www.jntuworld.

com
o m
. c
Data Communications rs
eei n
ng
OE
Do
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Frequency, Spectrum and
Bandwidth
o m
„ Time domain concepts . c
„ Continuous signal
e rs
„

in e
Various in a smooth way over time
„ Discrete signal
n g
„

O E
Maintains a constant level then changes to another
o
constant level
D signal
Periodic
„

a a
F
„
„ Pattern repeated over time
Aperiodic signal
„ Pattern not repeated over time
 www.jntuworld.com
Continuous & Discrete Signals
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Periodic Signals
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Wavelength
o m
„ Distance occupied by one cycle
. c
„
e rs
Distance between two points of corresponding
in e
phase in two consecutive cycles
„ λ n g
O E
Assuming signal velocity v
„

λ = vT D o
„
a a
„ F= v
λf
„ c = 3*108 ms-1 (speed of light in free space)
 www.jntuworld.com
Frequency Domain Concepts
o m
„ Signal usually made up of many
s . c
frequencies e r
„ Components aregsine
e
in waves
Can be shown E n(Fourier analysis) that
„
o
any signal
Ois made up of component
a D
F a
sine waves
„ Can plot frequency domain functions
 www.jntuworld.com
Spectrum & Bandwidth
Spectrum o m
„
. c
rs
„ range of frequencies contained in signal
e
„ Absolute bandwidth
in e
„ width of spectrum
n g
„
O E
Effective bandwidth
D o
„ Often just bandwidth

a a
„ Narrow band of frequencies containing most of the
F
energy
„ DC Component
„ Component of zero frequency
 www.jntuworld.com
Data Rate and Bandwidth
o m
„ Any transmission system has
s . c a limited
band of frequencies e r
i
This limits the data n e
rate that can be
„
n g
carried E
o O
a D
F a
 www.jntuworld.com
Analog and Digital Data
Transmission
o m
„ Data . c
e rs
Entities that convey meaning
„

in e
„ Signals g
E n
Electric or electromagnetic representations
„

o
of data O
D
„ aa
Transmission
F Communication of data by propagation and
„

processing of signals
 www.jntuworld.com
Data
o m
„ Analog . c
ers
Continuous values within some interval
„

e.g. sound, video in e

„

n g
„ Digital
O E
„
D o
Discrete values
a a
e.g. text, integers
F
„
 www.jntuworld.com
Acoustic Spectrum (Analog)
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Analog Transmission
o m
„
s . c
Analog signal transmitted without
regard to content e r
May be analog or i n e
digital data
„
n g
„
O E
Attenuated over distance
„ D o
Use amplifiers to boost signal
a a
„ F amplifies noise
Also
 www.jntuworld.com
Digital Transmission
o m
„ Concerned with content . c
„
e rs
Integrity endangered by noise, attenuation
etc. in e
Repeaters used n g
„

O E
Repeater receives signal
„
D o
„
a a
Extracts bit pattern
„ F
Retransmits
„ Attenuation is overcome
„ Noise is not amplified
 www.jntuworld.com
Advantages of Digital
Transmission
„ Digital technology o m
Low cost LSI/VLSI technology . c
„

Data integrity e rs
„

Longer distances over lowerin

e
quality lines
„

Capacity utilization n
g
„

High bandwidthO
E
links economical
„

D
High degree
o
of multiplexing easier with digital techniques
„

a
Security
a
& Privacy
„

„
F
Encryption
„ Integration
„ Can treat analog and digital data similarly
 www.jntuworld.com
Encoding Techniques
o m
„ Digital data, digital signal .c
e
Analog data, digital signalr s
„
i n e
„ Digital data, analog
g signal
E n
„ Analog data,
O analog signal
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Digital Data, Digital Signal
o m
„ Digital signal . c
ers
Discrete, discontinuous voltage pulses
„

in e
Each pulse is a signal element
„

n g
„
O E
Binary data encoded into signal elements

D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Terms (1)
„ Unipolar o m
. c
„

Polar e rs
All signal elements have same sign
„
in e
„
n g
One logic state represented by positive
voltage the other by negative voltage
O E
„ Data rate
o
a D
Rate of data transmission in bits per second
„

F a
„ Duration or length of a bit
„ Time taken for transmitter to emit the bit
 www.jntuworld.com
Terms (2)
o m
„ Modulation rate . c
e rs
Rate at which the signal level changes
„

in e
Measured in baud = signal elements per
„

second n g
O E
„ o Space
Mark and
D
„ a
aBinary 1 and Binary 0 respectively
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Interpreting Signals
o m
„ Need to know . c
ers
Timing of bits - when they start and end
„

Signal levels in e
„

n g
„
O E
Factors affecting successful interpreting
o
of signals
D
a
aSignal to noise ratio
F Data rate
„

„ Bandwidth
 www.jntuworld.com
Digital Data, Analog Signal
o m
„ Public telephone system . c
300Hz to 3400Hz ers
„

in e
Use modem (modulator-demodulator)
„

n g
„
O E
Amplitude shift keying (ASK)
„ D o
Frequency shift keying (FSK)
a a
Phase
„ F shift keying (PK)
 www.jntuworld.com
Modulation Techniques
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Amplitude Shift Keying
o m
„
s . c
Values represented by different
amplitudes of carrier e r
i n e
Usually, one amplitude is zero
„
g n
„
O E
i.e. presence and absence of carrier is used
„
D o
Susceptible to sudden gain changes
a a
Inefficient
„ F
„ Up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
„ Used over optical fiber
 www.jntuworld.com
Frequency Shift Keying
o m
„ Values represented by different
s . c
r
frequencies (near carrier)
e
„ Less susceptiblegto
e
inerror than ASK
E
Up to 1200bps
n on voice grade lines
„
o O
„ High frequency
D radio
a a
„ F higher frequency on LANs using
Even
co-ax
 www.jntuworld.com
FSK on Voice Grade Line
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Phase Shift Keying
o m
„
s . c
Phase of carrier signal is shifted to
represent data e r
„ Differential PSK gin
e
„ E n
Phase shifted relative to previous
o O
transmission rather than some reference
a D
signal
F a
 www.jntuworld.com
Quadrature PSK
o m
„
s c
More efficient use by each .signal
r
element representing more
e than one bit
e.g. shifts of π/2 in
(90o)
e
„

Each element n g
represents two bits
„
O E
„ o
Can use 8 phase angles and have more
Done amplitude
a
than
a
F 9600bps modem use 12 angles , four of
„

which have two amplitudes

 www.jntuworld.com
Performance of Digital to
Analog Modulation Schemes
o m
„ Bandwidth . c
e rs
ASK and PSK bandwidth directly related to bit
„

rate in e
n g
FSK bandwidth related to data rate for lower
„

O E
frequencies, but to offset of modulated
o
frequency from carrier at high frequencies
D
Ina a
„
F the presence of noise, bit error rate
of PSK and QPSK are about 3dB
superior to ASK and FSK
 www.jntuworld.com
Analog Data, Digital Signal
o m
„ Digitization . c
e rs
Conversion of analog data into digital data
„

„
in e
Digital data can then be transmitted using NRZ-L
n g
Digital data can then be transmitted using code
„
E
other than NRZ-L
O
„
D o
Digital data can then be converted to analog
a a
signal
F
„ Analog to digital conversion done using a codec
„ Pulse code modulation
„ Delta modulation
 www.jntuworld.com
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)
(1)
o m
„ If a signal is sampled at regular
s . c
intervals at a
e r
rate higher than twice the highest signal
frequency, the samples
i n e
contain all the
information of theg original signal
E n
o O
„
a D
Voice data limited to below 4000Hz
„ F a
Require 8000 sample per second
„ Analog samples (Pulse Amplitude Modulation,
PAM)
„ Each sample assigned digital value
 www.jntuworld.com
Pulse Code Modulation(PCM)
(2)
o m
„ 4 bit system gives 16 levels . c
Quantized ers
„

i n
Quantizing error or noise
e
„

„
g
n it is impossible to recover
ApproximationsEmean
O
original exactly
o
a D gives 256 levels
8 bit sample
„

„
a
F comparable with analog transmission
Quality
„ 8000 samples per second of 8 bits each gives
64kbps
 www.jntuworld.com
Nonlinear Encoding
o m
„ Quantization levels not evenly
s . c spaced
Reduces overall signal r
edistortion
„
i n e
„ Can also be doneg by companding
E n
o O
a D
F a
 www.jntuworld.com
Delta Modulation
o m
„ Analog input is approximated
s . c by a
staircase function e r
Move up or down i n
one
e level (δ) at each
„
n g
sample interval
E
„ o O
BinaryDbehavior
a a
F Function moves up or down at each
„

sample interval
 www.jntuworld.com
Delta Modulation - example
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Delta Modulation -
Performance
o m
„ Good voice reproduction . c
ers
PCM - 128 levels (7 bit)
„

in e
Voice bandwidth 4khz
„

n g
„
O E
Should be 8000 x 7 = 56kbps for PCM
„ Data D o
compression can improve on this
a a Interframe coding techniques for video
e.g.
F
„
 www.jntuworld.com
Analog Data, Analog Signals
o m
„ .c
Why modulate analog signals?
r s
„
e e
Higher frequency can give more efficient
transmission
g i n
„
E n
Permits frequency division multiplexing
„ ofO
Types o modulation
a D
Amplitude
„
a
F Frequency
„

„ Phase
 www.jntuworld.com
Analog
Modulation
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Transmission Impairments
o m
„ Signal received may differ from
s . c signal
transmitted e r
Analog - degradationi n eof signal quality
„
n g
„
O E
Digital - bit errors
„ Caused o
D by
a a
F Attenuation and attenuation distortion
„

„ Delay distortion
„ Noise
 www.jntuworld.com
Attenuation
Signal strength falls off with distance o m
„
s . c
„ Depends on medium e r
Received signal strength:i n e
„
n g
„ must be enough
O E to be detected
„
D o
must be sufficiently higher than noise to be
a a
received without error
„
F
Attenuation is an increasing function of
frequency
 www.jntuworld.com
Delay Distortion
o m
„ Only in guided media
s . c
„ Propagation velocity e r
e with
varies
frequency g i n
E n
o O
a D
Fa
 www.jntuworld.com
Noise (1)
o m
„ Additional signals inserted between. c
transmitter and receiver rs
e e
„ Thermal i n
g of electrons
Due to thermal nagitation
„

UniformlyO E
distributed
„

D
White o
noise
„

a a
Intermodulation
„
F Signals that are the sum and difference of original
„

frequencies sharing a medium

 www.jntuworld.com
Noise (2)
o m
„ Crosstalk . c
e rs
A signal from one line is picked up by
„

another in e
Impulse n g
„
O E
„
D o
Irregular pulses or spikes
„
a a
e.g. External electromagnetic interference
F
„ Short duration
„ High amplitude
 www.jntuworld.com
Channel Capacity
o m
„ Data rate . c
In bits per second ers
„

in e
Rate at which data can be communicated
„

n g
„ Bandwidth
O E
„
D o
In cycles per second of Hertz
a a
Constrained by transmitter and medium
F
„
 www.jntuworld.com
Encoding Schemes
o m
„ Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-L)
s . c
„ Nonreturn to Zero Invertede r(NRZI)
Bipolar -AMI i n e
„

„ PseudoternaryEn
g
„ o
Manchester O
a D
Differential Manchester
„
F a
„ B8ZS
„ HDB3
 www.jntuworld.com
Nonreturn to Zero-Level (NRZ-
L)
o m
„ Two different voltages for 0
s . cand 1 bits
r
„
ee bit interval
Voltage constant during
i n
„ no transition I.e. no return to zero voltage
g
n
e.g. AbsenceEof voltage for zero,
„

constanto O
positive voltage for one
a D
„ a
More
F often, negative voltage for one
value and positive for the other
„ This is NRZ-L
 www.jntuworld.com
Nonreturn to Zero Inverted
Nonreturn to zero inverted on o m
ones
„
s . c
„ Constant voltage pulse for e r duration of bit
„ i n
Data encoded as presence e or absence of
g beginning of bit time
signal transitionnat
Transition O
E
(low to high or high to low)
„
D
denotes o
a binary 1
Noa a
„ F transition denotes binary 0
„ An example of differential encoding
 www.jntuworld.com
NRZ
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Differential Encoding
o m
„ Data represented by changes
s . c rather
than levels e r
i n e
More reliable detection of transition
„
n g
rather than E
level
o
In complex
O transmission layouts it is
„
a D
a to lose sense of polarity
easy
F
 www.jntuworld.com
NRZ pros and cons
o m
„ Pros . c
Easy to engineer e rs
„

in e
Make good use of bandwidth
„

n g
„ Cons
O E
„
D o
dc component
a a
Lack of synchronization capability
F
„

„ Used for magnetic recording

„ Not often used for signal transmission
 www.jntuworld.com
Multilevel Binary
„ Use more than two levels o m
. c
„ Bipolar-AMI rs e
„zero represented by n
i e
no line signal
„one represented n g
by positive or negative pulse
one pulsesO E
alternate in polarity
„

D
No loss
o
of sync if a long string of ones (zeros
„

a aa problem)
still
FNo net dc component
„

„ Lower bandwidth
„ Easy error detection
 www.jntuworld.com
Pseudoternary
o m
„ One represented by absence
s . c of line
signal e r
Zero represented i
byn e
alternating positive
„
g
and negativeEn
o O
No advantage or disadvantage over
„
a D
a
bipolar-AMI
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Bipolar-AMI and
Pseudoternary
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Trade Off for Multilevel Binary
o m
„ Not as efficient as NRZ . c
e rs
Each signal element only represents one
„

bit in e
n g
In a 3 level system could represent log23 =
„

O
1.58 bits
E
D o
„
a a
Receiver must distinguish between three
F levels
(+A, -A, 0)
„ Requires approx. 3dB more signal power
for same probability of bit error
 www.jntuworld.com
Biphase
Manchester o m
„
. c
„ Transition in middle of each bit period
e rs
„ Transition serves as clock and data
Low to high represents one in e
„

„
n
High to low represents zero g
„ Used by IEEE 802.3
O E
„
D o
Differential Manchester
„
a a
Midbit transition is clocking only
„

„
F
Transition at start of a bit period represents zero
No transition at start of a bit period represents one
„ Note: this is a differential encoding scheme
„ Used by IEEE 802.5
 www.jntuworld.com
Biphase Pros and Cons
o m
„ Con . c
e rs
At least one transition per bit time and possibly two
„

„
in e
Maximum modulation rate is twice NRZ
n
Requires more bandwidth g
„

Pros O E
„
o
D on mid bit transition (self clocking)
„
a a
Synchronization
„ Fdc component
No
„ Error detection
„ Absence of expected transition
 www.jntuworld.com
Modulation Rate
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Scrambling
o m
„ Use scrambling to replace sequences
s . c that would
produce constant voltage
e r
„ Filling sequence i n e
„ Must produce enough n g to sync
transitions
Must be recognizedEby receiver and replace with original
„

Same length o
O
as original
„

No dc a a D
component
„

„
F
No long sequences of zero level line signal
„ No reduction in data rate
„ Error detection capability
 www.jntuworld.com
B8ZS
o m
„ Bipolar With 8 Zeros Substitution
. c
„ Based on bipolar-AMI
e rs
„
in e
If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse
g
preceding was positive encode as 000+-0-+
n
„
O E
If octet of all zeros and last voltage pulse
o
preceding was negative encode as 000-+0+-
D
a a
Causes two violations of AMI code
„

„
F
Unlikely to occur as a result of noise
„ Receiver detects and interprets as octet of all
zeros
 www.jntuworld.com
HDB3
o m
„ High Density Bipolar 3 Zeros
s . c
„ Based on bipolar-AMIee r
„ g i
String of four zeros
nreplaced with one
E
or two pulses
n
o O
a D
F a
 www.jntuworld.com
B8ZS and HDB3
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Guided Transmission Media
o m
„ Twisted Pair . c
Coaxial cable ers
„
in e
„ Optical fiber g
E n
o O
aD
F a
 www.jntuworld.com
Twisted Pair
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Twisted Pair - Applications
o m
„ Most common medium
s . c
„ Telephone network ee r
„ i n
Between house and local exchange
g
n
(subscriber loop)
E
„ o O
WithinDbuildings
Toaprivate branch exchange (PBX)
a
F
„

„ For local area networks (LAN)

„ 10Mbps or 100Mbps
 www.jntuworld.com
Twisted Pair - Pros and Cons
o m
„ Cheap
s . c
„ Easy to work with ee r
„ Low data rate g i n
E n
„ Short range
O
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Twisted Pair - Transmission
Characteristics
Analog o m
„
. c
„ Amplifiers every 5km to 6km

e rs
„ Digital
in e
g
„ Use either analog or digital signals
n
E
„ repeater every 2km or 3km
O
„
D o
Limited distance
a a
Limited bandwidth (1MHz)
„

„
F
Limited data rate (100MHz)
„ Susceptible to interference and noise
 www.jntuworld.com
Unshielded and Shielded TP
Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) o m
„
. c
„ Ordinary telephone wire
e rs
„ Cheapest
in e
„ Easiest to install n g
O E
Suffers from external EM interference
„
„

D o
ShieldedaTwisted Pair (STP)
„
a
F braid or sheathing that reduces interference
Metal
„ More expensive
„ Harder to handle (thick, heavy)
 www.jntuworld.com
UTP Categories
Cat 3 o m
„
. c
„ up to 16MHz
e rs
„
in e
Voice grade found in most offices
„
n g
Twist length of 7.5 cm to 10 cm
„ Cat 4 O E
o
up toD20 MHz
„

a a
„ F 5
Cat
„ up to 100MHz
„ Commonly pre-installed in new office buildings
„ Twist length 0.6 cm to 0.85 cm
 www.jntuworld.com
Near End Crosstalk
o m
„ Coupling of signal from one.cpair to
another e r s
Coupling takes placei n ewhen transmit
„
n g
signal entering
E the link couples back to
receivingo O
pair
a D
„
F a
i.e. near transmitted signal is picked up
by near receiving pair
 www.jntuworld.com
Coaxial Cable
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Coaxial Cable Applications
Most versatile medium o m
„
. c
„ Television distribution ers
„ Ariel to TV in e
Cable TV n g
„

O E
„ Long distance
o telephone transmission
a
Can
D
carry 10,000 voice calls simultaneously
„
a
FBeing replaced by fiber optic
„

„ Short distance computer systems links

„ Local area networks
 www.jntuworld.com
Coaxial Cable - Transmission
Characteristics
o m
„ Analog . c
e
Amplifiers every few km rs
„

in e
Closer if higher frequency
„

n g
„
O E
Up to 500MHz
„ DigitalDo
a a
Repeater every 1km
F
„

„ Closer for higher data rates

 www.jntuworld.com
Optical Fiber
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Optical Fiber - Benefits
o m
„ Greater capacity . c
ers
Data rates of hundreds of Gbps
„

in e
„ Smaller size & weight
g
E n
Lower attenuation
„
o O
„
a D
Electromagnetic isolation
„ F a
Greater repeater spacing
„ 10s of km at least
 www.jntuworld.com
Optical Fiber - Applications
o m
„ Long-haul trunks
s . c
„ Metropolitan trunks ee r
„ Rural exchange g i n
trunks
E n
„ SubscriberOloops
o
„
aaD
LANs
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Optical Fiber - Transmission
Characteristics
Act as wave guide for 1014 to 1015 Hz o m
„

. c
Light Emitting Diode (LED) e rs
„ Portions of infrared and visible spectrum

„ Cheaper in e
n g
„ Wider operating temp range

O
„ Last longer
E
D o
„
a a
Injection Laser Diode (ILD)
F„ More efficient

„ Greater data rate

„ Wavelength Division Multiplexing

 www.jntuworld.com
Optical Fiber Transmission
Modes
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Wireless Transmission
Unguided media o m
„
s . c
„ e r
Transmission and reception via antenna
Directional in e
„
Focused beam n g
„
O E
„ Carefuloalignment required
a D
Omnidirectional
„
F a
„ Signal spreads in all directions
„ Can be received by many antennae
 www.jntuworld.com
Frequencies
„ 2GHz to 40GHz
o m
Microwave . c
rs
„

„ Highly directional
e e
„ Point to point
Satellite gin
„

30MHz to 1GHz E n
„
o O
Omnidirectional
„

a D
„
F a Broadcast radio
„ 3 x 1011 to 2 x 1014
„ Infrared
„ Local
 www.jntuworld.com
Terrestrial Microwave
o m
„ Parabolic dish
s . c
Focused beam e r
„
i n e
„ Line of sight g
E n
„ Long haulO telecommunications
Higher
o
Dfrequencies give higher data
„
a a
F
rates
 www.jntuworld.com
Satellite Microwave
Satellite is relay station o m
„
s . c
„ Satellite receives on one e rfrequency,
amplifies or repeats i n e
signal and
n g
transmits on another frequency
O E
„ Requiresogeo-stationary orbit
a D
Height of 35,784km
„
F a
„ Television
„ Long distance telephone
„ Private business networks
 www.jntuworld.com
Broadcast Radio
o m
„ Omnidirectional
s . c
FM radio e r
„
i n e
„ UHF and VHF television
g
E n
„ Line of sight
O
o
„
a aD from multipath interference
Suffers
F Reflections
„
 www.jntuworld.com
Infrared
o m
„ Modulate noncoherent infrared
s . c light
e r
Line of sight (or reflection)
„
i n e
„ Blocked by wallsg
E n
„ e.g. TV remote
O control, IRD port
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Standards
„ Required to allow for interoperabilityo m
between equipment . c
e rs
„ Advantages
in e
„
n g
Ensures a large market for equipment and
software
O E
„
D o
Allows products from different vendors to
a
communicate
a
„
F
Disadvantages
„ Freeze technology
„ May be multiple standards for the same thing
 www.jntuworld.com
Standards Organizations
o m
„ Internet Society
s . c
ISO e r
„
i n e
„ ITU-T (formally gCCITT)
E n
„ ATM forum O
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
OSI - The Model
o m
„ A layer model . c
„
e rs
Each layer performs a subset of the required
in e
communication functions
n g
Each layer relies on the next lower layer to
„

O E
perform more primitive functions
D o
Each layer provides services to the next
„
a a
F
higher layer
„ Changes in one layer should not require
changes in other layers
 www.jntuworld.com
The OSI Environment
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
OSI as Framework for
Standardization
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Layer Specific Standards
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Elements of Standardization
Protocol specification o m
„
Operates between the same r s .
layer
c
on two systems
„

e e system
May involve different operating
„

g
Protocol specificationi n
must be precise
„

„
E n
Format of data units
„

o O
Semantics of all fields

a
„
D allowable sequence of PCUs
„
F a
Service definition
„ Functional description of what is provided
„ Addressing
„ Referenced by SAPs
 www.jntuworld.com
OSI Layers (1)
o m
„ Physical
s . c
„
e r
Physical interface between devices
„ Mechanical
i n e
„ Electrical
n g
„

O E
Functional
Procedural
„
„

D
DataaLink
o
a
F Means of activating, maintaining and deactivating
„

a reliable link
„ Error detection and control
„ Higher layers may assume error free transmission
 www.jntuworld.com
OSI Layers (2)
o m
„ Network
. c
„ Transport of information
e rs
„

Not needed on direct linksin e

Higher layers do not need to know about underlying technology
„

Transport n g
„

O E
Exchange of data between end systems
„

D o
Error free
„

a a
In sequence
„

„ F
No losses
„ No duplicates
„ Quality of service
 www.jntuworld.com
OSI Layers (3)
„ Session o m
. c
„

Dialogue discipline e rs
Control of dialogues between applications
„

Grouping in e
„

Recovery n g
„

O E
„ Presentationo
a D
Data formats and coding
„

„ F a
Data compression
„ Encryption
„ Application
„ Means for applications to access OSI environment
 www.jntuworld.com
Terminology (1)
o m
„ Transmitter . c
Receiver e rs
„
in e
„ Medium g
Guided mediumE n
„

o O
e.g. twisted pair, optical fiber
„

a D
F
„ a
Unguided medium
„ e.g. air, water, vacuum
 www.jntuworld.com
Terminology (2)
o m
„ Direct link . c
e
No intermediate devices rs
„

in e
„ Point-to-point g
E
Direct link
n
„

o O
Only 2 devices share link
„
a D
„
F a
Multi-point
„ More than two devices share the link
 www.jntuworld.com
Terminology (3)
o m
„ Simplex . c
One direction ers
„

e.g. Television in e
„
„

Half duplex E n g
Either o O
direction, but only one way at a time
„

a D
e.g. police radio
F a „

„ Full duplex
„ Both directions at the same time
„ e.g. telephone
 www.jntuworld.com
A Communications Model
„ Source
o m
„ generates data to be transmitted . c
Transmitter e rs
„

in e
„ Converts data into transmittable signals

Transmission System n g
„

„ Carries dataO E
Receiver D o
„

a a
„
F
„ Converts received signal into data

Destination
„ Takes incoming data
 www.jntuworld.com
Simplified Communications
Model - Diagram
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Key Communications Tasks
„ Transmission System Utilization
o m
Interfacing . c
„

Signal Generation e rs
„

Synchronization in e
„

n
Exchange Management
g
„

O E
„
D o
Error detection and correction
„
a a
Addressing and routing
„ F
Recovery
„ Message formatting
„ Security
„ Network Management
 www.jntuworld.com
Simplified Data
Communications Model
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Networking
o m
„ Point to point communication
s . c not
usually practical e r
i
Devices are too far n e
apart
„

„
g
n would need
Large set ofEdevices
o O
impractical number of connections
a D
Solution is a communications network
„
F a
 www.jntuworld.com
Simplified Network Model
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Local Area Networks
o m
„ Smaller scope . c
e rs
Building or small campus
„

in e
„ Usually owned by g same organization as
n
attached devices
E
„ Data D
O
o much higher
rates
a a
Usually broadcast systems
„ F
„ Now some switched systems and ATM
are being introduced
 www.jntuworld.com
LAN Applications (1)
o m
„ Personal computer LANs
. c
„ Low cost
ers
„ Limited data rate
in e
„
n g
Back end networks and storage area
networks O E
D o
Interconnecting large systems (mainframes
„

a a
and large storage devices)
F „ High data rate
„ High speed interface
„ Distributed access
„ Limited distance
„ Limited number of devices
 www.jntuworld.com
LAN Applications (2)
o m
„ High speed office networks.c
Desktop image processinge r s
„

High capacity localin

e
storage
„

n g
„ Backbone LANs
O E
„
D o
Interconnect low speed local LANs
a a
Reliability
F Capacity
„

„ Cost
 www.jntuworld.com
LAN Topologies
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Bus and Tree
„ Multipoint medium
o m
„ Transmission propagates throughout medium
. c
„ Heard by all stations
e rs
in e
„ Need to identify target station

„ Each station has unique address

n g
Full duplex connection between station and tap
„

O E
„ Allows for transmission and reception

„
D o
Need to regulate transmission
a
„ To avoid collisions
a
F
„ To avoid hogging

„ Data in small blocks - frames

„ Terminator absorbs frames at end of medium

 www.jntuworld.com
Frame Transmission - Bus LAN
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Ring Topology
„
o m
Repeaters joined by point to point links in closed
loop . c
e rs
Receive data on one link and retransmit on another
„

Links unidirectional in e
„

n g
Stations attach to repeaters
„

O E
„ Data in frames o
a D
Circulate past all stations
„

„ F a
Destination recognizes address and copies frame
„ Frame circulates back to source where it is removed
„ Media access control determines when station can
insert frame
 www.jntuworld.com
Frame Transmission Ring LAN
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Star Topology
o m
„
s . c
Each station connected directly to
central node e r
i
Usually via two pointn eto point links
„
g
n broadcast
„ Central nodeEcan
o
Physical
O
star, logical bus
„
a D
F
„ a
Only one station can transmit at a time
„ Central node can act as frame switch
 www.jntuworld.com
Wide Area Networks
o m
„ Large geographical area .c
„ Crossing public rightsee r s
of way
„ g i n
Rely in part on common carrier circuits
E n
„ Alternative
O technologies
D
Circuit
oswitching
„

a a
F Packet switching
„

„ Frame relay
„ Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM)
 www.jntuworld.com
Circuit Switching
o m
„ Dedicated communications.c path
r
established for the duration
e s of the
conversation i n e
n g
„ e.g. telephone
E network
o O
a D
F a
 www.jntuworld.com
Packet Switching
o m
„ Data sent out of sequence .c
Small chunks (packets) r s
eof data at a
„

time i n e
n g
„
O E
Packets passed from node to node
between
D osource and destination
a
Used
a
„
F for terminal to computer and
computer to computer communications
 www.jntuworld.com
Frame Relay
o m
„ Packet switching systems have
s . c large
overheads to compensate
e r for errors
„ Modern systemsgare
e
in more reliable
E
Errors can be
n
caught in end system
„
o O
„ Most Doverhead for error control is
a a
stripped out
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Asynchronous Transfer Mode
o m
„ ATM
s . c
Evolution of frame relay e r
„
i n e
„ Little overhead for
g error control
E n
„ Fixed packet
O (called cell) length
o
D from 10Mbps to Gbps
Anything
„
a a
„ F
Constant data rate using packet
switching technique
 www.jntuworld.com
Protocols
o m
. c
„

Must speak the same language e rs

Used for communications between entities in a system
„

„ Entities
in e
„ User applications
n g
E
„ e-mail facilities

O
o
„ terminals

D
„

a a
Systems

F„ Computer

„ Terminal

„ Remote sensor
 www.jntuworld.com
Key Elements of a Protocol
o m
„ Syntax
. c
„ Data formats
ers
„ Signal levels
in e
„ Semantics
n g
E
„ Control information
O
o
„ Error handling
D
„
a a
Timing
F„ Speed matching

„ Sequencing
 www.jntuworld.com
Characteristics
o m
„ Direct or indirect
s . c
Monolithic or structured e r
„
i n e
„ Symmetric or asymmetric
g
n
„ Standard O or E
nonstandard
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Direct or Indirect
o m
„ Direct . c
e rs
Systems share a point to point link or
„

in e
Systems share a multi-point link
„

n g
„
O E
Data can pass without intervening active
agento
D
„ aa
Indirect
F Switched networks or
„

„ Internetworks or internets
„ Data transfer depend on other entities
 www.jntuworld.com
Symmetric or Asymmetric
o m
„ Symmetric . c
ers
Communication between peer entities
„

in e
„ Asymmetric g
E
Client/server
n
„

o O
a D
F a
 www.jntuworld.com
Standard or Nonstandard
o m
„ Nonstandard protocols built.cfor specific
computers and tasks e r s
„ in e
K sources and Lgreceivers leads to K*L
protocols andE n
2*K*L implementations
If commono Oprotocol used, K + L
„
a D
F a
implementations needed
 www.jntuworld.com
Use of Standard Protocols
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Monolithic or Structured
o m
„ Communications is a complex
s . c task
To complex for single r
eunit
„
i n e
„ Structured designg breaks down problem
into smaller E
n
units
o O
„ Layered
D structure
a a
F
 www.jntuworld.com
Functions
o m
„ Encapsulation
. c
„ Segmentation and reassmebly
e rs
„ Connection control
in e
„ Ordered delivery
n g
„ Flow control
O E
„
D o
Error control
„
a a
Addressing
„
F
Multiplexing
„ Transmission services
 www.jntuworld.com
Encapsulation
o m
„ .c to data
Addition of control information
r s
„ Address information
e e
„
g in
Error-detecting code
„ E n
Protocol control
o O
a D
F a
 www.jntuworld.com
Segmentation (Fragmentation)
Data blocks are of bounded size o m
„
. c
„
e rs
Application layer messages may be large
„ in e
Network packets may be smaller
n g
Splitting larger blocks into smaller ones is
„
O E
segmentation (or fragmentation in TCP/IP)
o
a D
ATM blocks (cells) are 53 octets long
„

„ F a
Ethernet blocks (frames) are up to 1526 octets
long
„ Checkpoints and restart/recovery
 www.jntuworld.com
Why Fragment?
o m
„ Advantages . c
„
e rs
More efficient error control
„
in e
More equitable access to network facilities
Shorter delaysn g
„

O E
Smaller buffers needed
„

D o
a a
„ F
Disadvantages
„ Overheads
„ Increased interrupts at receiver
„ More processing time
 www.jntuworld.com
Connection Control
o m
„ Connection Establishment
. c
„ Data transfer
e rs
„
in
Connection termination e
„ n g
May be connection interruption and recovery
O E
Sequence numbers used for
„

D o
„ Ordered delivery

a a
F„ Flow control

„ Error control
 www.jntuworld.com
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
„ Developed by the US Defense.c o m
Advanced
rs for its
Research Project Agencye(DARPA)
packet switched network
i n e (ARPANET)
„ n
Used by the global g Internet
No official O E
model but a working one.
„
o
D layer
„
a a
Application
F Host to host or transport layer
„

„ Internet layer
„ Network access layer
„ Physical layer
 www.jntuworld.com
TCP/IP Protocol Architecture
Model
o m
. c
ers
in e
n g
O E
D o
a a
F