Anatomy and Physiology

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
HUMAN CELLS STRUCTURE AND FUCTION
Cell Structure and Function.

1. All living things are composed of cells.
2. All cells arise from preexisting cells through cell division.
3. Cells contain hereditary material, which they pass to daughter cells during cell division.
4. The chemical composition of all cells is quite similar.
: Cell Structure and Function
1.
 Define a cell, identify the main common components of human cells, and differentiate between intracellular fluid and
extracellular fluid
 Describe the structure and functions of the plasma (cell) membrane
 Describe the nucleus and its function
 Identify the structure and function of cytoplasmic organelles
A cell is the smallest living thing in the human organism, and all living structures in the human body are made of cells. There are
hundreds of different types of cells in the human body, which vary in shape (e.g. round, flat, long and thin, short and thick) and
size (e.g. small granule cells of the cerebellum in the brain (4 micrometers), up to the huge oocytes (eggs) produced in the female
reproductive organs (100 micrometers) and function. However, all cells have three main parts, the plasma membrane,
the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The plasma membrane (often called the cell membrane) is a thin flexible barrier that separates
the inside of the cell from the environment outside the cell and regulates what can pass in and out of the cell. Internally, the cell is
divided into the cytoplasm and the nucleus. The cytoplasm (cyto- = cell; -plasm = “something molded”) is where most functions
of the cell are carried out. It looks a bit-like mixed fruit jelly, where the watery jelly is called the cytosol; and the different fruits
in it are called organelles. The cytosol also contains many molecules and ions involved in cell functions. Different organelles
also perform different cell functions and many are also separated from the cytosol by membranes. The largest organelle,
the nucleus is separated from the cytoplasm by a nuclear envelope (membrane). It contains the DNA (genes) that code for
proteins necessary for the cell to function.
Generally speaking, the inside environment of a cell is called the intracellular fluid (ICF), (intra- = within; referred to all fluid
contained in cytosol, organelles and nucleus) while the environment outside a cell is called the extracellular fluid (ECF) (extra-
= outside of; referred to all fluid outside cells). Plasma, the fluid part of blood, is the only ECF compartment that links all cells in
the body
Study Questions Write your answer in a sentence form (do not answer using loose words)
1. What is a cell?
2. What is a plasma membrane?
3. What is a cytoplasm?
4. What is the intracellular fluid (ICF)?
5. What is the extracellular fluid (ECF)?
The plasma (cell) membrane separates the inner environment of a cell from the extracellular fluid. It is composed of a
fluid phospholipid bilayer (two layers of phospholipids) as shown in figure 4.1.24.1.2 below, and other molecules. Not many
substances can cross the phospholipid bilayer, so it serves to separate the inside of the cell from the extracellular fluid. Other
molecules found in the membrane include cholesterol, proteins, glycolipids and glycoproteins, some of which are shown in
figure 4.1.34.1.3 below. Cholesterol, a type of lipid, makes the membrane a little stronger. Different proteins found either
crossing the bilayer (integral proteins) or on its surface (peripheral proteins) have many important functions. Channel and
transporter (carrier) proteins regulate the movement of specific molecules and ions in and out of cells. Receptor proteins in the
membrane initiate changes in cell activity by binding and responding to chemical signals, such as hormones (like a lock and key).
Other proteins include those that act as structural anchors to bind neighboring cells and enzymes. Glycoproteins and glycolipids
in the membrane act as identification markers or labels on the extracellular surface of the membrane. Thus, the plasma membrane
has many functions and works as both a gateway and a selective barrier.
Figure 4.1.24.1.2 Phospholipids form the basic structure of a cell membrane. Hydrophobic tails of phospholipids are facing the
core of the membrane, avoiding contact with the inner and outer watery environment. Hydrophilic heads are facing the surface of
the membrane in contact with intracellular fluid and extracellular fluid.
Small area of the plasma membrane showing lipids (phospholipids and cholesterol), different proteins, glycolipids and
glycoproteins.
1. What is the function of the cell membrane?

2. Which are the three types of biomolecules that form the cell membrane?
Almost all human cells contain a nucleus where DNA, the genetic material that ultimately controls all cell processes, is found.
The nucleus is the largest cellular organelle, and the only one visible using a light microscope. Much like the cytoplasm of a cell
is enclosed by a plasma membrane, the nucleus is surrounded by a nuclear envelope that separates the contents of the nucleus
from the contents of the cytoplasm. Nuclear pores in the envelope are small holes that control which ions and molecules (for
example, proteins and RNA) can move in and out the nucleus. In addition to DNA, the nucleus contains many nuclear proteins.
Together DNA and these proteins are called chromatin. A region inside the nucleus called the nucleolus is related to the
production of RNA molecules needed to transmit and express the information coded in DNA.
Nucleus of a human cell. Find DNA, nuclear envelope, nucleolus, and nuclear pores. The figure also shows how the outer layer
of the nuclear envelope continues as rough endoplasmic reticulum, which will be discussed in the next learning objective.
Concepts, terms, and facts check
1. What is the nuclear envelope?

2. What is a nuclear pore?
3. What is the function of the nucleus?
An organelle is any structure inside a cell that carries out a metabolic function. The cytoplasm contains many different
organelles, each with a specialized function. (The nucleus discussed above is the largest cellular organelle but is not considered
part of the cytoplasm). Many organelles are cellular compartments separated from the cytosol by one or more membranes very
similar in structure to the cell membrane, while others such as centrioles and free ribosomes do not have a membrane. and
functions of different organelles such as mitochondria (which are specialized to produce cellular energy in the form of ATP) and
ribosomes (which synthesize the proteins necessary for the cell to function). Membranes of the rough and smooth endoplasmic
reticulum form a network of interconnected tubes inside of cells that are continuous with the nuclear envelope. These organelles
are also connected to the Golgi apparatus and the plasma membrane by means of vesicles. Different cells contain different
amounts of different organelles depending on their function. For example, muscle cells contain many mitochondria while cells in
the pancreas that make digestive enzymes contain many ribosomes and secretory vesicles.
of a cell containing the primary organelles and internal structures. Table 4.1.14.1.1 below describes the functions of
mitochondrion, rough and smooth endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, secretory vesicles, peroxisomes, lysosomes,
microtubules and microfilaments (fibers of the cytoskeleton)
Table 4.1.14.1.1 Cellular Structures and their functions. Nucleus and plasma membranes were described in the previous learning object
structures
Organelles Functions Structure
Important in ATP
Mitochondria (cellular energy)
production
Participates in
protein synthesis
Rough Endoplasmic
(ribosomes in its
Reticulum (RER)
membrane
synthesize proteins)
Synthesizes lipids,
Smooth Endoplasmic
and stores calcium
Reticulum (SER)
in muscle cells
structures
Ribosomes
(shown here synthesizing a

protein) Synthesize proteins
Found attached to RER and free

in the cytosol
structures
Participates in
protein modification
Golgi apparatus (also known
and packaging into
as the Golgi complex)
small membrane-
bound vesicles
structures
Move substances
Transport between
Vesicles compartments
inside cells
Join with cell

membrane to
Secretory
release contents,
Vesicles
such as mucus to
ECF
Vesicles are
small round
membrane-
enclosed Contain enzymes
structures that catabolize
Peroxisomes (break down) fatty
acids and some
chemical toxins
Contain digestive
Lysosomes
enzymes
structures
Fibers of the Cytoskeleton
(a) microtubule made of tubulin,

Provide and internal
(b) microfilament made of actin, cellular scaffolding
and
(c) intermediate fibers made of

keratins
structures
Centrioles
Organize DNA
movement during
(found in an area in the cell cell division
called centrosome)
ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

The Functions of the Skeletal
The skeletal system is the body system composed of bones, cartilages, ligaments and other tissues that perform essential
functions for the human body. Bone tissue, or osseous tissue, is a hard, dense connective tissue that forms most of the adult
skeleton, the internal support structure of the body. In the areas of the skeleton where whole bones move against each other (for
example, joints like the shoulder or between the bones of the spine), cartilages, a semi-rigid form of connective tissue, provide
flexibility and smooth surfaces for movement. Additionally, ligaments composed of dense connective tissue surround these
joints, tying skeletal elements together (a ligament is the dense connective tissue that connect bones to other bones). Together,
they perform the following functions:
Functions of the skeletal
system.
Support, Movement, and Protection
Some functions of the skeletal system are more readily observable than others. When you move you can feel how your bones
support you, facilitate your movement, and protect the soft organs of your body. Just as the steel beams of a building provide a
scaffold to support its weight, the bones and cartilages of your skeletal system compose the scaffold that supports the rest of your
body. Without the skeletal system, you would be a limp mass of organs, muscle, and skin. Bones facilitate movement by serving
as points of attachment for your muscles. Bones also protect internal organs from injury by covering or surrounding them. For
example, your ribs protect your lungs and heart, the bones of your vertebral column (spine) protect your spinal cord, and the
bones of your cranium (skull) protect your brain).
Mineral and Fat Storage, Blood Cell Formation

On a metabolic level, bone tissue performs several critical functions. For one, the bone tissue acts as a reservoir for a number of
minerals important to the functioning of the body, especially calcium, and phosphorus. These minerals, incorporated into bone
tissue, can be released back into the bloodstream to maintain levels needed to support physiological processes. Calcium ions, for
example, are essential for muscle contractions and are involved in the transmission of nerve impulses.
Bones also serve as a site for fat storage and blood cell production. The unique connective tissue that fills the interior of most
bones is referred to as bone marrow. There are two types of bone marrow: yellow bone marrow and red bone marrow. Yellow
bone marrow contains adipose tissue, and the triglycerides stored in the adipocytes of this tissue can be released to serve as a
source of energy for other tissues of the body. Red bone marrow is where the production of blood cells (named hematopoiesis,
hemato- = “blood”, -poiesis = “to make”) takes place. Red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets are all produced in the red
bone marrow.
– Bon
e Marrow: Bones contain variable amounts of yellow and/or red bone marrow. Yellow bone marrow stores fat and red bone
marrow is responsible for producing blood cells (hematopoiesis).
Human Nervous System

Living organisms adapt to their moves and positions in response to the environmental changes for their protection or
to their advantage. When an entity reacts to the changes in its surroundings, it is referred to as stimulus while the
reaction to the stimulus is referred to as a response. Common stimuli are sound, light, air, heat, smell, taste, water
and gravity.
Think of burning your finger of fracturing your bone without any pain sensation. It may certainly sound like a
superpower or an ideal situation, however, when it comes to the standpoint of survival, it can be disastrous.
It is a characteristic behaviour of living entities to respond to stimuli with the intervention of the Nervous System. It is
an organ system ascribed to send signals from the spinal cord and the brain throughout the body and then back from
all the body parts to the brain. Neuron acts as the mediator and is the basic signalling unit of the Nervous system.
Pain is the body’s way of letting us know that something is not right. It can prevent further injuries or push us to seek
medical attention. Moreover, all of this is possible because humans can respond and react to stimuli due to control
and coordination among the various organs and organ systems.
Control and Coordination in simple multicellular organisms take place through only the Nervous system which
coordinates activities of our body. It is the control system for all our actions, thinking, and behaviour.
Refer more: Control and Coordination
Let us have a detailed look at the nervous system notes to explore what is the nervous system, and the different
functions of the nervous system.
What is the Nervous System?
The nervous system or the neural system is a complex network of neurons specialized to carry messages. The
complexity of the nervous system increases as we move towards higher animals.
For instance, cnidarians such as jellyfish have relatively simple nerve nets spread throughout their body. Crabs have
a more complicated nervous system in the form of 2 nerve centers called dorsal ganglion and ventral ganglion.
As we move further up the ladder, higher organisms such as vertebrates have a developed brain. Moreover, it is one
of the most complicated structures in the animal kingdom, containing billions of neurons, all intricately connected.
In the human body, the neural system integrates the activities of organs based on the stimuli, which the neurons
detect and transmit. They transmit messages in the form of electrical impulses and convey messages to and from the
sense organs. Thus, the nervous coordination involves the participation of the sense organs, nerves, spinal cord, and
brain.
Diagram of the Human Nervous System
One of the most complex organ system to ever evolve, the human nervous system consists of two parts, namely:
1. Central Nervous System (consists of the brain and spinal cord)

2. Peripheral Nervous System (includes all the nerves of the body)
Central Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS) is often called the central processing unit of the body. It consists of the brain and
the spinal cord.
Brain
The brain is one of the important, largest and central organ of the human nervous system. It is the control unit of the
nervous system, which helps us in discovering new things, remembering and understanding, making decisions, and a
lot more. It is enclosed within the skull, which provides frontal, lateral and dorsal protection. The human brain is
composed of three major parts:
1. Forebrain: The anterior part of the brain, consists of Cerebrum, Hypothalamus and Thalamus.
2. Midbrain: The smaller and central part of the brainstem, consists of Tectum and Tegmentum.
3. Hindbrain: The central region of the brain, composed of Cerebellum, Medulla and Pons.
Also read: Human Brain
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a cylindrical bundle of nerve fibers and associated tissues enclosed within the spine and connect
all parts of the body to the brain. It begins in continuation with the medulla and extends downwards. It is enclosed in a
bony cage called vertebral column and surrounded by membranes called meninges. The spinal cord is concerned
with spinal reflex actions and the conduction of nerve impulses to and from the brain.
Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is the lateral part of the nervous system that develops from the central nervous
system which connects different parts of the body with the CNS. We carry out both voluntary and involuntary actions
with the help of peripheral nerves.
Also refer: Peripheral Nervous System
PNS includes two types of nerve fibers:
1. Afferent nerve fibers – These are responsible for transmitting messages from tissues and organs to the
CNS.
2. Efferent nerve-fibers – These are responsible for conveying messages from CNS to the corresponding
peripheral organ.
Classification of the peripheral nervous system:

Somatic neural system (SNS): It is the neural system that controls the voluntary actions in the body by transmitting
impulses from CNS to skeletal muscle cells. It consists of the somatic nerves.
Autonomic neural system (ANS): The autonomic neural system is involved in involuntary actions like regulation of
physiological functions (digestion, respiration, salivation, etc.). It is a self-regulating system which conveys the
impulses from the CNS to the smooth muscles and involuntary organs (heart, bladder and pupil). The autonomic
neural system can be further divided into:
1. Sympathetic nervous system

2. Parasympathetic nervous system
Neuron
A Neuron is a structured and functional unit of the nervous system and unlike other cells, neurons are irregular in
shape and able to conduct electrochemical signals. The different parts of a neuron are discussed below.
 Dendrite stretches out from the cell body of a neuron, and it is the shortest fibre in the cell body.
 Axon is the longest thread on the cell body of a neuron and has an insulating and protective sheath of
myelin around it.
 Cell body consists of cytoplasm and nucleus.
 Synapse is the microscopic gap between a pair of adjacent neurons over which nerve impulses pass, when
moving from one neuron to the other.
Explore more: Placebo Effect
Nerves
Nerves are thread-like structures that emerge from the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for carrying messages
to all the parts of the body. There are three types of nerves. Some of these neurons can fire signals at speeds of over
119 m/s or above 428 km/h.
1. Sensory nerves send messages from all the senses to the brain.
2. Motor nerves carry messages from the brain to all the muscles.
3. Mixed nerves carry both sensory and motor nerves.
Also read: Nerves
Cranial nerves begin from the brain as these nerves carry impulses to start from the central nervous system. Certain
cranial nerves belong to the group of mixed nerves while certain ones fall under sensory nerves. Spinal nerves
originate from the spinal cord. All the spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the central nervous system and these
are part of mixed nerves.
Human Nervous System
Living organisms adapt to their moves and positions in response to the environmental changes for their protection or
to their advantage. When an entity reacts to the changes in its surroundings, it is referred to as stimulus while the
reaction to the stimulus is referred to as a response. Common stimuli are sound, light, air, heat, smell, taste, water
and gravity.
Think of burning your finger of fracturing your bone without any pain sensation. It may certainly sound like a
superpower or an ideal situation, however, when it comes to the standpoint of survival, it can be disastrous.
It is a characteristic behaviour of living entities to respond to stimuli with the intervention of the Nervous System. It is
an organ system ascribed to send signals from the spinal cord and the brain throughout the body and then back from
all the body parts to the brain. Neuron acts as the mediator and is the basic signalling unit of the Nervous system.
Pain is the body’s way of letting us know that something is not right. It can prevent further injuries or push us to seek
medical attention. Moreover, all of this is possible because humans can respond and react to stimuli due to control
and coordination among the various organs and organ systems.
Control and Coordination in simple multicellular organisms take place through only the Nervous system which
coordinates activities of our body. It is the control system for all our actions, thinking, and behaviour.
Refer more: Control and Coordination
Let us have a detailed look at the nervous system notes to explore what is the nervous system, and the different
functions of the nervous system.
What is the Nervous System?
The nervous system or the neural system is a complex network of neurons specialized to carry messages. The
complexity of the nervous system increases as we move towards higher animals.
For instance, cnidarians such as jellyfish have relatively simple nerve nets spread throughout their body. Crabs have
a more complicated nervous system in the form of 2 nerve centers called dorsal ganglion and ventral ganglion.
As we move further up the ladder, higher organisms such as vertebrates have a developed brain. Moreover, it is one
of the most complicated structures in the animal kingdom, containing billions of neurons, all intricately connected.
In the human body, the neural system integrates the activities of organs based on the stimuli, which the neurons
detect and transmit. They transmit messages in the form of electrical impulses and convey messages to and from the
sense organs. Thus, the nervous coordination involves the participation of the sense organs, nerves, spinal cord, and
brain.
Diagram of the Human Nervous System
One of the most complex organ system to ever evolve, the human nervous system consists of two parts, namely:
1. Central Nervous System (consists of the brain and spinal cord)

2. Peripheral Nervous System (includes all the nerves of the body)
Central Nervous System
Central Nervous System (CNS) is often called the central processing unit of the body. It consists of the brain and
the spinal cord.
Brain
The brain is one of the important, largest and central organ of the human nervous system. It is the control unit of the
nervous system, which helps us in discovering new things, remembering and understanding, making decisions, and a
lot more. It is enclosed within the skull, which provides frontal, lateral and dorsal protection. The human brain is
composed of three major parts:
1. Forebrain: The anterior part of the brain, consists of Cerebrum, Hypothalamus and Thalamus.
2. Midbrain: The smaller and central part of the brainstem, consists of Tectum and Tegmentum.
3. Hindbrain: The central region of the brain, composed of Cerebellum, Medulla and Pons.
Also read: Human Brain
Spinal Cord
The spinal cord is a cylindrical bundle of nerve fibers and associated tissues enclosed within the spine and connect
all parts of the body to the brain. It begins in continuation with the medulla and extends downwards. It is enclosed in a
bony cage called vertebral column and surrounded by membranes called meninges. The spinal cord is concerned
with spinal reflex actions and the conduction of nerve impulses to and from the brain.
Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) is the lateral part of the nervous system that develops from the central nervous
system which connects different parts of the body with the CNS. We carry out both voluntary and involuntary actions
with the help of peripheral nerves.
Also refer: Peripheral Nervous System
PNS includes two types of nerve fibers:
1. Afferent nerve fibers – These are responsible for transmitting messages from tissues and organs to the
CNS.
2. Efferent nerve-fibers – These are responsible for conveying messages from CNS to the corresponding
peripheral organ.
Classification of the peripheral nervous system:

Somatic neural system (SNS): It is the neural system that controls the voluntary actions in the body by transmitting
impulses from CNS to skeletal muscle cells. It consists of the somatic nerves.
Autonomic neural system (ANS): The autonomic neural system is involved in involuntary actions like regulation of
physiological functions (digestion, respiration, salivation, etc.). It is a self-regulating system which conveys the
impulses from the CNS to the smooth muscles and involuntary organs (heart, bladder and pupil). The autonomic
neural system can be further divided into:
1. Sympathetic nervous system

2. Parasympathetic nervous system
Neuron
A Neuron is a structured and functional unit of the nervous system and unlike other cells, neurons are irregular in
shape and able to conduct electrochemical signals. The different parts of a neuron are discussed below.
 Dendrite stretches out from the cell body of a neuron, and it is the shortest fibre in the cell body.
 Axon is the longest thread on the cell body of a neuron and has an insulating and protective sheath of
myelin around it.
 Cell body consists of cytoplasm and nucleus.
 Synapse is the microscopic gap between a pair of adjacent neurons over which nerve impulses pass, when
moving from one neuron to the other.
Nerves
Nerves are thread-like structures that emerge from the brain and spinal cord. It is responsible for carrying messages
to all the parts of the body. There are three types of nerves. Some of these neurons can fire signals at speeds of over
119 m/s or above 428 km/h.
1. Sensory nerves send messages from all the senses to the brain.
2. Motor nerves carry messages from the brain to all the muscles.
3. Mixed nerves carry both sensory and motor nerves.
Brain Anatomy and How the Brain Works
Facebook Twitter
What is the brain?
The brain is a complex organ that controls thought, memory, emotion, touch, motor skills, vision, breathing,
temperature, hunger and every process that regulates our body. Together, the brain and spinal cord that extends
from it make up the central nervous system, or CNS.
What is the brain made of?
Weighing about 3 pounds in the average adult, the brain is about 60% fat. The remaining 40% is a combination of
water, protein, carbohydrates and salts. The brain itself is a not a muscle. It contains blood vessels and nerves,
including neurons and glial cells.
What is the gray matter and white matter?
Gray and white matter are two different regions of the central nervous system. In the brain, gray matter refers to the
darker, outer portion, while white matter describes the lighter, inner section underneath. In the spinal cord, this order
is reversed: The white matter is on the outside, and the gray matter sits within.
Gray matter is primarily composed of neuron somas (the round central cell bodies), and white matter is mostly made
of axons (the long stems that connects neurons together) wrapped in myelin (a protective coating). The different
composition of neuron parts is why the two appear as separate shades on certain scans.
Each region serves a different role. Gray matter is primarily responsible for processing and interpreting information,
while white matter transmits that information to other parts of the nervous system.
How does the brain work?
The brain sends and receives chemical and electrical signals throughout the body. Different signals control different
processes, and your brain interprets each. Some make you feel tired, for example, while others make you feel pain.
Some messages are kept within the brain, while others are relayed through the spine and across the body’s vast
network of nerves to distant extremities. To do this, the central nervous system relies on billions of neurons (nerve
cells).
Main Parts of the Brain and Their Functions
At a high level, the brain can be divided into the cerebrum, brainstem and cerebellum.
Cerebrum
The cerebrum (front of brain) comprises gray matter (the cerebral cortex) and white matter at its center. The largest
part of the brain, the cerebrum initiates and coordinates movement and regulates temperature. Other areas of the
cerebrum enable speech, judgment, thinking and reasoning, problem-solving, emotions and learning. Other functions
relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.
Cerebral Cortex
Cortex is Latin for “bark,” and describes the outer gray matter covering of the cerebrum. The cortex has a large
surface area due to its folds, and comprises about half of the brain’s weight.
The cerebral cortex is divided into two halves, or hemispheres. It is covered with ridges (gyri) and folds (sulci). The
two halves join at a large, deep sulcus (the interhemispheric fissure, AKA the medial longitudinal fissure) that runs
from the front of the head to the back. The right hemisphere controls the left side of the body, and the left half controls
the right side of the body. The two halves communicate with one another through a large, C-shaped structure of white
matter and nerve pathways called the corpus callosum. The corpus callosum is in the center of the cerebrum.
Brainstem
The brainstem (middle of brain) connects the cerebrum with the spinal cord. The brainstem includes the midbrain, the
pons and the medulla.
 Midbrain. The midbrain (or mesencephalon) is a very complex structure with a range of different neuron clusters
(nuclei and colliculi), neural pathways and other structures. These features facilitate various functions, from hearing
and movement to calculating responses and environmental changes. The midbrain also contains the substantia nigra,
an area affected by Parkinson’s disease that is rich in dopamine neurons and part of the basal ganglia, which enables
movement and coordination.
 Pons. The pons is the origin for four of the 12 cranial nerves, which enable a range of activities such as tear
production, chewing, blinking, focusing vision, balance, hearing and facial expression. Named for the Latin word for
“bridge,” the pons is the connection between the midbrain and the medulla.
 Medulla. At the bottom of the brainstem, the medulla is where the brain meets the spinal cord. The medulla is
essential to survival. Functions of the medulla regulate many bodily activities, including heart rhythm, breathing,
blood flow, and oxygen and carbon dioxide levels. The medulla produces reflexive activities such as sneezing,
vomiting, coughing and swallowing.
The spinal cord extends from the bottom of the medulla and through a large opening in the bottom of the skull.
Supported by the vertebrae, the spinal cord carries messages to and from the brain and the rest of the body.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum (“little brain”) is a fist-sized portion of the brain located at the back of the head, below the temporal
and occipital lobes and above the brainstem. Like the cerebral cortex, it has two hemispheres. The outer portion
contains neurons, and the inner area communicates with the cerebral cortex. Its function is to coordinate voluntary
muscle movements and to maintain posture, balance and equilibrium. New studies are exploring the cerebellum’s
roles in thought, emotions and social behavior, as well as its possible involvement in addiction, autism and
schizophrenia.
Brain Coverings: Meninges
Three layers of protective covering called meninges surround the brain and the spinal cord.
 The outermost layer, the dura mater, is thick and tough. It includes two layers: The periosteal layer of the dura mater
lines the inner dome of the skull (cranium) and the meningeal layer is below that. Spaces between the layers allow for
the passage of veins and arteries that supply blood flow to the brain.
 The arachnoid mater is a thin, web like layer of connective tissue that does not contain nerves or blood vessels. Below
the arachnoid mater is the cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF. This fluid cushions the entire central nervous system (brain and
spinal cord) and continually circulates around these structures to remove impurities.
 The pia mater is a thin membrane that hugs the surface of the brain and follows its contours. The pia mater is rich
with veins and arteries.
Lobes of the Brain and What They Control
Each brain hemisphere (parts of the cerebrum) has four sections, called lobes: frontal, parietal, temporal and
occipital. Each lobe controls specific functions.

 Frontal lobe. The largest lobe of the brain, located in the front of the head, the frontal lobe is involved in personality
characteristics, decision-making and movement. Recognition of smell usually involves parts of the frontal lobe. The
frontal lobe contains Broca’s area, which is associated with speech ability.
 Parietal lobe. The middle part of the brain, the parietal lobe helps a person identify objects and understand spatial
relationships (where one’s body is compared with objects around the person). The parietal lobe is also involved in
interpreting pain and touch in the body. The parietal lobe houses Wernicke’s area, which helps the brain understand
spoken language.
 Occipital lobe. The occipital lobe is the back part of the brain that is involved with vision.
 Temporal lobe. The sides of the brain, temporal lobes are involved in short-term memory, speech, musical rhythm
and some degree of smell recognition.
Deeper Structures Within the Brain
Pituitary Gland
Sometimes called the “master gland,” the pituitary gland is a pea-sized structure found deep in the brain behind the
bridge of the nose. The pituitary gland governs the function of other glands in the body, regulating the flow of
hormones from the thyroid, adrenals, ovaries and testicles. It receives chemical signals from the hypothalamus
through its stalk and blood supply.
Hypothalamus
The hypothalamus is located above the pituitary gland and sends it chemical messages that control its function. It
regulates body temperature, synchronizes sleep patterns, controls hunger and thirst and also plays a role in some
aspects of memory and emotion.
Amygdala
Small, almond-shaped structures, an amygdala is located under each half (hemisphere) of the brain. Included in the
limbic system, the amygdalae regulate emotion and memory and are associated with the brain’s reward system,
stress, and the “fight or flight” response when someone perceives a threat.
Hippocampus
A curved seahorse-shaped organ on the underside of each temporal lobe, the hippocampus is part of a larger
structure called the hippocampal formation. It supports memory, learning, navigation and perception of space. It
receives information from the cerebral cortex and may play a role in Alzheimer’s disease.
Pineal Gland
The pineal gland is located deep in the brain and attached by a stalk to the top of the third ventricle. The pineal gland
responds to light and dark and secretes melatonin, which regulates circadian rhythms and the sleep-wake cycle.
Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid
Deep in the brain are four open areas with passageways between them. They also open into the central spinal canal
and the area beneath arachnoid layer of the meninges.
The ventricles manufacture cerebrospinal fluid, or CSF, a watery fluid that circulates in and around the ventricles
and the spinal cord, and between the meninges. CSF surrounds and cushions the spinal cord and brain, washes out
waste and impurities, and delivers nutrients.

Blood Supply to the Brain
Two sets of blood vessels supply blood and oxygen to the brain: the vertebral arteries and the carotid arteries.
The external carotid arteries extend up the sides of your neck, and are where you can feel your pulse when you touch
the area with your fingertips. The internal carotid arteries branch into the skull and circulate blood to the front part of
the brain.
The vertebral arteries follow the spinal column into the skull, where they join together at the brainstem and form
the basilar artery, which supplies blood to the rear portions of the brain.
The circle of Willis, a loop of blood vessels near the bottom of the brain that connects major arteries, circulates
blood from the front of the brain to the back and helps the arterial systems communicate with one another.
Cranial Nerves
Inside the cranium (the dome of the skull), there are 12 nerves, called cranial nerves:
 Cranial nerve 1: The first is the olfactory nerve, which allows for your sense of smell.
 Cranial nerve 2: The optic nerve governs eyesight.
 Cranial nerve 3: The oculomotor nerve controls pupil response and other motions of the eye, and branches out from
the area in the brainstem where the midbrain meets the pons.
 Cranial nerve 4: The trochlear nerve controls muscles in the eye. It emerges from the back of the midbrain part of the
brainstem.
 Cranial nerve 5: The trigeminal nerve is the largest and most complex of the cranial nerves, with both sensory and
motor function. It originates from the pons and conveys sensation from the scalp, teeth, jaw, sinuses, parts of the
mouth and face to the brain, allows the function of chewing muscles, and much more.
 Cranial nerve 6: The abduces nerve innervates some of the muscles in the eye.
 Cranial nerve 7: The facial nerve supports face movement, taste, glandular and other functions.
 Cranial nerve 8: The vestibulocochlear nerve facilitates balance and hearing.
 Cranial nerve 9: The glossopharyngeal nerve allows taste, ear and throat movement, and has many more functions.
 Cranial nerve 10: The vagus nerve allows sensation around the ear and the digestive system and controls motor
activity in the heart, throat and digestive system.

 Cranial nerve 11: The accessory nerve innervates specific muscles in the head, neck and shoulder.
 Cranial nerve 12: The hypoglossal nerve supplies motor activity to the tongue.
The first two nerves originate in the cerebrum, and the remaining 10 cranial nerves emerge from the brainstem, which
has three parts: the midbrain, the pons and the medulla.
MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Reproduction can be defined as the biological process of producing a new individual or an offspring identical to the
parents. This process ensures the increase in the number of individuals of a species when conditions are favourable.
It is one of the fundamental characteristics of living things and an essential life process.
There are two types of reproduction – asexual and sexual.
Sexual Reproduction –This process of reproduction is very complex that involves the formation and transfer of
gametes, followed by fertilization, the formation of the zygote, and embryogenesis.
Asexual Reproduction — This process of reproduction involves only one parent and the new offspring produced is
genetically similar to the parent.
Also read: Asexual Reproduction
Reproduction in Human Beings
All human beings undergo a sexual mode of reproduction. In this process, two parents are involved in producing a
new individual. Offspring are produced by the fusion of gametes (sex cells) from each parent. Hence, the newly
formed individual will be different from parents, both genetically and physically. Human reproduction is an example of
sexual reproduction.
In human beings, both males and females have different reproductive systems; hence, they are known to exhibit
sexual dimorphism. Males have testes- also called testicles, while the females have a pair of ovaries.
Human Reproductive System
The reproduction in human beings involves the fusion of male and female gametes produced in their reproductive
system. The male reproductive system is different from the female reproductive system, both in structure and in
function.
Male Reproductive System
The male gametes, i.e., sperms are produced within the male reproductive system. Sperms are small unicellular
structures with a head, middle piece, and a tail.
The male reproductive system consists of :
 Testicles (testes): A pair of oval-shaped organs masked in a pouch called the scrotum. They are
responsible for the production of sperms and the male hormone testosterone.
 Scrotum: It is a sac-like organ that hangs below the penis and behind it. It is the houses of the testicles, or
testes, and maintains a temperature that is required for the production of sperm by it.
 Vas deferens: The sperms produced in testes are stored in a tube called the epididymis. Here the sperms
get matured and pass to urethra through the muscular tube called vas deferens.
 Accessory glands: This includes three glands, namely seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and Cowper’s
gland. The secretions from the three glands mix to form a fluid called semen. Semen nourishes the sperm,
increases the volume and helps in lubrication.
 Penis: Penis is a cylindrical tube which serves as both reproductive organ and an excretory organ. It
delivers sperms into the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Female Reproductive System
The female reproductive system is active before, during and after fertilization as well. It consists of the following parts:
 A pair of ovaries: Ovaries produce and store ovum in them. They also produce a female hormone called
estrogen.
 Fallopian tubes (Oviducts): They are the site of fertilization. They connect ovaries with the uterus.
 Uterus: Uterus is the site of development for the embryo.
 Vagina: It is the part which connects the cervix to the external female body parts. It is the route for the penis
during coitus as well as a fetus during delivery.
Female reproductive system has two functions –
1. Production of female gamete called ovum/egg.

2. Providing nutrition and protecting the developing embryo.
During puberty, eggs in the ovaries start to mature. One of the ovaries releases the matured ovum in every 28 to 30
days and is called ovulation.
Reproduction Process in Human Beings
The process of fusion of sperm with egg (ovum) to produce zygote is called fertilization. Fertilization is a crucial stage
of reproduction in human beings. The fertilized egg is called the zygote. Zygote starts to divide into many cells and
develops into an embryo.
Embryo moves into the uterus and gets attached to its walls. This process is referred to as implantation, and the
implanted embryo eventually develops into a fetus.
Learn more about reproduction in human beings, its types, process, significance and other related topics at BYJU’S
Biology
What is Reproduction?
Reproduction is a fundamental biological process of producing young ones or offspring, which are identical to their
parents.
What is Fertilization?
Fertilization is the fusion of male and haploid female gametes (egg and sperm) resulting in the formation of a diploid
zygote.
What is Cell Differentiation?
Cell Differentiation is the process through which a young and immature cell develops into a specialized and matured
cell.
Explain the process of reproduction in human beings?
The process of reproduction in humans usually begins with copulation, followed by the Pre-fertilization, Fertilization,
and Post-fertilization. During this fundamental process, both male and female reproductive organs play an important
role.
Explain the term trimester system?
In Biology, the trimester system mainly refers to three months. A complete pregnancy period lasts for 38-40 weeks or
9 months from the first day of your last menstrual period to the birth of the baby. This period is divided into three
stages, which are collectively called trimesters.
1. First trimester (1st 3-months).

2. Second trimester (2nd 3 months).
3. Third trimester (3rd 3 months).
What is Parturition?
Parturition is the process of delivering the baby after the completion of pregnancy or a fully grown developed fetus
and placenta from the uterus to the vagina to the outside world. This process occurs in three stages, which includes:
1. Stage 1: Preparatory Stage- 2 to 12 hours.

2. Stage 2: Birthing Process –30 to 180 minutes.
3. Stage 3: Placenta Expulsion –1 to 12 hours.
How do humans reproduce their young ones?
Humans reproduce their young ones sexually by the interaction between the male and female reproductive organs.
List out the stages of Sexual Reproduction?
Sexual Reproduction is carried out by a set of events and are divided into three stages: Pre-fertilization, Fertilization,
and Post-fertilization
What is the significance of human reproduction?
Reproduction is a fundamental biological process carried out by different living organisms to produce their young
ones or offspring. In human, reproduction plays a significant role in the continuity of species from one generation to
another generation. Without reproduction, there would no life existing on the planet earth.
Difference between sexual and asexual mode of reproduction?
Both sexual and asexual are two different modes of reproduction. Sexual mode reproduction takes place in all
multicellular organisms including humans, animals, and higher plants. Asexual mode reproduction occurs only in
lower invertebrates and other simpler living species such as amoeba, bacteria, and hydra.
Home
 Sex & Relationship

 Blood, Heart & Circulation
 Women's Health
 Life
 Digestive System
 Bone, Joint & Muscle
 More...
Respiratory System Organs and Their Functions
The respiratory system plays a vital role in the body, by providing your cells with much needed oxygen, as
well as excreting carbon dioxide, which can be deadly if allowed to accumulate. Major parts of the system
include the airways, the lungs, and the muscles of respiration. This article will explain anatomy of the
respiratory system, detailing the organs involved as well as the things that can go wrong.
Anatomy of Respiratory System: Organs and Functions
The three major parts of the respiratory system all work together to carry out their task. The airways (nose,
mouth, pharynx, larynx etc.) allow air to enter the body and into the lungs. The lungs work to pass oxygen
into the body, whilst removing carbon dioxide from the body. The muscles of respiration, such as the
diaphragm, work in unison to pump air into and out of the lungs whilst breathing.
Respiratory Description Function
Organs
Nose and The nose is the primary opening The nose is used to inhale air
Nasal for the respiratory system, made into the body. The nasal cavity
Cavity of bone, muscle, and cartilage. warms the air as it enters, acting
The nasal cavity is a cavity within as filtration and purifying the air
your nose filled with mucus by removing any dust, pollen,
membranes and hairs. and other contaminants, before
it passed to the inner body.
Mouth Also called the oral cavity, the Inhaling air through the mouth
mouth is the secondary exterior allows more inhalation, as the
opening for the respiratory oral cavity is far larger than the
system. Most commonly, the nasal cavity. The air also has
majority of respiration is achieved less distance to travel, meaning
via the nose and nasal cavity, but more air can enter your body
the mouth can be used if needed. and be used faster. The oral
cavity has no hairs or filtering
techniques, meaning the air you
inhale does not undergo the
filtration process.
Pharynx Also called the throat, the Air that is inhaled enters the
pharynx is a funnel of muscle that pharynx, where it descends into
extends from the respiratory the larynx via a diversion from
openings to the esophagus and the epiglottis. As the pharynx is
larynx. used for swallowing food as well
as breathing, the epiglottis
ensures that air can pass into
the trachea, and that food enters
the esophagus.
Larynx Also known as the voice box, the Aside from allowing us the ability
larynx is situated below the of speech, the larynx also acts
pharynx, in the anterior portion of as a defense mechanism. If any
the neck. food passes into the esophagus
when swallowing, the larynx
produces a strong cough reflex.
Trachea Also known as the wind pipe, the The main respiratory function of
trachea is a tube made of the trachea is to provide a clear
cartilage rings that are lined with and unhindered airway for air to
pseudostratified ciliated columnar enter and exit the lungs. Inside
epithelium. the trachea, small hairs reside
upon the inner walls. These
hairs catch dust and other
contaminants from inhaled air,
which are later expelled via
coughing.
Bronchi The bronchi are two tubes The bronchi connect the wind
stemming off of the end of the pipe to the lungs, allowing air
trachea. Each tube is connected from external respiratory
to a lung. openings to pass efficiently into
the lungs. Once in the lungs, the
bronchi begin to branch out into
secondary, smaller bronchi,
coined tertiary bronchi.
Bronchiole Tertiary bronchi divide to even Bronchioles lead to alveolar

s smaller, narrower tubes known as sacs, which are sacs containing
bronchioles. alveoli.
Alveoli Alveoli are hollow, individual Alveoli have extremely thin

cavities that are found within walls, which allows the
alveolar sacs. exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide to take place within the
lungs. There are estimated to be
three million alveoli in the
average lung.
Diaphragm The diaphragm is an important The diaphragm contracts to

muscle of respiration which is expand the space inside the
situated beneath the lungs. thoracic cavity, whilst moving a
few inches inferiorly into the
abdominal cavity. Whilst this is
happening, the intercostal
muscles also contract, which
moves the rip cage up and out.
The contractions force air into
the lungs, by creating a negative
pressure through expansion.
Physiology of Gas Exchange
Parts of the respiratory system and anatomy of respiratory system and organ functions cannot be complete if
you don’t understand the transition between CO2 and O2. Once air has been inhaled, it passed through the
airways until it reaches the alveoli within the lungs. Alveolus are surrounded by capillaries, through which the
gasses enter and exit. Carbon dioxide enters the alveolus, where oxygen is extracted and passed back into
the body. The constant blood flow prevents saturation of the blood, allowing for optimal transfer. The
following picture better illustrates the process:
Diseases and Illnesses of the Respiratory System
You should also know that many conditions and illnesses can affect the respiratory system, some of the
common problems include: -
 Asthma – Asthma leads to a narrowing of the airways, which can cause breathlessness and wheezing.
 Bronchitis – A condition that causes inflammation of the mucus lining within the one lung or both.
 Emphysema – A disease that affects alveoli.
 Influenza – An illness caused by a virus that can have a detrimental affect on one’s respiratory system.
 Laryngitis – When one’s vocal chords (larynx) become inflamed.
 Pneumonia – When one or both lungs become inflamed.
 Lung cancer – Although commonly associated with smokers, lung cancer can also affect those who do
not smoke.
.
Circulatory system
The circulatory system, also called cardiovascular system, is a vital organ system that delivers essential substances to
all cells for basic functions to occur. Also commonly known as the cardiovascular system, is a network composed of
the heart as a centralized pump, bloods vessels that distribute blood throughout the body, and the blood itself, for
transportation of different substances.
The circulatory system is divided into two separate loops: The shorter pulmonary circuit that exchanges blood between
the heart and the lungs for oxygenation; and the longer systemic circuit that distributes blood throughout all other
systems and tissues of the body. Both of these circuits begin and end in the heart.
Key facts
Table quiz
Functions Transport of gases, nutrients, electrolytes, wastes,

hormones
Heart Layers - myocardium, endocardium, epicardium

Chambers - left and right atria, left and right ventricles
Blood vessels - arteries (oxygenated blood), veins
(deoxygenated blood)
Blood vessels Arteries, veins, capillaries

Hierarchy: Heart -> arteries -> arterioles -> capillaries
[gas exchange - oxygenated blood becomes
deoxygenated] -> venules -> veins -> heart
Circulations Pulmonary - superior and inferior vena cava (with

deoxygenated blood) -> right atrium -> right ventricle ->
right and left pulmonary artery -> capillaries of each lung
(oxygenation of the blood) -> pulmonary veins -> left
atrium -> systemic circulation
Systemic - left atrium -> left ventricle -> aorta and all of
its branches -> capillaries -> veins -> superior and
inferior vena cava -> pulmonary circulation
Coronary - ascending aorta -> right coronary artery ->
right marginal branch, posterior interventricular artery, left
coronary artery -> anterior interventricular branch
(anastomoses with the posterior branch), circumflex
artery
Blood Plasma with cellular components:

Erythrocytes (red blood cells) - contain hemoglobine and
carry oxygen throughout the blood vessels
Leukocytes (white blood cells) - immune system cells
Thrombocytes (platelets) - coagulation cells
Clinical relations Arteriosclerosis, cerebrovascular disease, peripheral

artery disease, aneurysm, varices, arrhytmia, heart
failure
This article will explain everything that is important about the circulatory system, as well as the clinical relations to it.
Function
The main function of the circulatory (or cardiovascular) system is to deliver oxygen to the body tissues, whilst
simultaneously removing carbon dioxide produced by metabolism. Oxygen is bound to molecules
called hemoglobin that are on the surface of the red blood cells in the blood.
Recommended video: Circulatory system
Anatomy and function of the circulatory system.
Beginning in the heart, deoxygenated blood (containing carbon dioxide) is returned from systemic circulation to the right
side of the heart. It is pumped into pulmonary circulation and is delivered to the lungs, where gas exchange occurs. The
carbon dioxide is removed from the blood and replaced with oxygen. The blood is now oxygenated, and returns to
the left side of the heart.
Have you already learned the basic anatomy of the heart? Test your knowledge with our heart diagrams, quizzes and
worksheets.
From there, it is pumped into the systemic circuit, delivers oxygen to the tissues, and returns again to the right side of
the heart. The blood also acts as an excellent transport medium for nutrients, such as electrolytes, as well as hormones.
The blood also transports waste products that are filtered from the blood in the liver.
The heart
The heart is a muscular pump that is the central component of the circulatory system. It is divided into a right and left
side by a muscular septum. The muscular component of the heart, the myocardium, is composed of involuntary cardiac
muscle. It is lined by a membrane called the endocardium internally, as well as an external epicardium. Contraction of
the cardiac muscle cells is stimulated by electrical impulses that are sporadically fired from the regulatory centres of the
heart: the sinoatrial node in the roof of the right atrium, and the atrioventricular node in the septum between the atria and
the ventricles. The sinoatrial node is widely regarded as the natural pacemaker of the heart.
Overview of the heart in situ (ventral view)
The heart is continuously going through a series of contractions and relaxations. Systole refers to when the ventricles of
the heart simultaneously contract, diastole is when the ventricles relax. During systole, blood is forcibly pumped out of
the ventricles into the outflow tracts of their corresponding circulation. The atria are filling with blood at the same time.
During diastole, the ventricles are relaxed, and blood flows from the atria into the corresponding ventricles.
Pulmonary circulation
Deoxygenated blood from systemic circulation returns to the right atrium via the superior and inferior vena cava.
The coronary sinus, returning blood from the coronary circulation, also opens into the right atrium. The blood in the right
atrium flows into the right ventricle through the right atrioventricular valve (tricuspid valve) during diastole. During
systole, the right ventricle contracts, directing the blood into the conus arteriosus at the base of the pulmonary trunk.
Contraction of the ventricle causes the tricuspid valve to shut, preventing backflow of blood into the right atrium.
Between the conus arteriosus and the pulmonary trunk is a valve; the pulmonary valve. In diastole, the valve closes to
prevent backflow of blood into the right ventricle.
Right ventricle of heart
The pulmonary trunk splits into a right and a left pulmonary artery, serving the right and left lung respectively.
Deoxygenated blood flows into the capillaries of each lung, where it is then oxygenated. The pulmonary veins collect the
newly oxygenated blood from the lung, and return it to the left atrium, where it will be passed into systemic circulation.
Systemic circulation
Oxygenated blood enters the left atrium from the pulmonary circulation via the pulmonary veins. During diastole, blood
passes from the left atrium to the left ventricle through the left atrioventricular valve (bicuspid valve). In systole, the left
ventricle contracts, forcing blood into the aorta. The blood passes through the aortic valve into the ascending aorta.
The ascending aorta becomes the arch of the aorta, where three large arteries branch from it: the brachiocephalic trunk,
the left common carotid artery and the left subclavian artery. These arteries supply oxygenated blood to the head and
neck, and to the upper limbs.
The descending aorta is the continuation of the arch of the aorta inferiorly. In the thorax it is referred to as the
descending or thoracic aorta, and gives off numerous branches in the thorax.
Anatomy and branches of the thoracic (descending) aorta.
The latter passes into the abdominal cavity through the diaphragm through the aortic hiatus at the level of T12. From
there, it is referred to as the abdominal aorta. The abdominal aorta gives branches to the structures in and surrounding
the abdominal cavity, and terminates by bifurcating into the common iliac arteries, which will supply the pelvic cavity
and lower limbs.
The branches of the aorta passes towards their intended structures, with branching occurring along their length. The
terminal branches enter the tissues, and pass towards the capillary beds of the tissues in vessels called arterioles. Gas
exchange occurs between the blood and the tissues. The blood is collected from the capillaries by venules, which unite
to form the veins of the systemic circulation. These veins ultimately drain to the right atrium via the superior and inferior
venae cava.
Coronary circulation
The coronary circulation refers to the blood supply to the heart itself. It is a component of the systemic circulation. The
right and left coronary arteries branch directly from the ascending aorta, immediately above the aortic valve.
The right coronary artery passes to the right and gives off two main branches: the right marginal branch along the right
border of the heart and the posterior interventricular (posterior descending) artery, which descends along the
interventricular septum on the base of the heart.
Learn everything about the coronary arteries and veins with the following study unit and quiz.
The left coronary artery passes to the left, and gives off the anterior interventricular (Left anterior descending) artery
which descends on the anterior aspect of the interventricular septum to anastamose with the posterior interventricular
artery at the apex of the heart. It also gives off the circumflex artery.

Overview of coronary arteries and cardiac veins
The venous drainage of the heart is achieved by the coronary sinus, which drains the main veins of the heart:
 the great cardiac vein,

 the middle cardiac vein, and
 the small cardiac vein, which drains directly into the right atrium.
Portal system
The portal system is the system of veins that drain the blood from the intestines and directs it to the liver to be filtered.
The superior and inferior mesenteric veins, draining the jejunum down as far as the upper rectum, along with the splenic
vein draining the spleen, pancreas, and stomach, unite to form the hepatic portal vein, which empties blood into the
liver. Toxins are filtered out by the liver, and the filtered blood is returned to the inferior vena cava via the hepatic veins.
Structure and function of the hepatic portal vein.

Types of blood vessels
Arteries
Arteries carry blood away from the heart. They have thick walls and a narrow lumen, to resist the high pressure from the
blood being forced out of the heart. As the arteries travel toward the more peripheral tissues, they begin a process of
segmentation, decreasing in diameter and wall thickness with each division. The major arterial outflow tracts of the heart
are the aorta (systemic), and the pulmonary trunk (pulmonary). The coronary arteries are the arteries that supply
oxygenated blood to the tissues of the heart itself.
Recommended video: What is an artery?
Definition, anatomy and function of an artery.
Arteries are typically divided into three types:
 Artery (histological slide)conducting arteries arising directly from the heart and their main branches, whose
walls have a high degree of elasticity;
 distributing arteries that transport blood to specific organ systems, with a high muscular component in their
walls;
 the small and muscular resistance vessels or arterioles
Pressure in these arteries decrease from its highest level in the conducting arteries to the lowest in the arterioles. The
walls of the arteries are divided into 3 layers: the tunica intima (internal), the tunica media (middle) and
the tunica externa (external).
For descriptive purposes, it is easiest to describe the types of blood vessels in the sequence that they occur as they
pass from the heart to the peripheral tissues, and form the peripheral tissue back to the heart.
How's your knowledge of the major arteries of the cardiovascular system? Our cardiovascular system diagrams, quizzes
and free worksheets are the best way to find out.
Types of arteries
Muscular artery (histological slide)
Large elastic arteries: are the conducting arteries and examples include the aorta and its main branches; the
brachiocephalic trunk, the left common carotid artery, the left subclavian artery and the terminal common iliac arteries.
These carry blood from the heart to the smaller conducting arteries. The pressure in the these arteries is at the highest
level of the entire circulatory system. The tunica intima is lined by endothelium and the tunica media has a
large elastic component.
Muscular arteries: are the distributing arteries and contain a large proportion of smooth muscle in their tunica media.
They are lined internally by endothelium. The tunica externa is composed of fibromuscular connective tissue, with a
larger proportion of elastic fibres than collagen contributing to the elasticity of this layer in the muscular arteries.
Arterioles: are the connecting vessels between the muscular arteries and capillary beds of the organs. They have small
endothelial cells with nuclei projecting into the lumen of the vessel, a thin muscular wall about two layers thick, and a thin
tunica externa. They control the flow of blood into the capillaries by contraction of the smooth muscle in the tunica
media, which acts as a sphincter.
Capillaries: are the closest vessels to the organs. Their walls measure one large endothelial cell in thickness and provide
the only barrier between the blood and the interstitial fluid of the tissues. They have a narrow lumen which is just thick
enough to allow the passage of the largest blood cells. The permeability of capillaries varies depending on the
surrounding tissues and the type of junctions between the adjacent endothelial cells in the vessels wall.
Veins
Types of veins
Vein (histological slide)
Venules: are formed when two or more capillaries converge. They are lined by flat endothelial cells and a thin tunica
externa. These are called postcapillary venules. The muscular component appears in venules as their lumen increases,
producing muscular venules.
Veins: are formed with the union of muscular venules. In comparison to arteries, veins have a relatively thin wall and
a larger lumen. The structure of the walls is similar to that of arteries, but a considerably smaller amount of muscle is
present in the tunica media of veins. Veins are capacitance vessels, meaning they have a distensible wall and can
expand to accommodate large volumes of blood.
Most peripheral veins have structures called valves, which are projections of the tunica interna into the lumen of the
vessel. Valves prevent the backflow of blood through the veins, by passively closing when the direction of flow of the
blood reverses. Valves are absent in the veins of the thorax and abdomen.

The overall hierarchy of blood vessels follows this order: arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins.
So now you know the types of blood vessels - but what about their histological features? Learn and test your knowledge
at the same time using our blood vessels diagrams and artery and vein quizzes.
Shunts and anastomoses
Arteries form connections between each other called anastomoses, which creates a continuous supply of blood
throughout different areas. In the event of occlusion of an artery to a specific area, blood supply can be maintained to
the tissue via the anastomosis with an artery of an adjacent area.
Anastomosis between superior mesenteric artery and inferior pancreatic artery (ventral view)
A direct anastomosis occurs where two arteries are joined directly to each other, such as in the radial and ulnar arteries
via the palmar arches. Convergence anastomoses occur where two arteries unite to form a single artery, as in when
the vertebral arteries join to form the basilar artery. A transverse anastomosis is where a small artery connects two
larger arteries, for example, the anterior communicating artery connecting the right and left anterior cerebral arteries.
Connections between the arterial and venous systems are present throughout the body. For example, in the mesentery,
met arterioles can connect the arterioles to venues, and blood can either flow into or bypass the capillary beds. Control
of this flow is by local demand of the individual tissues.
Arteriovenous anastomoses are a direct connection between small arteries and small veins. These occur in regions
such as the skin of the nose, lips and ears, in the mucosa of the alimentary canal, and nasal and oral cavities.
A portocaval anastomosis occurs where there is a connection between the systemic and portal system of veins. These
occur at venous plexuses, such as around the esophagus, the umbilicus, and the rectum.
Blood
The blood is the mobile component of the circulatory system. Blood is bright red when oxygenated and dark red/purple
when deoxygenated. Blood consists of a cellular component suspended in a liquid called plasma.
Plasma is a clear fluid that accounts for approximately 55% of blood, and is composed of over 90% water. Plasma
contains a high concentration of electrolytes, such as sodium, potassium and calcium. Also dissolved in plasma
are plasma proteins. These include clotting factors, mainly prothrombin, immunoglobulin, polypeptides and other protein
molecules, and hormones.
Erythrocytes (red blood cells)
Synonyms: Red blood cell, Erythrocyte
Erythrocytes are the most abundant of blood cells, accounting for approximately 99% of all blood cells. They
are biconcave disc shaped cells that lack a nucleus. Erythrocytes have a globulin protein called hemoglobin on their
surface for oxygen to bind to. The proportion of red blood cells to plasma is called the haematocrit. Measured as a
percentage, it is used as a reference point for the oxygen carrying capacity of a person; when there is a higher
percentage of red blood cells present, more hemoglobin is present to carry oxygen.
Aged erythrocytes are ingested by macrophages in the liver and spleen. The iron released in the breakdown of the
erythrocytes is used to synthesize new erythrocytes, or is stored in the liver as ferritin.
Blood Grouping
Antigens are present on the surface of erythrocytes, and can react with antibodies causing agglutination of the red blood
cells. This is the basis of the ABO blood grouping system. Individuals inherit two alleles, one from each parent, that code
for a specific blood group. Blood groups can be homozygous, where the alleles are the same, or heterozygous where
alleles are different:
ABO blood grouping system
Allele Blood group
AA A
BB B
OO O
AB AB
AO A
BO B
Specific blood groups have antibodies that are sensitive to the alleles absent from their erythrocytes. For example, blood
group A will carry the A antigen and the anti-B antibodies.

Leukocytes (white blood cells)
These are divided in 5 groups: monocytes, lymphocytes, neutrophils, basophils and eosinophils. These groups are
distinguishable from each other by cell size, shape of nucleus and cytoplasm composition. These groups can
themselves be grouped into 2 groups: granulocytes and granulocytes. This classification is based on the presence or
lack of granules in the cytoplasm of the cell. Collectively, white blood cells form part of the immune response.
Granulocytes
Neutrophils, eosinophils and basophils fall into this category of white blood cells. Leukocytes are classified into this
group based on the presence of vesicles, called granules, in their cytoplasm. Granulocytes are largely involved
in inflammatory and allergic responses.
Neutrophils: are the most abundant white blood cells, accounting for about 40-75% of all leukocytes. The number of
neutrophils varies, and increases in response to acute bacterial infections. They have an irregular, segmented nucleus.
They mainly function in the defense of the body against microorganisms, and can ingest foreign substances
by phagocytosis. They are also involved in inflammation. Neutrophils have a short life span, spending 4-7 hours in
circulation and a few days in connective tissue.
Eosinophils: are similar to neutrophils, but are far fewer in number. Their nucleus is prominently bilobed, and the
granules in the cytoplasm are large. Their motility mirrors that of other leukocytes, and they migrate from the circulation
into the tissues. They increase in number in allergic reactions, and play a prominent role in the defense
against parasites. They are only weakly phagocytosis, involved more so in the breakdown of particles too large for
phagocytosis. The circulate for approximately 10 hours, and spend a few days in the tissues.
Basophils: are the smallest of the granulocytes. They are small in number, accounting for 0.5-1% of all leukocytes. They
are distinguishable by the large, clearly visible granules in their cytoplasm. Their nucleus is irregular shaped, and
sometimes bilobed, but is often obscured by the granules. The granules are membrane bound vesicles containing a
variety of inflammatory agents. These vesicles herniate, dumping their contents and
triggering immediate allergic hypersensitivity, such as seen in reactions like hay fever. The dumping of these agents
also triggers the migration of other granulocytes to the area.
Agranulocytes
Monocytes and lymphocytes fall into this category due to the absence of granules in their cytoplasm. They are also
referred to as mononuclear leukocytes, referring to the presence of a single lobed nucleus.
Monocytes: are the largest leukocytes in relation to physical size. They account for 2-8% of all leukocytes. They typically
have large uni-lobed nuclei with a characteristic indentation on one side. Monocytes are phagocytic cells. Circulating
monocytes transition into macrophages when they migrate from the circulation to the tissues.
Lymphocytes: are the second most abundant leukocyte, accounting for 20-30%. They are the only white blood cell that
can re-enter circulation having migrated to the tissues. They are variable in size and lifespan: some live merely days,
others are long-lived, and are involved in immunological memory. Lymphocytes are divided into two types: B-
lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes.
B-lymphocytes synthesize and secrete antibodies specific to foreign molecules. They also stimulate other non-
lymphocytic leukocytes to phagocytose. B-lymphocytes are involved in adaptive immunity, and produce memory B cells,
which remain in the body and are activated in response to a specific antigen.
T-lymphocytes develop and mature in the thymus, then migrate to and are stored in secondary lymphoid organs. They
are involved in the ongoing immunity of the cell, with their function not solely dependent on the response to an antigen.
T-lymphocytes are divided into three subgroups. Cytotoxic T cells directly target infected cells; Helper T cells direct
destruction by recruitment of other immune cells; and Regulatory T cells are involved in developing the tolerance of cells
to an antigen.
Thrombocytes (platelets)
Platelets are small, irregular shaped cells that lack a nucleus. They are present in large numbers and have highly
adhesive properties. Platelets are highly involved in hemostasis. They are activated in the event of damage to a blood
vessel. They accumulate at the site of injury and essentially plug the wound. Following adherence at the site of injury,
platelets and the surrounding tissues release factors that trigger a complex sequence of events. A clot is formed to close
the wound. The clot is then retracted and the edges of the wound are pulled together to close it and repair the vessel.
Platelets circulate in the blood for approximately 10 days, before they are removed from the blood by macrophages.
Want some practice identifying blood cells? Then try the quiz below!
Clinical notes
Diseases affecting the cardiovascular system are collectively referred to as cardiovascular diseases. Vascular
diseases relate to the blood vessels. Cardiac diseases affect the heart itself. Hematologic diseases are those of the
blood. Diseases of the cardiovascular system can be congenital (present since birth) or acquired (related to age, diet,
lifestyle and predisposition).
Vascular diseases
Arteriosclerosis is the thickening of the walls of arteries, reducing function. Atherosclerosis is a specific form of
arteriosclerosis, where plaque builds up on the endothelium of arteries, causing them to narrow and reducing oxygen
delivery to the tissues.
Coronary artery disease occurs in the arteries supplying the heart itself, with narrowing of the coronary arteries causing
reduced oxygen delivery to the heart tissue. This can result in a condition called angina, which is essentially spasming of
the coronary arteries due to reduced blood flow. Myocardial Infarction (heart attack) is also caused by the narrowing of
the coronary arteries due to atherosclerosis. A myocardial infarction occurs when the artery becomes completely
occluded due to dislodged plaque or development of a thrombus (blood clot).
Cerebrovascular disease affects the arteries supplying the brain. One of the most common presentations
is ischemic stroke, which is also caused by atherosclerosis. Ischemic stroke results in a reduced blood flow to brain
regions, leading to impaired brain function. It can be caused by the development of a thrombus or the passing of an
embolus (blockage causing substance) from another region of the body to the cerebral circulation.
Peripheral artery disease is reduced blood flow to the limbs due to atherosclerosis.
An aneurysm is a localised weakening in the wall of a blood vessel. It can result in bulging of the vessel wall. Thrombus
formation and embolisation can also occur. Aneurysms can rupture, leading to significant blood loss depending on
where they occur. Particularly lethal sites of aneurysm formation are in the abdominal aorta, the circle of Willis in
cerebral circulation, and in the renal vessels.
Varices occur where blood vessels become enlarged and twisted. They can occur at multiple sites in the body. One of
the most prominent sites of varices is in the veins of legs, termed varicose veins. Other common sites of varices are at
sites of portocaval anastamoses, such as esophageal varices, umbilical varices (caput medusae) and anorectal varices
(hemorrhoids or piles).
Cardiac diseases
Cardiovascular diseases can also solely affect the heart. Cardiomyopathy is a collection of diseases that affects the
heart muscle. The muscle can become enlarged (hypertrophic) and rigid, causing decreased heart
function, arrhythmias (irregular heart rate), and sometimes even heart failure.
The valves of the heart can also be affected by disease. There are two main types: valve incompetence, in which the
valve is unable to function sufficiently; and valve stenosis, where the orifice between the valve narrows as the valve is
unable to open fully. Mitral valve disease affects the mitral valve that lies between the left atrium and ventricle. It is
normally caused by a combination of valve incompetence and stenosis. Aortic valve disease affects the aortic valve, and
is largely caused by stenosis of the valve with contribution from regurgitation, which is backflow through the valve.
Inflammation of the heart tissues can also occur. It includes inflammation of the inner endocardium (endocarditis) and
the middle muscular layer (myocarditis). Pericarditis is the inflammation of the pericardium , which comprises the outer
layer of the heart itself and the pericardial sac which encloses the heart in the thoracic cavity.
Congenital heart diseases
Congenital heart diseases are those which have been present since birth. They are largely present as left to right
shunts, where blood is shunted from areas of higher pressure to areas of lower pressure. Oxygenated blood is passed
back to the right side of the heart and mixed with deoxygenated blood. Such shunts can go unnoticed in a number of
patients, while others may require surgical intervention.
An atrial septal defect occurs when blood is shunted from the left atrium (higher pressure) to the right atrium (lower
pressure) through an opening in the interatrial septum. This opening usually results from the failure of an embryological
shunt, the foramen ovale, to close after birth. This defect is specifically referred to as a patent foramen ovale.
A ventriculoseptal defect is when an opening in the interventricular septum allows blood to pass from the left ventricle
into the right ventricle.
Another embryological shunt exists near the heart in the embryo, shunting blood from the pulmonary trunk into the aorta.
This is called the ductus arteriosus, and pressure changes after birth usually force this opening to shut. A patent ductus
arteriosus occurs when the ductus does not close after birth, and allows blood to flow from the higher pressure arch of
the aorta into the lower pressure pulmonary trunk.
Blood disorders
These are disorders affecting the components of the blood. They can largely be divided depending on which of the blood
cells they affect.
Anemia
Anemia is a blood disorder affecting red blood cells. Patients suffering with anemia have a decreased oxygen carrying
capacity due to a decrease in the number of red blood cells, or a reduced amount of haemoglobin in the blood. There
are multiple different types of anemia, some of which are the following:
 Iron deficient anemia is the most common form of anemia. It is the result of insufficient intake of iron, an
increase in the amount of iron lost, or inadequate absorption of iron. Women are more likely to be affected by this from
of anemia due to menstruation and the higher demands of iron placed on their body during pregnancy.
 Megaloblastic anemia is caused by a decrease in the intake or absorption of vitamin B12 or folic acid. This
results in the production of large, insufficient red blood cells.
 Pernicious anemia is the result of insufficient hemopoiesis, or production of red blood cells by bone marrow.
 Hemorrhagic anemia is caused by loss of red blood cells through excessive bleeding.
 Aplastic anemia occurs due to the destruction of red bone marrow, which leads to a reduction in the number of
red blood cells being produced.
 Sickle cell anemia is a condition in which the shape of the red blood cells is altered into a sickle shape. These
cells cannot easily pass through capillaries and tend to clump together, blocking the blood vessel. They are also prone
to rupturing, with their rapid break down resulting in a reduced oxygen carrying capacity.
Leukemia
Leukemia refers to a group of cancers affecting the red bone marrow . Theses cancers cause abnormal white blood
cells to multiply uncontrollably, which interferes with normal red blood cell, white blood cell and platelet production. This
results in a decrease in oxygen carrying capacity, susceptibility to infection, and abnormal clotting. Leukemia spreads
easily from the bone marrow to the lymph nodes, liver and spleen, causing them to enlarge. Symptoms are caused
mainly by disruption to the production of other blood cells, including fatigue, pale skin and cold intolerance that is usually
observed in anemia.
There are two methods of classification of leukemia. The first is based on the presentation of the disease: Acute
leukemia refers to those that have developed rapidly; Chronic leukemia develops over an extended period of time. The
second classification is based on the type of cells affected: Lymphoblastic affects lymphoid stem
cells; Myelogenous affects myeloid stem cells. Thus, there are four types of leukemia:
 Acute lymphoblastic leukemia is the most common form of the disease occurring in children, though it can also
affect adults as well.
 Acute myelogenous leukemia is found in both adults and children.
 Chronic lymphoblastic leukemia is usually present in adults, especially those over the age of 55.
 Chronic myelogenous leukemia usually affects adults.
Treatment of leukemia involves methods such as chemotherapy, radiation therapy, stem cell transplantation and blood
transfusion among others.
Thrombocytopenia
This is a disorder of the thrombocytes, or platelets. It results in a low number of platelets in the blood. Patients with this
disorder are prone to excessive bleeding and may experience frequent nose bleeds or bleeding gums, as well as
excessive bruising.
Hemophilia
This is an inherited blood disorder that causes spontaneous bleeding or bleeding where only minor trauma has
occurred. It is caused by deficiencies of different clotting factors and can vary significantly in severity.
Digestive System
The food you eat takes an incredible journey through your body, from top (your mouth) to bottom (your anus). Along
the way the beneficial parts of your food are absorbed, giving you energy and nutrients. Here’s a step-by-step
account of the digestive system’s workings.
Structure of the Digestive System

What is the digestive system?
Your digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and your liver, pancreas and gallbladder. The GI
tract is a series of hollow organs that are connected to each other from your mouth to your anus. The organs that
make up your GI tract, in the order that they are connected, include your mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine,
large intestine and anus.
Cleveland Clinic is a non-profit academic medical center. Advertising on our site helps support our mission. We do
not endorse non-Cleveland Clinic products or services
What does the digestive system do?
Your digestive system is uniquely constructed to do its job of turning your food into the nutrients and energy you need
to survive. And when it’s done with that, it handily packages your solid waste, or stool, for disposal when you have a
bowel movement.
Why is digestion important?
Digestion is important because your body needs nutrients from the food you eat and the liquids you drink in order to
stay healthy and function properly. Nutrients include carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water. Your
digestive system breaks down and absorbs nutrients from the food and liquids you consume to use for important
things like energy, growth and repairing cells.
ANATOMY
What organs make up the digestive system?
The main organs that make up the digestive system (in order of their function) are the mouth, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine, rectum and anus. Helping them along the way are the pancreas, gall bladder and liver.
Here’s how these organs work together in your digestive system.
Mouth
The mouth is the beginning of the digestive tract. In fact, digestion starts before you even take a bite. Your salivary
glands get active as you see and smell that pasta dish or warm bread. After you start eating, you chew your food into
pieces that are more easily digested. Your saliva mixes with the food to begin to break it down into a form your body
can absorb and use. When you swallow, your tongue passes the food into your throat and into your esophagus.
Esophagus
Located in your throat near your trachea (windpipe), the esophagus receives food from your mouth when you
swallow. The epiglottis is a small flap that folds over your windpipe as you swallow to prevent you from choking (when
food goes into your windpipe). A series of muscular contractions within the esophagus called peristalsis delivers food
to your stomach.
But first a ring-like muscle at the bottom of your esophagus called the lower esophageal sphincter has to relax to let
the food in. The sphincter then contracts and prevents the contents of the stomach from flowing back into the
esophagus. (When it doesn’t and these contents flow back into the esophagus, you may experience acid reflux or
heartburn.)
Stomach
The stomach is a hollow organ, or "container," that holds food while it is being mixed with stomach enzymes. These
enzymes continue the process of breaking down food into a usable form. Cells in the lining of your stomach secrete a
strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the breakdown process. When the contents of the
stomach are processed enough, they’re released into the small intestine.
Small intestine
Made up of three segments — the duodenum, jejunum, and ileum — the small intestine is a 22-foot long muscular
tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver. Peristalsis also works in
this organ, moving food through and mixing it with digestive juices from the pancreas and liver.
The duodenum is the first segment of the small intestine. It’s largely responsible for the continuous breaking-down
process. The jejunum and ileum lower in the intestine are mainly responsible for the absorption of nutrients into the
bloodstream.
Contents of the small intestine start out semi-solid and end in a liquid form after passing through the organ. Water,
bile, enzymes and mucus contribute to the change in consistency. Once the nutrients have been absorbed and the
leftover-food residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine, or colon.
Pancreas
The pancreas secretes digestive enzymes into the duodenum that break down protein, fats and carbohydrates. The
pancreas also makes insulin, passing it directly into the bloodstream. Insulin is the chief hormone in your body for
metabolizing sugar.
Liver
The liver has many functions, but its main job within the digestive system is to process the nutrients absorbed from
the small intestine. Bile from the liver secreted into the small intestine also plays an important role in digesting fat and
some vitamins.
The liver is your body's chemical "factory." It takes the raw materials absorbed by the intestine and makes all the
various chemicals your body needs to function.
The liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals. It breaks down and secretes many drugs that can be toxic to
your body.
Gallbladder
The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile from the liver, and then releases it into the duodenum in the small
intestine to help absorb and digest fats.
Colon (Large Intestine)
The large intestine, or colon, is responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowels is easy and convenient.
It’s a 6-foot long muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the rectum.
The large intestine is made up of the cecum, the ascending (right) colon, the transverse (across) colon, the
descending (left) colon, and the sigmoid colon, which connects to the rectum.
Stool, or waste left over from the digestive process, is passed through the colon by means of peristalsis, first in a
liquid state and ultimately in a solid form. As stool passes through the colon, water is removed. Stool is stored in the
sigmoid (S-shaped) colon until a "mass movement" empties it into the rectum once or twice a day.
It normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon. The stool itself is mostly food debris and bacteria.
These “good” bacteria perform several useful functions, such as synthesizing various vitamins, processing waste
products and food particles and protecting against harmful bacteria. When the descending colon becomes full of
stool, or feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination (a bowel movement).
Rectum
The rectum is a straight, 8-inch chamber that connects the colon to the anus. The rectum's job is to receive stool from
the colon, let you know that there is stool to be evacuated (pooped out) and to hold the stool until evacuation
happens. When anything (gas or stool) comes into the rectum, sensors send a message to the brain. The brain then
decides if the rectal contents can be released or not.
If they can, the sphincters relax and the rectum contracts, disposing its contents. If the contents cannot be disposed,
the sphincter contracts and the rectum accommodates so that the sensation temporarily goes away.
Anus
The anus is the last part of the digestive tract. It is a 2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor muscles and the
two anal sphincters (internal and external). The lining of the upper anus is able to detect rectal contents. It lets you
know whether the contents are liquid, gas or solid.
The anus is surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool. The pelvic floor muscle
creates an angle between the rectum and the anus that stops stool from coming out when it’s not supposed to. The
internal sphincter is always tight, except when stool enters the rectum. This keeps us continent (prevents us from
pooping involuntarily) when we are asleep or otherwise unaware of the presence of stool.
When we get an urge to go to the bathroom, we rely on our external sphincter to hold the stool until reaching a toilet,
where it then relaxes to release the contents.
CONDITIONS AND DISORDERS
What are some common conditions that affect the digestive system?
There are temporary conditions and long-term, or chronic, diseases and disorders that affect the digestive system. It’s
common to have conditions such as constipation, diarrhea or heartburn from time to time. If you are experiencing
digestive issues like these frequently, be sure to contact your healthcare professional. It could be a sign of a more
serious disorder that needs medical attention and treatment.
Short-term or temporary conditions that affect the digestive system include:
 Constipation: Constipation generally happens when you go poop (have a bowel movement) less frequently
than you normally do. When you’re constipated, your poop is often dry and hard and it’s difficult and painful
for your poop to pass.
 Diarrhea: Diarrhea is when you have loose or watery poop. Diarrhea can be caused by many things,
including bacteria, but sometimes the cause is unknown.
 Heartburn: Although it has “heart” in its name, heartburn is actually a digestive issue. Heartburn is an
uncomfortable burning feeling in your chest that can move up your neck and throat. It happens when acidic
digestive juices from your stomach go back up your esophagus.
 Hemorrhoids: Hemorrhoids are swollen, enlarged veins that form inside and outside of your anus and
rectum. They can be painful, uncomfortable and cause rectal bleeding.
 Stomach flu (gastroenteritis): The stomach flu is an infection of the stomach and upper part of the small
intestine usually caused by a virus. It usually lasts less than a week. Millions of people get the stomach flu
every year.
 Ulcers: An ulcer is a sore that develops on the lining of the esophagus, stomach or small intestine. The
most common causes of ulcers are infection with a bacteria called Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) and long-
term use of anti-inflammatory drugs such as ibuprofen.
 Gallstones: Gallstones are small pieces of solid material formed from digestive fluid that form in your
gallbladder, a small organ under your liver.
Common digestive system diseases (gastrointestinal diseases) and disorders include:
 GERD (chronic acid reflux): GERD (gastroesophageal reflux disease, or chronic acid reflux) is a condition
in which acid-containing contents in your stomach frequently leak back up into your esophagus.
 Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS): IBS is a condition in which your colon muscle contracts more or less often
than normal. People with IBS experience excessive gas, abdominal pain and cramps.
 Lactose intolerance: People with lactose intolerance are unable to digest lactose, the sugar primarily found
in milk and dairy products.
 Diverticulosis and diverticulitis: Diverticulosis and diverticulitis are two conditions that occur in your large
intestine (also called your colon). Both share the common feature of diverticula, which are pockets or bulges
that form in the wall of your colon.
 Cancer: Cancers that affect tissues and organs in the digestive system are called gastrointestinal (GI)
cancers. There are multiple kinds of GI cancers. The most common digestive system cancers
include esophageal cancer, gastric (stomach) cancer, colon and rectal (colorectal) cancer, pancreatic
cancer and liver cancer.
 Crohn’s disease: Crohn’s disease is a lifelong form of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The condition
irritates the digestive tract.
 Celiac disease: Celiac disease is an autoimmune disorder that can damage your small intestine. The
damage happens when a person with celiac disease consumes gluten, a protein found in wheat, barley and
rye.
CARE
How can I keep my digestive system healthy?
If you have a medical condition, always ask your healthcare provider what you should do and eat to stay healthy and
manage your condition. In general, the following are ways to keep your digestive system healthy:
 Drink water often: Water helps the food you eat flow more easily through your digestive system. Low
amounts of water in your body (dehydration) is a common cause of constipation.
 Include fiber in your diet: Fiber is beneficial to digestion and helps your body have regular bowel
movements. Be sure to incorporate both soluble and insoluble fiber into your diet.
 Eat a balanced diet: Be sure to eat several servings of fruit and vegetables every day. Choose whole grains
over processed grains and try to avoid processed foods in general. Choose poultry and fish more often than
red meat and limit all deli (processed) meats. Limit the amount of sugar you consume.
 Eat foods with probiotics or take probiotic supplements: Probiotics are good bacteria that help fight off
the bad bacteria in your gut. They also make healthy substances that nourish your gut. It can be especially
helpful to consume probiotics after you have taken an antibiotic because antibiotics often kill both bad and
good bacteria in your gut.
 Eat mindfully and chew your food: Eating slowly gives your body time to digest your food properly. It also
allows your body to send you cues that it is full. It is important to chew your food thoroughly because it helps
to ensure your body has enough saliva (spit) for digestion. Chewing your food fully also makes it easier for
your digestive system to absorb the nutrients in the food.
 Exercise: Physical activity and gravity help move food through your digestive system. Taking a walk, for
example, after you eat a meal can help your body digest the food more easily.
 Avoid alcohol and smoking: Alcohol can increase the amount of acid in your stomach and can cause
heartburn, acid reflux and stomach ulcers. Smoking almost doubles your risk of having acid reflux. Research
has shown that people who have digestive issues that quit smoking have improved symptoms.
 Manage your stress: Stress is associated with digestive issues such as constipation, diarrhea and IBS.
When should I contact my healthcare provider about digestive system issues?
Contact your healthcare provider if you are experiencing frequent symptoms such as constipation, diarrhea, vomiting,
stomach pain or cramps, excessive gas (farting), or heartburn. While most people experience these conditions every
once in a while, if you experience them often, it could be a sign of a more serious digestive system issue.
Urinary System Anatomy and Function
The body takes what it needs from food and changes it into energy. After this, waste products are left behind in the bowel and in
the blood. The urinary system keeps everything in balance by removing waste, like urea, extra salt, extra water and other things
the body does not need..
Urea is produced when protein, found in meats, is broken down in the body.
Urinary System Parts and Functions
Kidneys
There are a pair of kidneys that are purplish-brown and are located below the ribs in the middle of the back. Their function is to:
 Remove waste from the blood in the form of urine
 Keep substances stable in the blood
 Make erythropoietin, a hormone which helps make red blood cells
 Make vitamin D active
 Regulate blood pressure
The kidneys remove waste from the blood through tiny filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron is made up of a ball of
small blood capillaries, called a glomerulus. There is also a small tube called a renal tubule, which drains the urine and joins
other tubules carrying the urine out of the kidney to the ureter.
Urea, together with water and other wastes, forms the urine.
Two Ureters
Each kidney has a narrow tube called a ureter, which carries urine from the kidney to the bladder. Muscles in the ureter walls
tighten and relax forcing urine down this tube, away from the kidneys. If urine backs up, or stands still, a kidney infection can
develop. About every 10 to 15 seconds, urine is emptied into the bladder from the ureters.
Bladder
The bladder is a triangle-shaped, hollow organ located in the lower abdomen. It is held in place by ligaments attached to the
pelvic bones. The bladder's walls relax and expand to store urine, and contract and flatten to empty urine through the urethra.
Two Sphincter Muscles
Circular muscles that help keep urine from leaking by closing tightly like a rubber band around the opening of the bladder.
Male Urinary System

Female Urinary System
Nerves in the Bladder

The nerves alert a person when it is time to urinate, or empty the bladder.
Urethra
The tube that allows urine to pass outside the body. The brain signals the bladder muscles to tighten, which squeezes urine out
of the bladder. At the same time, the brain signals the sphincter muscles to relax to let urine exit the bladder through the
urethra. When all the signals occur in the correct order, normal urination occurs.
Urinary System Diseases
The purpose of the urinary system is to filter the body’s blood to create urine. The anatomy of the urinary system is composed of
2 kidneys, 2 ureters, 2 sphincter muscles, the bladder, the urethra, and nerves in the bladder. Given the underlying complexity, it
should come as little surprise that a multitude of urinary system diseases can affect people. Read on or search online for more
information on these diseases.
Urinary Tract Infection
The condition occurs as a result of a bacterial infection gaining access to any part of the urinary tract. Since all parts of the
urinary tract are equally susceptible to infection, it can lead to further complications such as urethritis, cystitis, abscess, or
pyelonephritis. Antibiotics are the standard treatment for all classes of urinary tract infection.
Interstitial Cystitis
Interstitial cystitis is a chronic bladder condition which arises when the bladder wall becomes inflamed or irritated. The condition
can lead to reduced bladder capacity, scarring of the bladder, and reduced bladder elasticity. Patients may experience bladder
pressure, bladder pain, pelvic pressure, pain during sex, and a need to urinate frequently.
Although the cause of interstitial cystitis remains unclear, researchers have noted that the condition often appears in patients who
have a pre-existing defect in the bladder lining. Patients’ symptoms can be eased through a variety of methods. These options
include;
 Bladder enlargement
 Transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation
 Bladder removal surgery
Kidney Stones
Kidney stones develop when the chemicals which are naturally present in urine reach highly concentrated levels. There are a
number of different types of kidney stones, which are classified according to their chemical makeup. These are;
 Calcium stones
 Struvite stones
 Uric acid stones
 Cysteine stones
The most common symptoms include;
 Intense back and side pain

 Blood in urine
 Nausea
 Vomiting
 Cloudy urine
 Frequent urination
 Fever
The treatment method for kidney stones is dictated by a number of factors, which include the precise symptomatology, age, the
severity of the condition, and the patient’s general health. Treatment include;
 Tunnel surgery
 Potassium citrate
 Ureteroscope
 Extracorporeal shockwave lithotripsy
Bladder Cancer
The majority of bladder cancers are categorized as transitional cell cancers. Symptoms of bladder cancer resemble those of many
other conditions of the urinary system. Symptoms include;
 Back and pelvic pain

 Difficulty urinating
 Urgent or frequent urination
A cystoscopy, which involves the surgical removal of cancer, can be used to treat early-stage bladder cancer. More advanced
forms of cancer can be treated using chemotherapy or by injecting the BCG vaccine into the bladder.
Incontinence
Incontinence is used to describe a condition wherein a patient experiences difficulties holding either their urine or stool. The
condition has multiple causes. It can be caused by:
 Nerve damage in sphincter muscles

 Diarrhea
 Constipation
 Nervous system damage
 Rectal prolapse
 Rectocele
 Crohn’s disease
 Ulcerative colitis
Reflecting the multitude of underlying causes, the range of treatment options available is similarly varied. These include;
 Kegel exercises
 Increasing fiber intake
 Electrical stimulation
IMMUNE SYSTEM
 The immune system is a complex network of cells and proteins that defends the body against infection.
 The immune system keeps a record of every germ (microbe) it has ever defeated so it can recognise and
destroy the microbe quickly if it enters the body again.
 Abnormalities of the immune system can lead to allergic diseases, immunodeficiency’s and autoimmune
disorders.
The immune system is made up of special organs, cells and chemicals that fight infection (microbes). The main parts
of the immune system are: white blood cells, antibodies, the complement system, the lymphatic system, the spleen,
the thymus, and the bone marrow. These are the parts of your immune system that actively fight infection.
The immune system and microbial infection
The immune system keeps a record of every microbe it has ever defeated, in types of white blood cells (B- and T-
lymphocytes) known as memory cells. This means it can recognise and destroy the microbe quickly if it enters the
body again, before it can multiply and make you feel sick.
Some infections, like the flu and the common cold, have to be fought many times because so many different viruses
or strains of the same type of virus can cause these illnesses. Catching a cold or flu from one virus does not give you
immunity against the others.
Parts of the immune system
The main parts of the immune system are:

 white blood cells
 antibodies
 complement system
 lymphatic system
 spleen
 bone marrow
 Thymus.
White blood cells
White blood cells are the key players in your immune system. They are made in your bone marrow and are part of the
lymphatic system.
White blood cells move through blood and tissue throughout your body, looking for foreign invaders (microbes) such
as bacteria, viruses, parasites and fungi. When they find them, they launch an immune attack.
White blood cells include lymphocytes (such as B-cells, T-cells and natural killer cells), and many other types of
immune cells.
Antibodies
Antibodies help the body to fight microbes or the toxins (poisons) they produce. They do this by recognizing
substances called antigens on the surface of the microbe, or in the chemicals they produce, which mark the microbe
or toxin as being foreign. The antibodies then mark these antigens for destruction. There are many cells, proteins and
chemicals involved in this attack.
Complement system
The complement system is made up of proteins whose actions complement the work done by antibodies.
Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is a network of delicate tubes throughout the body. The main roles of the lymphatic system are
to:
 manage the fluid levels in the body

 react to bacteria
 deal with cancer cells
 deal with cell products that otherwise would result in disease or disorders
 absorb some of the fats in our diet from the intestine.
The lymphatic system is made up of:
 lymph nodes (also called lymph glands) -- which trap microbes

 lymph vessels -- tubes that carry lymph, the colorless fluid that bathes your body's tissues and contains
infection-fighting white blood cells
 white blood cells (lymphocytes).
Spleen
The spleen is a blood-filtering organ that removes microbes and destroys old or damaged red blood cells. It also
makes disease-fighting components of the immune system (including antibodies and lymphocytes).
Bone marrow
Bone marrow is the spongy tissue found inside your bones. It produces the red blood cells our bodies need to carry
oxygen, the white blood cells we use to fight infection, and the platelets we need to help our blood clot.
Thymus
The thymus filters and monitors your blood content. It produces the white blood cells called T-lymphocytes.
The body's other defenses against microbes
As well as the immune system, the body has several other ways to defend itself against microbes, including:
 skin - a waterproof barrier that secretes oil with bacteria-killing properties

 lungs - mucous in the lungs (phlegm) traps foreign particles, and small hairs (cilia) wave the mucous
upwards so it can be coughed out
 digestive tract - the mucous lining contains antibodies, and the acid in the stomach can kill most microbes
 other defenses - body fluids like skin oil, saliva and tears contain anti-bacterial enzymes that help reduce the
risk of infection. The constant flushing of the urinary tract and the bowel also helps.
Fever is an immune system response
A rise in body temperature, or fever, can happen with some infections. This is actually an immune system response. A
rise in temperature can kill some microbes. Fever also triggers the body's repair process.
Common disorders of the immune system
It is common for people to have an over- or underactive immune system.Overactivity of the immune system can take
many forms, including:
 allergic diseases - where the immune system makes an overly strong response to allergens. Allergic
diseases are very common. They include allergies to foods, medications or stinging insects, anaphylaxis
(life-threatening allergy), hay fever (allergic rhinitis), sinus disease, asthma, hives (urticaria), dermatitis and
eczema
 autoimmune diseases - where the immune system mounts a response against normal components of the
body. Autoimmune diseases range from common to rare. They include multiple sclerosis, autoimmune
thyroid disease, type 1 diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis and systemic vasculitis.
Underactivity of the immune system, also called immunodeficiency, can:
 be inherited - examples of these conditions include primary immunodeficiency diseases such as common
variable immunodeficiency (CVID), x-linked severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) and complement
deficiencies
 arise as a result of medical treatment - this can occur due to medications such as corticosteroids or
chemotherapy
 be caused by another disease - such as HIV/AIDS or certain types of cancer.
An underactive immune system does not function correctly and makes people vulnerable to infections. It can be life
threatening in severe cases.
People who have had an organ transplant need immunosuppression treatment to prevent the body from attacking the
transplanted organ.
Immunoglobulin therapy
Immunoglobulins (commonly known as antibodies) are used to treat people who are unable to make enough of their
own, or whose antibodies do not work properly. This treatment is known as immunoglobulin therapy.
Until recently, immunoglobulin therapy in Australia mostly involved delivery of immunoglobulins through a drip into the
vein – known as intravenous immunoglobulin (IVIg) therapy. Now, subcutaneous immunoglobulin (SCIg) can be
delivered into the fatty tissue under the skin, which may offer benefits for some patients. This is known as
subcutaneous infusion or SCIg therapy.
Subcutaneous immunoglobulin is similar to intravenous immunoglobulin. It is made from plasma – the liquid part of
blood containing important proteins like antibodies.
Download the SCIg introduction fact sheet to read more about this type of treatment.
Many health services are now offering SCIg therapy to eligible patients with specific immune conditions. If you are
interested, please discuss your particular requirements with your treating specialist.
Immunisation
Immunisation works by copying the body's natural immune response. A vaccine (a small amount of a specially
treated virus, bacterium or toxin) is injected into the body. The body then makes antibodies to it. If a vaccinated
person is exposed to the actual virus, bacterium or toxin, they won't get sick because their body will recognise it and
know how to attack it successfully. Vaccinations are available against many diseases, including measles and tetanus.
The immunisations you may need are decided by your health, age, lifestyle and occupation. Together, these factors
are referred to as HALO, which is defined as:
 health - some health conditions or factors may make you more vulnerable to vaccine-preventable diseases.
For example, premature birth, asthma, diabetes, heart, lung, spleen or kidney conditions, Down syndrome
and HIV will mean you may benefit from additional or more frequent immunizations
 age - at different ages you need protection from different vaccine-preventable diseases. Australia's National
Immunisation Program sets out recommended immunizations for babies, children, older people and other
people at risk, such as Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. Most recommended vaccines are available at
no cost to these groups
 lifestyle - lifestyle choices can have an impact on your immunization needs. Travelling overseas to certain
places, planning a family, sexual activity, smoking, and playing contact sport that may expose you directly to
someone else's blood, will mean you may benefit from additional or more frequent immunizations
 occupation - you are likely to need extra immunizations, or need to have them more often, if you work in an
occupation that exposes you to vaccine-preventable diseases or puts you into contact with people who are
more susceptible to problems from vaccine-preventable diseases (such as babies or young children,
pregnant women, the elderly, and people with chronic or acute health conditions). For example, if you work
in aged care, childcare, healthcare, emergency services or sewerage repair and maintenance, discuss your
immunization needs with your doctor. Some employers help with the cost of relevant vaccinations for their
employees.
After-hours healthcare options
For unexpected after-hours medical issues, there are telephone helplines, pharmacies, after-hours medical clinics or
doctors who can visit you at home.
Allergies explained
Allergy occurs when the body overreacts to a 'trigger' that is harmless to most people.
Allergies to bites and stings
Allergies to insect stings and bites range from milder allergic reactions to life-threatening, severe allergic reactions
(anaphylaxis)
Allergies to medications
All medication has the potential to cause allergies but some people can have allergic reactions to specific prescription
or over-the-counter medications.

Anatomy and Physiology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Anatomy and Physiology

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Description:

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Anatomy and Physiology

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

HUMAN CELLS STRUCTURE AND FUCTION

Cell Structure and Function.

: Cell Structure and Function

1. What is the function of the cell membrane?

Concepts, terms, and facts check

1. What is the nuclear envelope?

(shown here synthesizing a

Found attached to RER and free

Join with cell

(a) microtubule made of tubulin,

(c) intermediate fibers made of

ANATOMY & PHYSIOLOGY

Support, Movement, and Protection

Mineral and Fat Storage, Blood Cell Formation

Human Nervous System

What is the Nervous System?

1. Central Nervous System (consists of the brain and spinal cord)

Central Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

Classification of the peripheral nervous system:

1. Sympathetic nervous system

What is the Nervous System?

1. Central Nervous System (consists of the brain and spinal cord)

Central Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

Classification of the peripheral nervous system:

1. Sympathetic nervous system

Brain Anatomy and How the Brain Works

What is the brain?

from it make up the central nervous system, or CNS.

What is the brain made of?

including neurons and glial cells.

What is the gray matter and white matter?

Main Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

relate to vision, hearing, touch and other senses.

pons and the medulla.

movement and coordination.

vomiting, coughing and swallowing.

Brain Coverings: Meninges

with veins and arteries.

Lobes of the Brain and What They Control

occipital. Each lobe controls specific functions.

and some degree of smell recognition.

Deeper Structures Within the Brain

through its stalk and blood supply.

aspects of memory and emotion.

Ventricles and Cerebrospinal Fluid

and the area beneath arachnoid layer of the meninges.

waste and impurities, and delivers nutrients.

 Cranial nerve 2: The optic nerve governs eyesight.

 Cranial nerve 6: The abduces nerve innervates some of the muscles in the eye.

 Cranial nerve 8: The vestibulocochlear nerve facilitates balance and hearing.

activity in the heart, throat and digestive system.

 Cranial nerve 12: The hypoglossal nerve supplies motor activity to the tongue.

MALE AND FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Reproduction in Human Beings

Human Reproductive System