
suburban monasteries, which are usually forti- are largely due to the coexistence of the con-
fied points surrounded by walls, inside which, flicting parties.
in addition to the residential and outbuildings of
the monks, an extensive refectory and the domi-
nant building - the church - were erected. Early Christianity in Russia:
social, economic, historical and cultural
aspects

M eanwhile, in the north, Scandinavian Rus,

their Slavs and other subjects mingled,
and their cultures mingled. In a sense, this was
facilitated due to the significant coincidence
of their pagan beliefs: for example, the Slavic
Perun the Thunderer was very similar to the
Scandinavian Torah. Thus, in the cities with
wooden palisades and small villages along the
main river routes, in forts and trading stations,
a new nation was born.
Conquest, trade, settlements and allianc-
es unite and the growth of the power of Kiev
Figure 9. Monastery of Saint Lazarus in Larnaca - a unique is noticeable. Raids on Constantinople and its
example of a temple with a high bell tower lands were often repelled, but Kiev neverthe-
less concluded treaties in 907 and 911, accord-
The new traditions of religious belief were ing to which the greatest city-state in the world
combined with the old imperial and classical viewed upstart Kiev as if not an equal, but
traditions. The emperor remained a god-like nonetheless respectable power. Slavic tribes
figure on earth, and his undeniable authori- such as Northerners and Drevlyans were taken
ty was approved by God. The imperial court under the control of Kiev, although not without
remained a place of elaborate splendour, al- cost. (Igor will be killed last, and his widow
though it reflected the court of heaven. Olga will brutally take revenge on them.)
Figure 10. Vernal equinox day among the Slavs
Vladimir the Great (reigned 980-1015)
turned out to be an empire builder. He was a
planner and politician and sought to lead Rus-
sia beyond their Viking roots. He expanded the
territories under his rule, conquering tribes
and capturing cities.
A chain of forts with traditional wood-
en walls was built, which are now reinforced
with adobe bricks thanks to the Greek builders
from Constantinople.
The reason new techniques and technolo-
gies were now imported from Constantinople
was his fateful decision to convert to Christi-
anity and force the Russian rulers and subjects
to follow his example. He was subdued by Byz-
antine Orthodox Christianity, as his emissaries
spoke enthusiastically about the Eucharist in
the domed nave of the huge Hagia Sophia: “We
did not know if we were in Heaven or on Earth,
we did not see such beauty anywhere before
and we do not know how to say about it ... We
only know that God dwells there among peo-
ple, and their ministry is more just than the
rituals of other nations. “
The theory “Moscow - the Third Rome”
ser­ved as a semantic basis for messianic ide-
as about the role and significance of Russia,
which developed during the formation of
the Moscow principality. The Moscow Grand
Dukes (who had claimed the royal title since
the time of John III) were the successors of the
Roman and Byzantine emperors.
The “Third Rome”, the last stronghold of
true Orthodox Christianity, became a chal-
lenge. Ivan II, whose wife was the Byzantine
princess Sophia Palaeologus, on the basis of
Figure 11. Art of Vsevolod Ivanov - Vedic Russia
this claimed to be the political heir of the East-
ern Roman Empire.
The two-headed eagle of Constantinople
was recognized by Moscow, and Byzantine
court etiquette began to gradually enter into
everyday life. The funds that came to the trea-
sury from his new subjects, Ivan generously
spent, turning Moscow, already almost twice
as large as Prague and Florence, into a worthy
successor to Constantinople.
Ivan II invited Italian architects to expand
the Kremlin’s fortified complex and build a
tower and cathedrals. Symbolism reflected
shifts in real power. Like the divine emperors
of Rome and Constantinople, the king was a
sacred sovereign, subject only to God.
The main features
of Slavic culture and architecture
T
he early period of development of ancient
Russian art includes the art of the Eastern
Slavs, who devoted all their time to agriculture
and worshiped their deities, who personified
the power of nature, while creating images of
these gods - the so-called idols.
For example, the image of the foremoth-
er-patroness of the clan, the firebird, the im-
ages of sacred horses, which were taken from
morphological motives and entered the con-
sciousness of the people, were carefully pre-
served in peasant carving and embroidery
even up to modern days.
Since ancient times, peasants in the Perm
Territory set up their huts so that outwardly
they seemed to resemble birds - with wide
roof slopes similar to wings. Moreover, they
were called “bird huts”, and the “bird” symbol-
ism permeated all the details of the structure,
from the ridge to the rainwater gutters.

Figure 14. A selection of images of angels, seraphim and

cherubim in contemporary Russian Orthodox iconography

Figure 12. Hut-bird.

Prikamye

Figure 16. The ridge of the Russian hut

Figure 13. Objects of the Lomatov culture (Perm Territory,

VI‑VIII centuries): on the left - a bird-shaped idol with a human
face on the chest; on the right is a three-headed bird in flight.
Both items were used as amulets

A horse (lump, beak, tarpan) is one of the

most revered animals among the Slavs. White
and red horses were considered messengers
of warmth and sunlight, all good. The Slavs
believed that the solar disk carried a chariot
along the heavenly vault, pulled by three hors-
es. The proverbs and sayings reflect the pa-
Figure 17. Kenozerye National Park, Russia
tience, endurance and immoderate appetite of
horses. Images of skates guarded the homes of
the Slavs from harmful and hostile spirits.

Figure 15. Horses Figure 18. St. Nicholas church in Nenoksa, Russia
 Slavic Goddess Lada - Goddess of love and
beauty, patroness of family ties, protector of
children, Heavenly Mother who gave birth to
the gods.

Figure 20. Plan of the Slavic kontyna

according to K. Moklovsky

Figure 19. Body amulet - Lada Star made of wood Colossal logs, hewn into four edges, and
the same boards served as the material for
Some idea of the
​​ religious architecture of the kontyna; the walls were cut in the corners
the Slavs, based on the data that we glean from “with the remainder” and the above-men-
the notes of German travellers. tioned consoles were arranged to support the
Thus, Bishop Ditmar (1018) says that in wide overhangs of the roofs.
the sacred forest of the Lyutichi, who were on
friendly terms with the Tsar Henry II, “there
is a temple, artistically cut from wood; its
outer walls are adorned with wonderfully
carved images of gods and goddesses. “Otto
of Bamberg saw in Szczetina a kontyna on
a mountain dedicated to Triglaw; it was su-
perbly built and its walls, both outside and
inside, were so beautifully and naturally cov-
ered with carvings of people, animals and
birds that seemed to be breathing.” The out- Figure 21. types of logs joining
er fence was a fence, painstakingly made and
decorated with carvings.
Based on these and similar archival data,
then on the research of Krashevsky and
Sokolovsky and also on the fact that the tem-
ples of all peoples who are at the first stages of
culture are always close, according to the ex-
ample of their plan, to the human habitation of
the same era, Kazimir Moklovsky gives in his
work “Sztuka ludowa w Polsce” is the follow-
ing reconstruction of a typical pagan temple of Figure 22. moss laying between logs
the Slavs.
1) The canopy - a platform in front of the
door of the temple, closed by a strong over-
hang of the roof, supported by consoles formed
with the help of a gradual overlap of logs.
2) The premise of the temple, there were
benches at its three walls, and in the middle,
there was an altar.
3) The sanctuary, where the image of the
deity stood, also bordered on three sides by
benches. Figure 23. Set of carpentry tools
 outer surfaces of the walls in their upper parts
from moisture.
The back of the kontyna, the sanctuary itself,
in which the images of the deities stood, had a
ceiling arranged along beams; the front part,
where the altar stood, on which the sacrifices
were burned, did not have a ceiling and for the
exit of the sacrificial smoke in the front gable of
the building, above the canopy of the entrance, a
hole was made - a chimney. No other holes with
the exception of the front door, they did not suit
of a there, as a result of which inside it was im-
Figure 24. Log element mersed in twilight, which gave the images that
adorned the walls, mystery and vitality.
Around the temple, at about one third of
the height of its walls, an additional roof was
arranged, which, according to K. Moklovsky,
protected the lower part of the building from
the action of atmospheric moisture; At the
same time, this additional roof played the
same role as similar overhangs at the roofs of
the current churches of Galicia and the gallery
of Russian wooden churches, that is, it served
as a cover for the people who could not fit in
the temple or for those who were waiting for
the beginning of the service.
Both the upper and lower roofs were cov-
ered with shingle scales nailed in with wooden Figure 25. Reconstruction of the kontyna.
nails; the same scales were used to protect the According to K. Moklovsky

Figure 26. Art of Vsevolod Ivanov

 The reconstruction of the external appear- ern ones; in other words, the temples of all
ance of the kontyna performed by K. Mok- Slavs were supposed to be in general the same
lovsky is, of course, arbitrary, but nevertheless and close to the reconstruction of them, which
it only in details, perhaps, differs from what is given by K. Moklovsky. (К. Moklowski. Sztuka
was in reality, and in general terms it is very ludowa w Polsce. Lwow. 1903. Page 281.)
close to the truth, since it is very similar to the
ancient churches of Galicia...
Such were the pagan temples of the north-
ern Slavs - Pomorians and Lyutichi; but the
same Lyutichi lived in the south, namely, near
the shores of the Black Sea, therefore, their tem-
ples could not be very different from the north-

Figure 28. Church of the Presentation of the Lord, Pushkin District

Figure27. church of Transfiguration in Pyrohiv village near Kiev

Figure 29. Vvedenskaya church. Vvedenskoe-Borisovka. Russia Figure 30. Church in Bergen, Norway
 The merger of two styles
and the emergence
of a new one on specific examples

T he adoption of Christianity contributed to

the completion the formation of the an-
cient Russian state, which was caused not only
by the consolidating influence one religion.
Together with Orthodoxy, Russia took over
Byzantine religious doctrine with its political
ideas and teachings (primarily concerning the
supreme state power, its divine origin).
The rulers of Russia are used them to es- Figure 32. View of the Transfiguration Church from the river. Kizhi
tablish their authority among subjects, cen-
tralization of power, and to increase the coun-
try’s prestige in the international arena.
Religious art has received a powerful de-
velopment - temple building and icon painting.
Russian church wooden architecture has
acquired a special style. The properties of
wood as a building material determined the
originality and features of this style. It is diffi-
cult to create a dome with smooth shapes from
rectangular planks and beams.
Therefore, in wooden temples, a point- Figure 33. Plan of the Transfiguration Church on Kizhi Island
ed-shaped tent appears instead of it (the com-
pletion of buildings in the form of a high tet- The forms of wooden temples influenced
rahedral or multifaceted pyramid). Moreover, stone (brick) construction. In Russia, they
they began to give the appearance of a tent to began to build intricate stone hipped-roof
the church as a whole. churches resembling huge towers. The first
of the temples of this type was the Ascension
Church erected in Kolomenskoye (1530-1533).

Figure 31. Bird’s-eye view of the Transfiguration Church. Kizhi

So wooden temples appeared to the world

in the form of a huge pointed wooden cone.
Sometimes the roof of the temple was arranged
in the form of a multitude of wooden domes
with crosses rising conically upward (for ex-
ample, the famous temple at the Kizhi church-
Figure 34. Ascension Church (1530-1533)
yard). Such temples are called tent-roofed. in the village of Kolomenskoye
 A feature of churches and temples of this
architectural style is that they have large at-
tached premises to increase the internal vol-
ume of a temple or church: it is technically dif-
ficult to build a large octagon in terms of area,
therefore, the octagon is surrounded by either
numerous side-altars or smaller churches.
This style is called multipart. At the same time,
the monument of hipped-roof architecture
and multipart architecture is the Intercession
Cathedral “what’s on the moat”, later the Ca-
thedral of St. Basil the Blessed.

Figure 36. St.Ba-

sil’s side-altar.
Moscow

the earth; a gothic cathedral expresses an ir-

repressible striving upward, then the Russian
“onion”, according to E.N. Trubetskoy embod-
ies the idea of ​​“prayer burning and striving
for heaven.” Russian churches end with a fiery
tongue, crowned with a cross and sharpening
to the cross. Thus, the Ivan the Great bell tow-
er in the Moscow Kremlin resembles a giant
candle burning over the capital, and the ma-
ny-domed Kremlin cathedrals and churches
are huge candlesticks.
Figure 35. St. Basil’s Cathedral. Moscow

The Cathedral of St. Basil the Blessed or the

Cathedral of the Intercession was erected in
1555-1560 (1561 is a controversial date) on
Red Square in Moscow by the architects Bar-
ma and Postnik (according to some assump-
tions this is the same person) as a memorial
temple in honour of the conquest of Kazan by
Ivan IV and to glory the soldiers who fell in
this battle.
Near the walls of this temple, the Moscow
holy fool Basil the Blessed, popular at that
time among the people, was buried. A side-al- Figure 37. Ivan the Great Moscow Kremlin Bell Tower
tar was built over his coffin in the north-east-
ern corner of the temple in 1588, after which
the cathedral received its second name. Although the earliest stone churches in
The Russian religious idea is also person- Russia had domes of the Byzantine (sailing)
ified by the special architectural form of the style, later they were almost completely re-
onion dome. The shape of the bulb is specific placed by onion domes. Such domes have a
to the cross-domed structures of Old Russian larger diameter than the base, are mounted
architecture. If the Byzantine dome over the on a drum, and their height is usually great-
temple depicts the vault of heaven, covering er than the width. Like tents, domes were
originally used only in wooden churches of the overwhelming magnitude of the Ro-
and came to be used in stone architecture manesque style.
much later. The architecture of Ancient Russia is the
The church with several onion domes is a largest contribution to the treasury of Russian
typical form of Russian church architecture, and world art. It played an important role in
which distinguishes it from the architecture of the subsequent construction and development
other Orthodox peoples and Christian denom- of the Russian style of architecture.
inations. The number of domes usually has a
symbolic meaning in Russian architecture,
for example, 13 domes symbolize Christ with
12 apostles, and 25 domes also symbolize 12
prophets of the Old Testament. Compared to
Byzantine (sailing) domes, the domes of Rus-
sian churches are usually smaller and often
gilded or brightly coloured.

Figure 38. Church of the Transfiguration of the Lord

in the Ust-Medveditsky nunnery in Serafimovich. 33 domes
(the number of earthly years of Christ)

Already at the earliest stage, the church

architecture of Ancient Russia had a peculiar
character and its own path of development.
By the 13th century, only the constructive sys-
tem of the cross-domed church was preserved
from the Kiev-Byzantine heritage. The festive
and joyful sound of architecture is a deeply
Russian phenomenon.
As a result of changes in artistic tastes
under the influence of folk ideals of beauty,
love for the beauty of nature, monuments
appeared in many respects opposite not
only the Byzantine, but also the Romanesque
style. Even the largest buildings, like the
Vladimir Assumption Cathedral, are devoid Figure 39. A selection of Russian Orthodox churches
Figure 40. Vladimir Assumption Cathedral

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