Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center - Lubrication Guide - Revision 4 - Formerly 1003085

Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center:
Lubrication Guide, Revision 4 (Formerly 1003085)
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11577208
Nuclear Maintenance Applications
Center: Lubrication Guide,
Revision 4 (Formerly 1003085)
1019518
Final Report, December 2009
EPRI Project Manager

N. Camilli
ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

3420 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, California 94304-1338 • PO Box 10412, Palo Alto, California 94303-0813 • USA
800.313.3774 • 650.855.2121 • askepri@epri.com • www.epri.com
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DISCLAIMER OF WARRANTIES AND LIMITATION OF LIABILITIES
THIS DOCUMENT WAS PREPARED BY THE ORGANIZATION(S) NAMED BELOW AS AN
ACCOUNT OF WORK SPONSORED OR COSPONSORED BY THE ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH
INSTITUTE, INC. (EPRI). NEITHER EPRI, ANY MEMBER OF EPRI, ANY COSPONSOR, THE
ORGANIZATION(S) BELOW, NOR ANY PERSON ACTING ON BEHALF OF ANY OF THEM:
(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)

WITH RESPECT TO THE USE OF ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD, PROCESS, OR
SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT, INCLUDING MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS
FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE, OR (II) THAT SUCH USE DOES NOT INFRINGE ON OR
INTERFERE WITH PRIVATELY OWNED RIGHTS, INCLUDING ANY PARTY'S INTELLECTUAL
PROPERTY, OR (III) THAT THIS DOCUMENT IS SUITABLE TO ANY PARTICULAR USER'S
CIRCUMSTANCE; OR
(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER

(INCLUDING ANY CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES, EVEN IF EPRI OR ANY EPRI REPRESENTATIVE
HAS BEEN ADVISED OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGES) RESULTING FROM YOUR
SELECTION OR USE OF THIS DOCUMENT OR ANY INFORMATION, APPARATUS, METHOD,
PROCESS, OR SIMILAR ITEM DISCLOSED IN THIS DOCUMENT.
ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT
Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
J. Howard Adams, PhD
NOTE
For further information about EPRI, call the EPRI Customer Assistance Center at 800.313.3774 or
e-mail askepri@epri.com.
Electric Power Research Institute, EPRI, and TOGETHER…SHAPING THE FUTURE OF ELECTRICITY
are registered service marks of the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc.
Copyright © 2009 Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. All rights reserved.
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CITATIONS
This report was prepared by

Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC)
1300 West W.T. Harris Blvd.
Charlotte, NC 28262
Principal Investigator
N. Camilli
J. Howard Adams, PhD

720 Kendall Ave.
Crockett, CA 94525
Principal Investigator
H. Adams
This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.
The report is a corporate document that should be cited in the literature in the following manner:
Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Lubrication Guide, Revision 4 (Formerly 1003085).

EPRI, Palo Alto, CA: 2009. 1019518.
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REPORT SUMMARY
Many lubricants are used in power plants for various purposes. Maintenance personnel need
concise guidelines for selecting the correct lubricant for a given application. Also, specific
knowledge is required regarding a lubricant’s characteristics to determine its applicability.
Background
Historically, this lubrication report has provided useful information to power plant personnel
involved in this area of plant operation and maintenance. This revision of the Lubrication Guide
incorporates changes within the lubrication industry, including consolidation and discontinuation
of product lines and features. As in Revision 2, it also includes topics that were covered under
the Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI) report Radiation Effects on Lubricants (NP-4735).
Objectives
• To provide general guidance to plant personnel involved with lubricants
• To provide information on current oils and greases and their operating limitations for
different plant applications
• To provide references to other EPRI lubrication-related reports
Results
This report addresses lubricants, lubrication, testing, friction, and wear. It includes sections on
basic lubrication, application problems, tests, and analysis. Tables are provided that profile each
use category, lubricants for specific applications, and temperature and radiation tolerances of
these lubricants. A glossary of technical terms is included, as is guidance on selecting the correct
lubricant for specific applications. Information about determining the remaining life of a
lubricant is provided, which can help reduce unnecessary and costly lubricant change-outs.
Approach
A technical advisory group (TAG) consisting of utility lubrication engineers was formed to assist
in the revision of the report. The TAG identified multiple areas to update including test methods,
compatibility studies, and lubricant product line changes (Appendix A). Additionally, a new
chapter which references existing EPRI lubrication studies on specific topics was included to
allow for a quick point of reference.
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EPRI Perspective
Knowledge of lubrication is important for maintenance personnel in their day-to-day work. This
report provides, in a concise form, a substantial amount of information on the properties of
commonly used lubricants. Selection of correct and compatible lubricants can help prevent
unscheduled maintenance or shutdown. Information contained in this report can be useful to a
training instructor and to persons being initiated in the technology of lubrication. This revision to
the Lubrication Guide incorporates recent changes within the lubrication industry, including
consolidation and discontinuation of product lines and features.
Keywords
Lubricants
Lubrication
Plant engineering
Plant maintenance
Plant operations
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ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
This report was developed by the Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center (NMAC). The first
version of the report was prepared by the late Dr. Bob Bolt and Jim Carroll. The third version,
built on the prior work, was prepared largely by Dr. Bolt, with significant assistance from Dr.
Howard Adams. This fourth revision was prepared by Dr. Adams, with valuable contributions
from EPRI and the following individuals:
Kurt Bittner PSEG
Jacques Langlois Hydro-Quebec
David Anderson Tennessee Valley Authority
Norma Bihl Dominion
Dave Efron Pacific Gas and Electric
Chesley Brown Luminent
Larry Hopkins Omaha Public Power District
Glenn Langdon Constellation Energy Group
George Staniewski Ontario Power Generation
Roger Sagmoe Xcel Energy
Ludwig Burkle Oak Ridge National Laboratory
Steve Lemberger American Electric Power
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ABSTRACT
This report provides information on lubricants from many manufacturers; the lubricants are
suitable for various nuclear power plant applications. Lubricant operating limits with respect to
temperature and radiation dose are listed. The report also addresses the basics of how lubricants
work, how radiation affects them, and how this relates to their composition. Friction and wear
are other basic topics presented, along with lubricant stress effects, shelf life, compatibility,
troubleshooting, and testing, all of which are important in maintenance. The testing section has
received particular attention with the addition of several new test methods. It is intended that the
report will be used by power plant maintenance and engineering personnel.
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CONTENTS
1 LUBRICANTS: WHAT THEY ARE AND HOW THEY WORK ............................................... 1-1
1.1 Base Oils ..................................................................................................................... 1-1
1.2 Key Measurements ...................................................................................................... 1-3
1.3 Additives ...................................................................................................................... 1-4
1.3.1 Vl Improvers ........................................................................................................ 1-5
1.3.2 Detergents/Dispersants....................................................................................... 1-5
1.3.3 Basic Metal Compounds ..................................................................................... 1-5
1.3.4 Antiwear and Antiscuff (EP) Additives................................................................. 1-5
1.3.5 Antioxidants......................................................................................................... 1-6
1.3.6 Rust Inhibitors and Antifoamants ........................................................................ 1-7
1.3.7 Gelling Agents ..................................................................................................... 1-7
1.4 Synthetic Lubricants .................................................................................................... 1-7
2 RADIATION EFFECTS ON LUBRICANTS AND ELASTOMERS ......................................... 2-1

2.1 Effect on Lubricants ..................................................................................................... 2-1
2.2 Effect on Elastomers .................................................................................................... 2-7
3 LUBRICATION, FRICTION, AND WEAR .............................................................................. 3-1

3.1 Hydrodynamic Lubrication ........................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication .................................................................................. 3-2
3.3 Boundary Lubrication ................................................................................................... 3-3
3.3.1 Physically Adsorbed Film .................................................................................... 3-3
3.3.2 Chemisorbed Film ............................................................................................... 3-4
3.3.3 Chemical Reaction Film ...................................................................................... 3-5
3.4 Solid Lubricants ........................................................................................................... 3-6
3.5 Nature of Machined Surfaces ...................................................................................... 3-6
3.6 Friction and Wear ........................................................................................................ 3-7
3.6.1 Friction Wear ....................................................................................................... 3-7
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3.6.2 Wear Mechanisms .............................................................................................. 3-8
3.6.2.1 Corrosion (Moisture and Frictional) ............................................................... 3-8
3.6.2.2 Electrical Erosion......................................................................................... 3-10
3.6.2.3 Fatigue ........................................................................................................ 3-12
3.6.2.4 Plastic Deformation ..................................................................................... 3-13
3.6.2.5 Abrasive and Adhesive Wear ...................................................................... 3-13
4 LUBRICANT SELECTION AND APPLICATION PROBLEMS .............................................. 4-1

4.1 How to Select a Lubricant for New Equipment ............................................................ 4-1
4.2 Compatibility of Mixed Products................................................................................... 4-1
4.2.1 Oils ...................................................................................................................... 4-2
4.2.2 Greases............................................................................................................... 4-2
4.3 Shelf Life ...................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.4 Time/Temperature/Radiation Considerations .............................................................. 4-7
4.5 Continuous Versus Intermittent Use and Lube Performance....................................... 4-8
5 TESTS AND ANALYSES ....................................................................................................... 5-1

5.1 Sampling ...................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 Troubleshooting ........................................................................................................... 5-2
5.3 Lubricant Testing ......................................................................................................... 5-2
5.3.1 Sensory Tests ..................................................................................................... 5-3
5.3.2 Other Simple Tests ............................................................................................. 5-3
5.3.3 Diagnostic Laboratory Tests ............................................................................... 5-5
5.3.4 Standard Laboratory Tests................................................................................ 5-12
5.3.5 Analytical Test Methods .................................................................................... 5-14
5.4 Using Test Results ..................................................................................................... 5-20
5.5 Trending ..................................................................................................................... 5-21
5.6 Warning Limits ........................................................................................................... 5-22
5.7 Cleanup Considerations ............................................................................................ 5-24
6 LUBRICATION RESOURCES ............................................................................................... 6-1

6.1 NMAC Lube Notes Newsletter ..................................................................................... 6-1
6.2 EPRI Technical Support............................................................................................... 6-1
6.3 EPRI Lubrication Publications...................................................................................... 6-2
6.3.1 Lube Oil Predictive Maintenance, Handling, and Quality Assurance
Guideline (1004384) ......................................................................................................... 6-2
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6.3.2 Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Turbine Oil Compatibility
(1016272) .........................................................................................................................6-2
6.3.3 Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Lube Notes Compilation,
1989–2007 (1015254) ......................................................................................................6-2
6.3.4 Turbine Oil Lubrication Compatibility Testing (1011028) ....................................6-3
6.3.5 Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Reactor Coolant Pump/Reactor
Recirculation Pump Motor Lubrication Oil Systems Maintenance Guide (1013456) ........6-3
6.3.6 Turbine-Generator Auxiliary Systems, Volume 1: Turbine-Generator
Lubrication System Maintenance Guide (1010191) .........................................................6-3
6.3.7 Effective Practical Grease Practices (1020247)..................................................6-3
6.3.8 Oil Lubrication for Rotating Equipment—Guide (1019517).................................6-4
6.3.9 Motor-Operated Valve Lubricant Performance and Condition Assessment
(1009609) .........................................................................................................................6-4
6.3.10 EPRI Motor-Operated Valve Performance Prediction Program: Stem/
Stem Nut Lubrication Test Report (TR-102135)...............................................................6-4
6.3.11 Comparative Analysis of Polyrex EM and SRI Greases for Use in EQ
Motor Bearings (1011946)................................................................................................6-5
6.3.12 MOV Long Life Grease—Evaluation for Limitorque Limit Switch
Gearboxes: Used in Nuclear Safety Related Applications (1010058) ..............................6-5
6.3.13 Comparative Analysis of Nebula and MOV Long Life Greases for
Limitorque Main Gearbox Applications (1003483) ...........................................................6-5
6.4 Other Industry Resources ............................................................................................6-5
7 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................7-1
A LUBRICANT PROPERTY TABLES ..................................................................................... A-1
B GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................................... B-1
C TRANSLATED TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................. C-1
繁體中文 (Chinese – Traditional).......................................................................................... C-2
简体中文 (Chinese – Simplified) .......................................................................................... C-15
Français (French) ............................................................................................................... C-28
日本語 (Japanese).............................................................................................................. C-39
한국어 (Korean).................................................................................................................. C-52

Español (Spanish) .............................................................................................................. C-66
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1 The effect of antiwear and antiscuff additives .......................................................... 1-6
Figure 1-2 The hydrocarbon oxidation process ......................................................................... 1-6
Figure 2-1 Dose levels for radiation effects ............................................................................... 2-2
Figure 2-2 The interaction between a gamma photon and organic matter ................................ 2-2
Figure 2-3 The upper limits of radiation doses resulting in the failure of various base
fluids ................................................................................................................................... 2-3
Figure 2-4 The radiolysis effects on a lithium complex-gelled, mineral oil–based grease ......... 2-4
Figure 2-5 Relative oxidation stability of irradiated mineral oil–based steam turbine oils in
turbine oil stability tests ...................................................................................................... 2-5
Figure 2-6 Effect of temperature and irradiation on the bearing life of a sodium salt-
thickened, mineral oil–based grease .................................................................................. 2-6
Figure 2-7 Relative sensitivity of common lubricants and elastomers to irradiation .................. 2-8
Figure 2-8 Resistance of elastomers to irradiation .................................................................... 2-9
Figure 3-1 Hydrodynamic lubrication ......................................................................................... 3-2
Figure 3-2 Elastohydrodynamic lubrication ................................................................................ 3-2
Figure 3-3 Boundary lubrication (fragmented roughness) ......................................................... 3-3
Figure 3-4 Representation of physically adsorbed film—nonpolar molecules ........................... 3-4
Figure 3-5 Physically adsorbed film—polar molecules .............................................................. 3-4
Figure 3-6 A chemisorbed film ................................................................................................... 3-5
Figure 3-7 Effects of various parameters on the friction coefficient ........................................... 3-5
Figure 3-8 A machined surface .................................................................................................. 3-6
Figure 3-9 Example of corrosion wear ....................................................................................... 3-9
Figure 3-10 Example of fretting corrosion ................................................................................ 3-10
Figure 3-11 Example of electrical discharge ............................................................................ 3-11
Figure 3-12 An example of electrical erosion ........................................................................... 3-11
Figure 3-13 An example of surface fatigue .............................................................................. 3-12
Figure 3-14 An example of abrasive wear ............................................................................... 3-13
Figure 3-15 An example of mild adhesion ............................................................................... 3-14
Figure 4-1 Compatibility of mixtures of greases with different gelling agents ............................ 4-4
Figure 4-2 Time/temperature/irradiation interplay ...................................................................... 4-7
Figure 5-1 A gauge for measuring the viscosity of oils .............................................................. 5-4
Figure 5-2 A sample blotter spot test ......................................................................................... 5-5
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Figure 5-3 Wear particle size/concentration and machine condition.......................................... 5-8
Figure 5-4 Detection of wear and other particles ....................................................................... 5-9
Figure 5-5 A TGA setup ........................................................................................................... 5-15
Figure 5-6 A DSC apparatus .................................................................................................... 5-15
Figure 5-7 The Fluitec RULER instrument ............................................................................... 5-16
Figure 5-8 Example of three additives and voltammetric (RULER) response ......................... 5-18
Figure 5-9 Voltammetric (RULER) graph showing the new oil and in-service turbine oil......... 5-19
Figure 5-10 Chromatographs of fresh and used gear oils ....................................................... 5-20
Figure 5-11 Sample plot of lubricant properties ....................................................................... 5-22
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1 Oil and grease requirements ..................................................................................... 1-1

Table 1-2 American Petroleum Institute base oil categories ...................................................... 1-2
Table 1-3 Comparative properties of PAO synthetic base oil and various mineral base
oils ...................................................................................................................................... 1-3
Table 1-4 Common additives in various lubricants .................................................................... 1-4
Table 1-5 Synthetic base oils and their applications .................................................................. 1-8
Table 2-1 Effects of irradiation on common oils ......................................................................... 2-7
Table 2-2 Effects of irradiation on common greases ................................................................. 2-7
Table 2-3 Resistance of elastomers to the effects of common oils and greases ....................... 2-8
Table 4-1 Compatibility of greases ............................................................................................ 4-3
Table 4-2 Grease compatibility tests .......................................................................................... 4-5
Table 5-1 Sequence of lubricant testing .................................................................................... 5-2
Table 5-2 IR peak regions of interest ......................................................................................... 5-6
Table 5-3 Sources of metals in lubricants .................................................................................. 5-7
Table 5-4 Wear and its causes ................................................................................................ 5-10
Table 5-5 Particle count range numbers .................................................................................. 5-11
Table 5-6 Key tests for lubricants ............................................................................................ 5-13
Table 5-7 Typical warning limits for certain lubricant services ................................................. 5-23
Table A-1 Turbine oils: ISO Viscosity Grades 32, 46, and 68 ................................................... A-1
Table A-2 Engine oils for large diesels ..................................................................................... A-2
Table A-3 Low-pressure hydraulic oil: ISO Viscosity Grades 32, 46, 68, and 100 ................... A-3
Table A-4 High-pressure hydraulic oil: ISO Viscosity Grades 32, 46, 68, and 100 ................... A-4
Table A-5 Compressor oils ....................................................................................................... A-5
Table A-6 High-load extreme pressure: EP gear lubricants ...................................................... A-6
Table A-7 Open gear lubricants ................................................................................................ A-7
Table A-8 Antiseizure compounds ............................................................................................ A-8
Table A-9 Limitorque valve actuator lubricants ......................................................................... A-9
Table A-10 Fire-resistant hydraulic fluids ................................................................................ A-10
Table A-11 General-purpose greases—Grades 00, 0, 1, 2, and 3 ......................................... A-11
Table A-12 Coupling greases ................................................................................................. A-12
Table A-13 Grease types and performance ............................................................................ A-13
Table B-1 Viscosity equivalents ................................................................................................ B-4
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1
LUBRICANTS: WHAT THEY ARE AND HOW THEY
WORK
Oils and greases must meet several requirements, as shown in Table 1-1.
Table 1-1
Oil and grease requirements
Properties Oils Greases
Prevent metal/metal contact x x
Act as a hydraulic medium x
Act as a coolant x
Carry away contaminants x

Protect against wear x x
Protect against corrosion x x
Protect against deposits x x
Resist foaming x
Remain in place x
Note that the only function exclusive to greases is the ability to stay in place. This results from
the semisolid nature of greases. On the other hand, there are several functions exclusive to oils
that are derived from their fluid nature.
1.1 Base Oils
To perform the indicated tasks, commercial lubricating oils consist of about 85–99% (or greater)
base oil. The remainder consists of additives that are used to enhance the properties of the base
oil or to create a necessary property in it. Base oils are classified as mineral oils and synthetic
oils.
The principal advantage of synthetic oils is their relatively low viscosity at low temperatures.
They also can have somewhat better high-temperature performance. However, the cost of
synthetic-based lubricants is three to eight times the cost of mineral oil–based products. (For
more discussion on synthetic lubricants, see Section 1.4.)
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Lubricants: What They Are and How They Work
The term mineral oil, as opposed to synthetic oil, implies that little processing is involved in the
manufacture of mineral base oils. This is not true. The fraction distilled from selected petroleum
crude oils for subsequent base oil manufacturing contains many organic molecular species.
Several of these must be removed to yield a high-quality final base oil. Aromatic and wax
compounds are two classes that are removed. Aromatics (alternating carbon-to-carbon double
bonds in six-membered rings) show a particularly high rate of viscosity change with temperature.
This is not a good property in a lubricant. Waxes are solids at room temperature and are,
therefore, unsuitable in base oils. Removing these requires considerable processing. Physical
treatment—for example, solvent refining—is still used as a method of removal, but catalytic
hydrogenation under pressure and temperature is now the preferred method of removal.
The product of solvent refining of a base oil feed is called a Group I base oil. Relatively mild
catalytic hydrogenation yields a Group II base oil that has drastically reduced aromatic, sulfur,
and nitrogen compounds. This change from Group I results in improved oxidation stability and
reduced solvency. A more rigorous hydrogenation produces a Group III base material. Some
properties of these and of a common synthetic hydrocarbon base oil (Group IV) are listed in
Tables 1-2 and 1-3.
Table 1-2
American Petroleum Institute base oil categories
Base Oil Sulfur % Saturates % Viscosity Refining Method

Category Index (VI)
Group I >300 ppm <90 80–119 Solvent refined/solvent

dewaxed
Group II ≤300 ppm ≥90 80–119 Severe hydrocracked/solvent
dewaxed
Group III ≤300 ppm ≥90 ≥120 Severe hydrocracked/
iso-dewaxed
Group IV All NA Synthetic

polyalphaolefins
(PAOs)
Group V All others NA Synthetic
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Table 1-3
Comparative properties of PAO synthetic base oil and various mineral base oils
Mineral Oils Mineral Oils Mineral Oils PAO

Group I* Group II* Group III* API Group IV*
Viscosity, 40°C, cSt 32 44 39 32

Viscosity, 100°C, cSt 5.3 6.6 7.0 6.0
VI 95 102 135 136
Pour point, °C -15 -15 -20 -66

Flash point, °C 210 230 240 246
Fire point, °C 240 — — 272

Evaporation loss, Wt% 16 — — 4
(6.5 hr at 204°C)
Aniline point, °C 108 115 127 127

(ASTM D611)
* American Petroleum Institute base stock classification
1.2 Key Measurements
Kinematic viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow—in other words, its fluidity. It is
measured in centistokes (cSt). The viscosity at 40°C is used in industrial oil grading. For
example, a 32 grade has a viscosity at 40°C of around 32 cSt. Other grading methods exist, but
they are used primarily for engine oils. Some of these, including their interrelationships, are
shown in the glossary in Appendix B.
The VI , a measure of viscosity change with temperature, has its origins in petroleum antiquity.
An oil derived from a Gulf Coast crude oil showed a high rate of change of viscosity with
temperature change and was arbitrarily given a VI value of zero. A Pennsylvania crude-derived
oil, with a low rate of change of viscosity with temperature change, was given a VI of 100. All
oils since then have been compared on this scale. The best of the normal mineral base oils
(Group I and some from Group II) have VIs in the 90s. Synthetic oils and some highly refined
mineral oils (Group III and some from Group II) can have VIs in the 105–160 range, reflecting
their superior viscosity/temperature properties.
The temperature viscosity coefficient (λ) is a more fundamental indication of change of viscosity
with temperature change; it might soon become more widely used. It is calculated as
λ = viscosity in cSt at 40°C – viscosity in cSt at 100°C

viscosity in cSt at 40°C
See Table 1-3 for some values of the temperature viscosity coefficient.
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Grease consistency is measured by penetration values. These are determined from the distance
(in 0.1-mm units) that a standard ASTM International (ASTM) cone sinks into a standard cup of
grease at 77°F (25°C). Because consistency can change with shear or working, greases are often
worked in a standard worker before penetrations are measured. The worked penetrations
corresponding to the various grease grades are shown in the glossary (Appendix B). P60 refers to
the penetration after 60 double strokes in the worker, P10,000 refers to the penetration after 10,000
double strokes, and so on. Grease grades are determined by P60 values (see Appendix B for grade
determinations).
The dropping point is the temperature at which a grease just begins to melt or separate. The use
temperature of a product is related to its dropping point.
1.3 Additives
As much as about 15% of a finished lubricant consists of materials added to the starting base oil
to create properties or enhance those that already exist. Table 1-4 shows finished lubricants and
the additives they might contain.
Table 1-4
Common additives in various lubricants
Common Engine Oils Turbine Hydraulic Gear Compressor Greases

Lubricants Oils Oils Oils Oils
Gasoline Diesel
Additives
VI improvers x x x x
Detergents/ x x x
dispersants
Basic metal x x x
compounds
Antiwear agents x x x x x x
Antiscuff (extreme x x (Note)

pressure [EP])
agents
Antioxidants x x x x x x x
Rust inhibitors x x x x x x x
Antifoamants x x x x x x
Gelling agents x
Note:
Premium greases for ball and roller bearing lubrication generally do not contain antiscuff agents.
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1.3.1 Vl Improvers
VI improvers are listed first because they are used in the largest amounts to perform their
function. They thicken low-viscosity base oils and, in the process, flatten the mixture’s
viscosity/temperature slope. This improves VI. These additives are widely used to make mineral
oil-based multigrade engine oils. VI improvers are not required in order to make multigrade
products from synthetic base oils or some Group III mineral base oils. This is because of the
superior viscosity/temperature properties of such base oils (see Table 1-3).
1.3.2 Detergents/Dispersants
Detergents/dispersants keep any deposit precursors in suspension instead of agglomerating to

plug piston rings, key oil passages, and other parts or collecting as sludge. Detergents/dispersants
were among the first additives used and continue to be of high importance in engine oils where
deposits can come from combustion products. They are sometimes used in compressor oils as
well.
1.3.3 Basic Metal Compounds
Basic metal compounds have some detergency and good rust-preventing properties, but their
main function is to neutralize acids in diesel engine oils. The acids come from the combustion of
sulfur in fuel and the fixation of nitrogen in combustion air. Reaction with water converts the
sulfur and nitrogen oxides to corresponding acids. If not neutralized, they cause corrosive wear
of engine parts and early onset of oxidation of the lubricant. The need for basic metal compounds
(base reserve and high base number) in part depends on the sulfur content of the fuel—the lower
the sulfur, the less need for base. The national trend toward low-sulfur diesel fuel to control
emissions will eventually reduce the use of basic metal compounds.
1.3.4 Antiwear and Antiscuff (EP) Additives
Antiwear additives are very widely used in engine and industrial lubricants, but not universally
so. Antiscuff additives are less widely used, as indicated in Table 1-2. Antiscuff is a modern
replacement for the term EP. Scuffing is defined as metal transfer resulting from adhesion in
metal-to-metal contact. Antiscuff materials can be viewed as more surface-invasive and,
therefore, stronger in action than antiwear additives. Antiwear and antiscuff additives function by
interposing a relatively shear-resistant chemical film between load-bearing metal surfaces. The
general mechanism by which these additives work is shown in Figure l-l.
At the top, two moving metal surfaces under little or no load are held apart by an oil film. With
the application of a load, metal-to-metal contact occurs. At the bottom, when the load is applied,
the contact is prevented by a tough chemical film. Sulfur/phosphorus compounds are the most
common antiwear agents, and they form films of iron, sulfur, and phosphorus compounds to
protect the surfaces. Active, organic sulfur compounds are the principal materials used as
antiscuff agents. All these additives act similarly in oils and greases alike, and they can be
temperature-sensitive. Mild antiwear can also be provided in greases from the gelling agents.
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Figure 1-1
The effect of antiwear and antiscuff additives [1]
1.3.5 Antioxidants
The principal enemy of any lubricant is oxidation. The onset of oxidation cannot be prevented,
only delayed. The delay is called the induction period. Antioxidants extend the induction period
effectively, but after the period has been exceeded, oxidation can occur exponentially, as shown
in Figure 1-2. This results in physical and chemical property changes (for example, fluidity
change and acid formation). In common with all chemical reactions, oxidation increases with
temperature—the rate doubles with each increase of about 18°F (10°C). However, doubling a
very low rate still yields a low rate, and the rate is low during the induction period.
Figure 1-2
The hydrocarbon oxidation process
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1.3.6 Rust Inhibitors and Antifoamants
Rust or corrosion inhibitors are also widely used. They perform by forming a weakly adsorbed
film on the surfaces to be protected. An antifoamant is also used in most oils. They are polymers
and silicone fluids in low concentration that affect the surface tension in order to reduce the
foaming tendency. They also help provide good deaeration properties. There is a recent move
away from silicone antifoam materials for oils (for example, turbine oils). This is because there
can be tight silicon content specifications to control dirt contamination.
1.3.7 Gelling Agents
A gelling agent is used to convert an oil into a grease, thus providing the lubricant with its
unique stay-in-place function. The oil that is gelled also contains the other additives that are
required in order to provide the necessary properties shown in Table 1-4. In addition, the gelling
agent identity defines many of the grease’s other performance characteristics. These are detailed
in Appendix A, Table A-13.
1.4 Synthetic Lubricants
Synthetic lubricants are manmade lubricants whose base oils are chemical products
manufactured or synthesized to provide properties not available in Group I and some Group II
mineral oil–based products. Although the synthetics represent less than 1% of the total lubricant
inventory, they are available for and are used in many applications. Table 1-5 shows the various
classes of synthetic base oils and the finished products in which they are used. Note that in the
field of metalworking/cutting fluids, water-based fluids are sometimes called synthetic.
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Table 1-5
Synthetic base oils and their applications
Engine Oils Industrial Greases Fire- Relative

Oils Resistant Cost
Oils (Note 1)
Jet Other
Synthetic Oils
PAOs x x (Note 2) x (Note 2) 4–8

Diesters x x (Note 3) 5–7
Polyolesters x 10–14
Phosphate esters x (Note 4) 10
Polyethers x 6–8
(polyglycols)
Silicones (siloxanes) x (Note 5) x (Note 5) 30–100

(Note 6)
Perfluoropolyethers x x 80–800
Polyphenylethers x x 100+
Chlorofluorocarbons x 100+
Notes:
1. Approximate cost multiplier relative to most common mineral oil
2. Mobil SHC series, Mobilgrease 1 28
3. Beacon 325 (Exxon)
4. Fyrquel 2 and so on
5. Dow Corning; General Electric (GE)
6. Including halogenated species
The PAOs (Group IV) are the most widely used synthetic base oils in industrial and automotive
lubricants. However, the differences between them and the new highly refined (hydrocracked)
mineral oil base stocks (Group III) are becoming blurred, as shown in Table 1-3. Because of this,
the marketplace is likely to see fewer PAO-based products in the future. The hydrocracked base
oils cost half as much as the PAOs, and their properties are often similar.
The hydrocracking process involves hydrogenation of normal mineral oil feed material with
special catalysts. These catalysts direct the process to rearrange the undesirable molecular
constituents of the feed into species that resemble those in the polymerization of the PAOs. The
severity of the process dictates the properties of the final product, as in Table 1-3.
1
Mobilgrease is a registered trademark of Exxon Mobil Corporation.
2
Fyrquel is a registered trademark of Supresta.
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The good low-temperature properties of the PAOs are reflected in the viscosities, VI, and pour
point. They are matched, except for the last, by the Group III mineral base oil. The lower
volatility for a given viscosity shows up in higher fire point and lower evaporation loss. The
aniline point is a measure of solvency—the lower the number, the higher the solvency. Here, the
PAOs and Group II and III oils are inferior to the normal, or Group I, mineral oil. That is, if
sludge is formed, it will precipitate out later with a Group I–based product. However, the sludge,
which is oxidized material, might not form so readily with the synthetic oil or a Group II–based
or Group III–based product. This is because the Group II, III, and IV oils generally give a higher
degree of oxidation resistance with a given amount of antioxidant.
Improved performance with synthetic oil–based lubricants comes with a higher price tag. This is
shown in Table 1-5. Such costs make it hard to justify the use of synthetic-based products, unless
the application demands their superior properties. For example, if equipment needing lubrication
is used in subzero weather, it is worth the added cost to be able to reliably start or operate the
frigid apparatus with a PAO-based oil. The cost, of course, is only half as much if a Group III–
based product can be used. In another example, if fire-resistant oil is needed, the additional cost
is justified. But if these properties are not required, there is no need to use expensive synthetic
products. The vast majority of the nuclear power plant lubrication requirements can be met with
high-quality, mineral oil–based products.
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2
RADIATION EFFECTS ON LUBRICANTS AND
ELASTOMERS
This section provides a brief overview of the effects of radiation on lubricants and
elastomers [2].
2.1 Effect on Lubricants
In normal operation, lubricants must withstand the stresses of temperature, shear, pressure (load),
and exposure to oxygen in the air. In nuclear power plants, exposure to nuclear radiation is an
added stress. The overall effects of thermal and radiation exposures are similar. For example,
both show thresholds below which changes in bulk properties of exposed materials are not
significant. Both also accelerate oxidation, the main foe of lubricants in service.
With radiolysis, as well as pyrolysis, color change occurs first, signaling the beginning of
oxidation and other structural changes. Gas evolution also takes place early, followed by changes
in fluidity as secondary reactions take over. The final product of very high thermal or radiation
exposure is an intractable solid, no longer a lubricant.
Radiation effects are directly related to the radiation energy input. This input is expressed in
terms of the rad (100 ergs/gram of absorber [4.3 x 10-6 Btu/lb]). The radiation sensitivity of
lubricants versus other things is shown in Figure 2-1. The more complex the irradiated object,
the less tolerant it is of irradiation. Note the effect on the ultimate in complexity—homo sapiens.
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Radiation Effects on Lubricants and Elastomers
Figure 2-1
Dose levels for radiation effects
Mechanistically, incident gamma radiation affects organic matter through initial collisions with
electrons of individual atoms of molecules. This is shown in Figure 2-2. About one-half of an
incoming ray’s energy is given up to a scattered electron, and the weakened gamma ray goes on
to repeat the process. The charged electron, knocked from its position by the incoming gamma
ray, goes on to lose its added energy by creating increasingly intense ionizations and excitations
in neighboring molecules.
Figure 2-2
The interaction between a gamma photon and organic matter
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Incident high-energy neutrons interact initially with atomic nuclei of irradiated material instead
of the electrons in gamma ray interactions. This knocks out protons, and these charged particles
go on to act in the same fashion as described for incident gamma rays.
Primary interactions in radiolysis take place in some 10-14 seconds. Secondary reactions that
result in new molecular products occur in the next 10-2 seconds. To minimize change, excitation
without decomposition needs to be fostered. Use of additives—for example, selected compounds
containing sulfur that neutralize excitation without C–C bond fissure—is one way to do this.
Another method is to employ base oil molecules that dissipate the input energy largely through
the generation of heat (resonance), that is, aromatic compounds. Thus, the effect on lubricants
depends on the chemical makeup of both the base oil and additives. Figure 2-3 shows this for
base oils.
Figure 2-3
The upper limits of radiation doses resulting in the failure of various base fluids
Note the effect of aromatic content: the polyphenyls, polyphenyl ethers, and alkylaromatics head
the list of radiation-resistant groups. Phenyl groups are basic units of aromaticity. Aromatics,
because of their poor viscosity/temperature properties, are deliberately removed from mineral
base oils. However, aromatic compounds can be designed through synthesis to have good
properties. Such materials (alkylaromatics) are employed in making lubricants designed for
maximum radiation resistance. The introduction of phenyl groups even into poorly performing
molecules will improve their radiation resistance. For example, phenyl silicones are a notch
better than methyl silicones in radiation resistance.
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The physical effect of radiolysis on greases is that they mostly soften with initial exposure,
reflecting degradation of their sensitive gel structure. Eventually, this is followed by hardening
as the effect on the oil component takes over. Figure 2-4 shows the typical softening effect.
Although this grease exhibits stability in the region of 106–108 rad, other greases can harden or
soften in this region. This occurs before the major softening indicated in Figure 2-4 and before
effects on the oil component set in.
Figure 2-4
The radiolysis effects on a lithium complex-gelled, mineral oil–based grease
The effect of radiation exposure on oxidation stability—a key property of turbine oils—is shown
in Figure 2-5. Other effects on oils include gas evolution, evidenced by a decrease in flash point
and increase in vapor pressure. The gas is hydrogen and low-molecular-weight hydrocarbons that
come from C–H and C–C bond fissure. The C–C bond breakage can also yield compounds that
eventually double or similarly polymerize to cause viscosity increase.
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Figure 2-5
Relative oxidation stability of irradiated mineral oil–based steam turbine oils in turbine oil
stability tests [3]
The effect of the radiation dose rate is also highlighted in Figure 2-5. The doses shown were
delivered to the test samples at widely different rates—differing by a factor of about 1000. Yet
the variation in the test results falls within the reproducibility limits of the ASTM D943 test [3].
Thus, there appears to be no appreciable dose rate effect. All of the exposures were made in air
for the indicated doses, and then the oils were tested. Note that the dose below which no
significant oxidation takes place is about 5 x 106 rad.
This dose rate concern comes up primarily in applying radiation effects studies to plant
situations. Most radiation effects studies are accelerated, that is, at higher dose rates than those in
the plant, to allow results in a reasonable time. The answer is complicated by oxidation effects—
more oxidation would be expected over the longer term, simply due to heating in air under
irradiation. Oxidation is mitigated by oxidation inhibitors. All high-quality lubricants have such
antioxidants. Without them, oxidation could be interpreted as a dose rate effect.
Even with good inhibitors, the acceleration of oxidation in the presence of radiation is an
important consideration from a maintenance point of view. Lubricant life will be reduced if there
is excessive exposure to oxygen in the air—for example, where there are unrepaired air leaks on
the inlet side of a pump in a radioactive area. In the example, a rich supply of oxygen and
irradiation at high temperature can take its toll on the lubricant.
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Generally, radiolysis of lubricants is not a problem in nuclear power plants. It takes radiation
doses above those prevailing in normal nuclear plant operations to make appreciable changes in
bulk properties of lubricants. An accident scenario (a design basis accident [DBA]) may produce
high enough radiation exposure to cause significant property changes. In such a case, the
equipment being lubricated does not have to operate very long or be maintained. The equipment
itself is very tolerant of fluidity changes in lubricants. For example, antifriction bearings in
motors can operate satisfactorily, at least in the short run, with grease-worked penetrations from
about 200 to over 400. This is equivalent to a change in consistency from a 4- to a 00-grade—a
wide variation.
This tolerance exists even under stress. Figure 2-6 shows test data for a grease in a 10,000-rpm
bearing at various temperatures. An Arrhenius plot (log of bearing life versus inverse of absolute
temperature) is shown. Note the change in life of irradiated grease versus that of unirradiated
product. It took more than 108 rad to make a significant difference in the grease’s performance.
Figure 2-6
Effect of temperature and irradiation on the bearing life of a sodium salt-thickened, mineral
oil–based grease (Irradiations were conducted in air [allowing some oxidation] to the
doses shown. Tests according to ASTM D3336 [4] were then run on the greases.)
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The effects of irradiation on oils and greases are summarized in Tables 2-1 and 2-2.
Table 2-1
Effects of irradiation on common oils
Radiation Dose Effects
<106 rads No unusual problems

106–107 rads Things begin to happen; some turbine oils borderline
107–108 rads Most oils usable; some marginal
108–109 rads The best oils usable; most become unusable

109–1010 Only special products will work
10
>10 No oil usable
Table 2-2
Effects of irradiation on common greases
Radiation Dose Effects
<106 rads No unusual problems
106–107 rads Things begin to happen; some greases borderline

107–108 rads Most high-quality products usable; others not
108–109 rads Most greases unusable
109–5 x 109 rads Special products required

>5 x 109 rads No grease usable
Values for temperature and radiation operating ranges are given for individual products in
Appendix A, Tables A1–A12. In Tables A1–A12, the first number listed in each category is the
value below which little, if any, property change will occur and long use life can be expected.
The second number is the point at which appreciable change is expected and surveillance of the
equipment is required. The need for lubricant change-out should be anticipated at this point.
2.2 Effect on Elastomers
Elastomers are used frequently as seal materials in nuclear power plants. If there is a concern
with radiation resistance, elastomers are the weak link. Figure 2-7 shows the resistance to
irradiation of elastomers versus lubricants. The elastomers are about 10 times more sensitive to
radiation than lubricants.
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Figure 2-7
Relative sensitivity of common lubricants and elastomers to irradiation
Table 2-3 shows the effect of common lubricants on various elastomers. Neoprene, nitrile rubber,
and the epichlorohydrins are the principal oil- and grease-resistant products.
Table 2-3
Resistance of elastomers to the effects of common oils and greases
Elastomer Resistance
Natural rubber Very poor
Neoprene Good to excellent
Ethylene/propylene Very poor

Isoprene Very poor
Nitrile Excellent
Epichlorohydrin Excellent
Urethane Fair to excellent
Silicone Fair to poor
The picture changes somewhat as the elastomers are exposed to radiation. Figure 2-8 illustrates
this performance. The natural rubbers and urethanes are most resistant to radiation, with the
nitriles ranked a close second.
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Figure 2-8
Resistance of elastomers to irradiation
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3
LUBRICATION, FRICTION, AND WEAR
Three lubrication mechanisms have been established in tribology, the study of surfaces in
relative motion. They are as follows:
• Hydrodynamic lubrication (HDL)
• Elastohydrodynamic lubrication (EHL)
• Boundary lubrication (BL)
A single mechanism might not prevail in any one application; however, a combination might
exist, depending on the geometry and/or operating conditions. For example, the balls in ball
bearings involve EHL in their relationship to the bearing races and BL in their relationship to the
cages or retainers. It is important to understand the three types of lubrication in order to be clear
about lubricants and how they function.
Friction is the resistance to the relative motion of surfaces and is an indicator of the efficiency of
this motion. It is important because poor efficiency relates to high energy consumption. Wear, or
the undesirable removal of material from contacting surfaces due to relative motion, shortens
equipment life and decreases its reliability.
3.1 Hydrodynamic Lubrication
HDL conditions exist when a fluid film completely separates moving surfaces and there is no
surface-to-surface contact. This is the most desirable regime of lubrication because friction and
wear are low under these conditions. HDL is the most common mode of lubrication for
components of industrial machines. Examples include simple journal bearings and bushings as
well as turbine shaft bearings. Factors affecting HDL are the viscosity of the lubricating fluid, its
adhesion to the surfaces, the sliding or rolling velocity of the components, the shape of the
surfaces, and pressure (load) between them.
Film thicknesses for effective HDL range from 0.0001 in. to 0.005 in. (40 to 200 µm). The
creation of such films is fostered when the shape of the surfaces allows a wedge of lubricant to
form between them (see Figure 3-1). The failure of HDL usually results from a film being
excessively thin because of high temperatures that reduce the viscosity of fluids, low speed that
discourages wedge formation, and shock loads. Another very common cause of film failure is
damage by contaminants, such as dirt, in the oil.
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Lubrication, Friction, and Wear
Figure 3-1
Hydrodynamic lubrication
3.2 Elastohydrodynamic Lubrication
The name elastohydrodynamic implies that a full oil film exists between moving surfaces that are
elastically deformed. EHL occurs only in situations in which loads are concentrated over small
areas, for example, between balls/rollers and races in rolling element bearings and between gear
teeth. In EHL, the load is sufficient to deform the surfaces elastically at the point or line of near
contact (see Figure 3-2). The oil is trapped between the deformed surfaces and the resulting high
pressure increases the oil’s viscosity by several orders of magnitude. The surface deformation
also increases the load-bearing area. The combination of extremely high oil viscosity and
increased area over which the load is applied keeps the surfaces from touching.
Figure 3-2
Elastohydrodynamic lubrication
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Lubricant film thickness in EHL is smaller than in HDL, and the thinner the film for a given oil
viscosity, the higher the friction. As with HDL, conditions that make for thinner films shorten
component life in EHL. High temperatures and loads, low-speed or oscillatory operation, and
especially lubricant contamination shorten life. If bearings oscillate, HDL and EHL fail to occur.
Wear is low under ideal EHL conditions. Failure of components in EHL is by contact fatigue.
Because of the cyclic elastic deformation, fatigue cracks and pits are formed. This contact fatigue
determines the catalog life of a rolling element bearing.
3.3 Boundary Lubrication
BL conditions prevail when HDL and EHL fail and surface-to-surface contact occurs (see
Figure 3-3). The word boundary suggests surface involvement. BL occurs with high loads and
temperatures, low sliding velocities, and rough surfaces. Examples of BL are bearings during
startup and shutdown, oscillating bearings, piston rings at top-dead-center, worm gears, and
metal cutting operations. Friction and wear in BL are dependent on the shape and composition of
the surfaces and the properties of the lubricant. Friction results from the shear of the interfacial
material, which includes adhesion between the surfaces and the shear of other solids or liquids in
the contact. For example, if the additives in an oil form a soap film of low shear strength on the
surface, friction will be low. If the film formed is a shear-resistant inorganic salt (for example,
iron sulfide), friction will be higher. Three types of films might form in BL— physically
adsorbed, chemisorbed, and chemical reaction films.
Figure 3-3
Boundary lubrication (fragmented roughness)
3.3.1 Physically Adsorbed Film
Physically adsorbed film involves the adsorption of the nonpolar molecules of the base oil at
random on the surfaces (see Figure 3-4). The adsorption is reversible, so that as temperature
increases, the film desorbs and fails to keep the asperities in the surfaces apart (for more on
asperities, see Section 3.5). Mineral oils or PAO synthetic base oils are in this category. If the oil
molecules are polar (for example, a polyester synthetic), their adsorption is stronger because of
their close-packed nature (see Figure 3-5). Higher temperatures are required in order to desorb
them.
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Figure 3-4
Representation of physically adsorbed film—nonpolar molecules
Figure 3-5
Physically adsorbed film—polar molecules
3.3.2 Chemisorbed Film
Chemisorbed films (see Figure 3-6) are chemical reaction products between long-chain polar
compounds in the oil (or compounds that are added to it) and compounds in the metal surfaces.
An example is the reaction between a fatty acid in the oil and a metal oxide film from the surface
to form a soap. The reaction is irreversible, so an increase in temperature increases its rate. The
melting point of the soap film is the temperature limitation. The additives in an oil that
chemisorb are termed lubricity additives because they reduce friction as compared with that of
the base oil alone.
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Figure 3-6
A chemisorbed film (Xs indicate chemical bonds.)
3.3.3 Chemical Reaction Film
Chemical reaction films are also formed through irreversible reactions, but the products are
inorganic salts. Additives such as sulfur compounds react with surfaces containing iron to form
iron sulfide. Such high melting-point compounds inhibit scuffing by preventing bare metal-to-
metal contact. They are called antiscuff (also known as EP) additives. Oxygen, which is in oils
from the air, can also act as an antiscuff agent by reacting with metals to form thicker oxide films
and prevent metal-to-metal contact.
The relationship between HDL and BL for various operating conditions is shown in Figure 3-7.
Note the effects of the various parameters on the friction coefficient. With a given speed and
load, a low-viscosity oil will allow boundary lubrication and a very high-viscosity oil will
increase fluid friction.
Figure 3-7
Effects of various parameters on the friction coefficient
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3.4 Solid Lubricants
The presence of a film or a coating of other solids between surfaces reduces surface-to-surface
contact. It might also reduce friction and wear. Solid lubricants are classified as follows:
• The metal oxides that form in air (for example, iron oxide [Fe3O4] on steel [which reduces
friction] or aluminum oxide [which increases friction]).
• Preformed coatings, such as soft lead or babbitt on aluminum in a journal bearing, the
laminar graphite or molybdenum disulfide on steel, or poly(tetrafluoroethylene) (Teflon 3) on
steel.
• BL films, such as soap from a fatty acid in the oil, iron phosphate from tricresyl phosphate
additive, iron borate from boron additive compound, or iron sulfide from a sulfur additive
compound in the oil.
• Inorganic conversion coatings, such as iron/manganese phosphate on steel.
3.5 Nature of Machined Surfaces [5]
Machined metallic surfaces are rough on a microscopic scale (see Figure 3-8) and covered with a
thin film of oxide. The microscopic bumps contained on these surfaces are called asperities.
When two machined surfaces are placed together, the area of real contact (where a few asperities
touch) is much less than the apparent area of contact. This real contact area increases with load
because more asperities are crushed, thus increasing the contact surface.
Figure 3-8
A machined surface
3
Teflon is a registered trademark of E.I. du Pont de Nemours.
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3.6 Friction and Wear
When equipment rotates, friction poses a threat to its operation, productivity, and reliability.
Friction is a force that resists motion between two surfaces in contact with one another. In some
cases, friction can be beneficial (for example, brakes used to stop a moving car), but in the case
of rotating machinery, it can prove to be very detrimental. A significant amount of mechanical
energy is required to overcome the effect of friction. That energy is converted to heat and results
in inefficiency because it produces no useful work. Friction leads to increased wear of
components, generation of heat (loss efficiency), higher operating temperatures of the
equipment, and reduced life of the lubricant.
Friction appears in several forms, depending on the configuration of contacting surfaces and
whether a film exists between the contact surfaces. When two surfaces move in contact relative
to one another without the aid of a lubricant, dry friction is present. For machinery purposes,
kinetic or sliding friction is the form of concern. If a lubricant exists between the two surfaces in
contact, this is referred to as fluid friction or lubricated friction (for example, a tilting pad thrust
bearing). Fluid friction exists not only for the two surfaces moving relative to one another, but
also for the layers of lubricant moving relative to each other. Another type of kinetic friction is
rolling friction. Rolling friction occurs when a spherical or cylindrical surface rolls in contact
with another surface (such as a fan belt rolling on a pulley or a ball bearing in a race).
As the load is increased, the friction between two surfaces is proportionally increased (for
example, the main turbine road versus a Terry Turbine rotor).
3.6.1 Friction Wear
Friction wear is damage that occurs as a result of two surfaces in contact and in relative motion
with each other. Friction wear damage can occur without visual surface damage. Surface damage
from friction can also occur with or without an exchange of material between the two surfaces in
contact. When material exchange does occur, the damage is typically structural in nature (for
example, tempering, crystallization changes, plastic deformation, and strains). When material
exchange takes place between the two surfaces, it can be through a gain or loss of material.
Material might be gained through the mechanism of adhesion, or it might be lost through fracture
or fatigue. Friction wear can be classified as mild or severe. In mild cases of friction wear, it is
possible that the surface of the material is actually smoother than the original and could be called
normal rubbing wear. On the other hand, severe friction wear results in severe surface
degradation that is much worse than the original surface.
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3.6.2 Wear Mechanisms
Wear is the progressive and undesirable damage resulting in the removal of material from sliding
or rolling components that might be in contact with one another. Some wear is expected during
normal operation; however, excessive friction causes premature wear, resulting in increased
operational costs from equipment failure, downtime, and replacement parts. Friction also
generates heat, representing wasted energy. Some of these wear mechanisms occur with a full
lubricant film. To properly analyze the wear mechanism that is occurring in a machine, it is
necessary to understand the types of wear that can occur.
Wear is typically described in five major categories, with each category containing one or more
subcategories. The five major categories of wear are as follows:
• Corrosion
• Electrical erosion
• Fatigue
• Plastic deformation
• Abrasive and adhesive
3.6.2.1 Corrosion (Moisture and Frictional)
Corrosive wear can be either moisture-related or frictional in nature. Moisture corrosion wear
causes surface damage to the material as a result of an oxidation reaction in a reactive
environment. Typically, this occurs because of the presence of water in the lubricant, but it might
also occur in the presence of acids, lubricant by-products, bacteria, and so forth. In the reaction,
the metal is dissolved by a low current passing through the electrically conductive lubricant.
Mild cases of corrosion might result in only surface staining or etching of the metal surface. In
more advanced cases, pits will result from this type of attack. Moisture corrosive wear can occur
without metal-to-metal contact. Moisture corrosion is typically the result of contamination in the
lubricant or degradation of the lubricant. As is the case with most chemical reactions, this wear is
accelerated by elevated temperatures.
Moisture corrosion wear can also be referred to as corrosive pitting, rust, corrosive spalling, or
electro-corrosion.
Corrosion wear can be reduced or minimized through corrosion-resistant materials in the

machine, control of contaminants entering the lubricant, protective surface coatings, or corrosion
inhibitors in the lubricant. A microscopic example of corrosion damage is shown in Figure 3-9.
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Figure 3-9
Example of corrosion wear
Unlike moisture corrosion, frictional corrosion is produced by contacting parts because of

vibration where moisture might be present. It is also referred to as fretting wear, fretting
corrosion, or false brinelling.
Fretting corrosion occurs because of mechanical wear in areas of surface irregularities. It is

typically accompanied or escalated by oxidation. As two mating surfaces oscillate under small
vibration loading the surface make and break contact with the loading. As the mating parts are
unloaded, there are small, finite periods in which the oil film is not replenished and unlubricated
contact between the mating surfaces occurs. The area of contact undergoes adhesion or false
brinelling. This type of corrosion is usually identified by a reddish-brown color on steel or black
color on aluminum. Sometimes it is also accompanied by metal flaking. An example of fretting
corrosion is provided in Figure 3-10.
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Figure 3-10
Example of fretting corrosion
Fretting corrosion can occur on rolling bearing elements, gear teeth, and splines. However, it is
not necessary that the mating surfaces be in rolling contact.
False brinelling also occurs under small vibrational loads. It is usually associated with static,
nonrotating equipment. It occurs when the equipment sits idle for long periods, when it is
subjected to small vibrational loads transmitted during shipping or from the plant through the
floor to the load-bearing elements of the equipment. Mild adhesion occurs, and shallow dents are
formed. The dents might appear shiny with black debris around the edges of the dent. If the
machinery is rotating, the wear appears gray in color with a washboard pattern on the raceway.
False brinelling typically occurs on the rolling elements of the bearing and the raceway. It can
result in reduced bearing life or bearing failure. Antiwear additives in the lubricant might prove
beneficial in reducing this type of wear damage.
3.6.2.2 Electrical Erosion
Electrical erosion occurs when an electrical current exists and is transferred between two metal
surfaces (such as the bearing roller and raceway). The source of the electrical current results
from the streaming potential from high-velocity fluids, and the lubricant (oil or grease) serves
as the electrolyte. Electrical erosion is usually seen in two forms that depend on the electrical
potential and the severity of the damage.
Electrical discharge wear (electrical pitting) is caused by excessive voltage. The electrical
current passes between microscopic surface irregularities on the metal. This type of wear is
typically seen on large rotating machines, where large, static voltage might be created. The high-
static voltage builds up to the point where it arcs across these small irregularities, causing
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localized heating and melting of the metal. With time, this results in the creation of large pits
on the metal surface (see Figure 3-11). Other sources for this type of wear may be the result of
inadequate grounding during welding activities.
Figure 3-11
Example of electrical discharge
The less severe form of electrical erosion is a result of a low-level electrical current. The
electrical potential is generated by the high-velocity streaming of the lubricant. The lubricant
also serves as an electrolyte for the current path. This type of electrical erosion is often referred
to as current leakage wear or electrical fluting. The wear damage is characterized by small
shallow flutes or craters that are dark gray in color (see Figure 3-12). This type of electrical
erosion occurs when the bearing is in motion with a fluid film established.
Figure 3-12
An example of electrical erosion
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3.6.2.3 Fatigue
Fatigue wear is the cracking, pitting, or spalling of metal surfaces that are subjected to cyclical
loading as the surfaces contact one another. Fatigue wear can be characterized as subsurface
fatigue or surface fatigue.
Subsurface fatigue occurs following many cycles of high-stress flexing of the metal. This type of
wear can occur with no physical contact between the metal parts and with a full lubricant film
present. The fatigue begins with pre-existing faults below the surface in the metal of the bearing.
The stress is concentrated at a point below the surface of the metal. Under repeated cyclic
loading and stress, small subsurface microcracks develop. This results in elastic deformation of
the metal. These cracks eventually propagate to the surface of the metal, and that results in the
loss or delamination of the metal at the surface of the bearing. Loss of metal is observed as pits
or spalling. This form of wear is observed in rolling bearing elements, races, and gear teeth.
Subsurface fatigue can be seen in bearings that have been operated beyond their normal life
expectancy. The life of the bearing will be based on the load, speed, and thickness of the
lubricant film.
Surface fatigue results from a loss of the lubricant film allowing metal-to-metal contact. The
surface might be dented by contaminant particles in the lubricant or contain small microcracks
on the surface. This is shown in Figure 3-13. These dents or cracks can also be generated by
improper handling of bearings, with a small edge or berm created at the rim of the imperfections.
Cyclic loading of the rollers moving over the race flexes the edges or berms (the points of
increased loads and stress) and creates a cold-worked joint at the edge or berm. Eventually,
cracks are generated that propagate downward through the edge or berm, intersecting with the
base metal. As this degradation continues, surface material will flake off. This can also be
referred to as flaking, pitting, or spalling.
Figure 3-13
An example of surface fatigue
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Surface fatigue can be controlled by ensuring that adequate film thickness exists, using high-
quality bearings (such as smooth surfaces and hardness), controlling particle contamination in
the lubricant, and maintaining low moisture content in the oil. Particle contamination can be
controlled by proper and efficient filtration techniques.
3.6.2.4 Plastic Deformation
Plastic deformation is the residual deformation in a material at the surface layer caused by
overloading or impact. When a particle is squeezed in a load-bearing area, it can fatigue the
surface material, causing a spall formation or dent. The plastic deformation in the area of the
surface dent can alter the physical properties of the material and make it more susceptible to
wear and fatigue. This can be observed in a bearing race or rollers as indentations (denting) or
depressions in the surface of the material. This is sometimes more appropriately characterized
as a flow of the metal at the surface rather than wear.
3.6.2.5 Abrasive and Adhesive Wear
Wear is characterized as abrasive or adhesive. Abrasive wear is the more common of the two
types and is characterized as two-body or three-body wear.
Abrasive wear is caused by rough surfaces in relative motion to one another (two-body) or
by contamination between two surfaces in relative motion with one another (three-body). The
roughened surfaces or particle contamination cut into the metal surfaces in relative motion with
one another. An example of abrasive wear is provided in Figure 3-14.
Figure 3-14
An example of abrasive wear
Two-body wear occurs when rough surfaces from two surfaces in relative motion with one
another make contact. When this occurs, the rough surface peak of one metal will cut into the
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surface of the second. This will occur when the lubricant boundary layer is inadequate. This type
of wear can be reduced through the use of lubricants with higher viscosity or antiwear additives
or bearings with increased hardness.
Three-body wear occurs when a particle that is roughly the same size as the clearance is trapped
or imbedded between two metal surfaces in relative motion with one another. When the particle
size is greater than the clearance between the two metal surfaces, the surface of the metal will be
cut or scratched. This type of wear can be reduced by using good flushing techniques and proper
filtration methods to preclude particle contamination.
Adhesive wear occurs when two metal surfaces in relative motion with one another come in
contact and material is transferred from one metal surface to another. This type of wear occurs
under high loads, temperature, or pressure when two surfaces in relative motion contact one
another and spot-weld the metals together. As the surfaces move relative to one another, the spot
weld is immediately torn apart, resulting in the transfer of metal from one surface to another in
discrete localized areas (see Figure 3-15). This type of wear can occur because of insufficient
lubrication film, improper lubricant viscosity, poor or incorrect clearances, or improper
alignment or installation. Adhesive wear is typically seen in bearings, gears, piston rings, and
cylinders.
Figure 3-15
An example of mild adhesion
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4
LUBRICANT SELECTION AND APPLICATION
PROBLEMS
4.1 How to Select a Lubricant for New Equipment
First and foremost, the selection of the proper lubricant should be based on the equipment
manufacturer’s recommendations. If any unusual departures from normal operating temperatures
or loading occur, again, check with the machinery manufacturer for its advice. The manufacturer
might recommend a higher-viscosity lubricant for higher temperatures and a lower-viscosity oil
for lower-than-normal operating temperatures. For extreme temperature differences, it may
recommend a synthetic lubricant.
For unusually high loadings—on, for example, gear cases—the manufacturer might recommend
an EP lubricant that contains special additives to prevent wear and metal surface failure.
Hydraulic equipment manufacturers usually have specifications that should be respected by

ensuring that the hydraulic oil passes the particular specification. The same procedure applies to
diesel engine oils that have periodic changes in engine design and fuel composition.
Gas turbine oils should be premium grade with superior oxidation stability to perform well at the
higher-temperature regime. Steam turbines can operate successfully with second-line turbine oils
with lower oxidation stability. Again, check with the turbine manufacturer for its
recommendations.
The proper selection of a lubricant is only the first step. The keys to satisfactory performance are
the proper maintenance (in particular, filtration) and monitoring of the lubricant (see Sections 5.5
and 5.6).
The application tables in Appendix A are useful sources of information that should be consulted
when selecting a lubricant.
4.2 Compatibility of Mixed Products
Lubricants can be incompatible with one another on mixing and have the potential to cause
degradation of properties and performance. Solid formation with oil mixtures can take place
because of additive interaction or solubility difficulties. With greases, the usual result of
incompatibility is breakdown of the grease gel structure to produce softness. Both of these
effects can be undesirable in lubricant applications.
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Lubricant Selection and Application Problems
Incompatibility can be avoided by not mixing products. Procedures should be set up to eliminate
unwanted mixing. When a change to a new product is dictated, careful cleanup should be
employed to keep less than about 5% of the old material in the new. Remember, do not mix. If
you inadvertently do, you face incompatibility risks. Further information on this subject can be
found in ASTM D7155.
4.2.1 Oils
Most turbine and recirculating oils are compatible with each other; nonetheless, it is
recommended to contact the lubrication supplier before mixing different oils. An example of a
common incompatible situation is a mixture of a product that contains a chemically acidic
additive (for example, a turbine oil) and a product that contains a basic additive (for example,
an engine oil). One will neutralize the other in the presence of moisture and frequently cause a
precipitate to form. Precipitates can plug filters and/or other oil passages and cause oil starvation
and equipment failure. If you do not know the chemical makeup of particular products, your
lubricant supplier can give guidance on this point so that you can avoid the acid/base concern.
Synthetic oils should not be mixed with other types of synthetic oils or mineral oils. They might
form two separate phases. An exception might be a polyolefin with mineral oil if the additives
are compatible.
4.2.2 Greases
These products present a different case. With inadvertent mixing, possible additive interactions
(other than those involving gelling agents) pose only some loss of the functions provided by the
reactants. Precipitates are generally no problem (grease is already semisolid). Gelling agent
interaction is a concern, depending on the application. Table 4-1 gives compatibility information
[6, 7]. Examples of data on which Table 4-1 is based are in Figure 4-1. (See also Note 5 in the
EPRI Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center [NMAC] Lube Notes, July 1993 issue.) Some of
the updated data in Table 4-1 were taken from an article by David Turner [8].
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Table 4-1
Compatibility of greases
Calcium sulfonate
Calcium complex
Lithium complex
hydroxystearate
hydroxystearate
Inorganic (clay)
Calcium soap
Lithium soap
Barium soap
Calcium 12-
Lithium 12-
Aluminum
Polyurea
complex
complex
Aluminum complex I I C I I I I C I B
Barium complex I I C I I I I I I B
Calcium stearate I I C I C C B C I C
Calcium 12- C C C B C C C C I B
hydroxystearate
Calcium complex I I I B I I I C C I
Inorganic (clay) I I C C I I I I I I
Lithium stearate I I C C I I C C I B
Lithium 12- I I B C I I C C I B
hydroxystearate
Lithium complex C I C C C I C C I C
Polyurea I I I I C I I I I I
Calcium sulfonate I B C B C I B B C I
complex
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Figure 4-1
Compatibility of mixtures of greases with different gelling agents
A consistency change of 30 points or less in worked penetration in more than one mixture in a
given set denotes compatibility (“C”) in Table 4-1. This change is measured by deviation from
the straight line between the two 100% points. Softening is the most likely result of
incompatibility, although hardening can take place (<10% of the cases). Softening is of little
concern in a contained system, such as a Limitorque 4 gearbox (unless leakage is rampant). It is
only the stay-in-place function that is affected—the lubrication function is largely handled by the
oil component and its soluble additives. A problem does occur if the grease flows away from the
part being lubricated. Rolling element bearings are vulnerable here, although they have a good
tolerance for changes in grease consistency. This tolerance runs from about 200 to about 400 in
worked penetration. However, the departure from around the 280 norm might cause some
increase in required maintenance.
As with oils, different greases should not be mixed. The data cited in Table 4-1 should be
considered generic in nature. A “C” in Table 4-1 is not an endorsement to allow mixing, because
different grease formulations might give different data. With inadvertent mixing, compatibility
risks are generally lower if products with at least the same gelling agent are involved. However,
reversals do occur. To be sure of compatibility or incompatibility, it is recommended to contact
your grease supplier for guidance on compatibility before mixing. Better yet, run tests on specific
greases.
Compatibility test results will sometimes vary with the method used. Table 4-2 lists some of
these methods. High temperatures in the storage (aging) phase are employed to provide test
acceleration and ensure that any incompatibility will be picked up. A consideration here is not to
exceed the heat stability of the individual mixture components. The more severe mix procedures
are undertaken to ensure thorough mixing.
4
Limitorque is a registered trademark of Limitorque Corp.
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The method we prefer involves 25/75, 50/50, and 75/25 mixtures (10/90 and 90/10 are
sometimes also used) of two components stirred with a handheld electric mixer before aging at
250°F (121°C) for 72 hours. The starting materials get the same treatment. Then, after cooling to
room temperature, the 60-stroke worked penetrations are run on all samples. Compatibility/
incompatibility is determined as in Figure 4-1. Dropping points can also be run on the treated
samples. ASTM has developed the compatibility test listed in Table 4-2. It is more complex and,
therefore, three times as expensive to run as the method previously described. Its interpretation is
also much more restrictive.
Table 4-2
Grease compatibility tests
Group Mix Storage Temperature Difference in P60 (Note 1) to Fail

(Aging) Time
Rock Island Hand mix + 0 70°F (21°C) ±10

Arsenal P10,000
(Note 1)
Meyers Hand mix 72 hr. 250°F (121°C) ±30 for >1 mixture
Mobil RIV tester 2 hr. 200°F (93°C) 0–30 (compatible)

31–60 (borderline)
61+ (incompatible)
Bolt & Motor stirrer 72 hr. 250°F (121°C) ±30 for >1 mixture
Associates
ASTM P100,000 248°F (120°C) 70 hr > about 11 above the value for the
D6185 (Note 1) 167°F (75°C) 1400 hr (Note 2) thickest component or 11 below
that of the thinnest component
Notes:
1. ASTM 60-stroke or 10,000- or 100,000-stroke worked penetration
2. Applies to greases with low dropping points
Special attention should be paid to polyurea grease compatibility because this type is commonly
used and there is a wide variety of polyurea thickener systems, some of which might actually be
compatible with other thickener systems. For Table 4-1, however, we have chosen to be
conservative, indicating “incompatible with all other types of greases” to avoid possible
problems. For any polyurea grease, one should run compatibility tests for potential mixing
situations just to be sure.
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4.3 Shelf Life
In general, lubricants are very stable when exposed to the mild conditions encountered in storage
or on the shelf. Storage life of up to 10 years should result. (These estimates and other valuable
information are included on an ExxonMobil Technical Information Sheet [9].) This assumes, of
course, no exposure to rain, sunlight, or sources of heat, such as adjacent steam lines. Why, then,
do suppliers often limit recommended shelf life to two to three years? There are several reasons,
as follows:
• Formulations change periodically for supply and performance reasons—base oil changes,
additive changes, and so on. Incompatibility between old and new versions sometimes is a
problem. Storage life restrictions limit the supplier’s responsibility for old formulations.
• Conditions of storage can vary widely, and some deterioration can take place under situations
over which the supplier has no control. For example, if an oil were frozen (that is, cooled
below its pour point), the solubilities of its additives could change. In an extreme case, part
of the additive package could drop out of solution and perhaps not redissolve upon return to
normal ambient temperature. Such an event would be rare, however.
• With greases, some cosmetic (but mostly nonfunctional) changes can take place. These relate
to the problems described in Section 4.5, “Continuous Versus Intermittent Use and Lube
Performance.” For example, note the following effects:
– Age hardening, that is, hardening during the first few months of life. This occurs mostly
with soft greases—consistency generally recovers on working.
– Surface color change.
– Surface cracking from shrinking on cooling after manufacture or on heating and cooling
in storage.
– Bleeding, or oil separation. The separated oil can be decanted or stirred back in; it is only
a small portion of the total. This occurs mostly with soft greases made with low-viscosity
oils. A small amount of bleeding is acceptable. (See ASTM D1742 for perspective.)
– Grease shelf life in sealed containers at room temperature is estimated to be two to six
years [9].
Suppliers’ reluctance to sanction extended shelf life is understandable. Although lubricant

changes in storage are mostly cosmetic, they can be sources of many complaints. However,
attention to storage conditions (including those for drums)—for example, avoidance of
temperature and other environmental extremes—will eliminate virtually all potential for
problems. A few simple tests (for example, sensory tests and infrared (IR) spectroscopy [see
Section 5.3, “Lubricant Testing”]) on the questionable lubricants versus an authentic sample will
give confidence that stored material is still acceptable. Storage of the drums should be indoors if
possible. If outdoors, drums should be out of the sun and stored with a plastic lid or on their side
(bung on the upside) to avoid standing water and water leakage into the drum contents.
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4.4 Time/Temperature/Radiation Considerations
Figure 4-2 shows how time, temperature, and irradiation relate to lubricant life (the point at
which change-out is necessary). The vertical scale is logarithmic and gives lubricant life in
hours. The horizontal scale is the inverse of absolute temperature.
Figure 4-2
Time/temperature/irradiation interplay (Continuous operation in air of high-quality
lubricant under stress.)
The slope of the band represents an approximate doubling of life for every 10°C (18°F)
temperature decrease. One expects this for chemical reactions. The band is used to illustrate that
the change might be more or less, depending on the chemical makeup of the lubricant. Also, the
best-performing lubricants will be on the right side of the band and the poorest-performing
lubricants on the left. Note that the whole band moves to the right in a parallel fashion as less
stress is involved. The band moves to the left if there is more stress.
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As an illustration, suppose a piece of equipment must be relubricated every 36 months in an

application at 93°C (200°F) (Point A in Figure 4-2). Then, at 104°C (220°F), the relubrication
interval would decrease to 18 months (Point B). At 121°C (250°F), the required interval would
be nine months (Point C). It would be somewhat more than this (Point C′) or less (Point C″)
because the temperature effect is smaller or greater within the band, depending on the lubricant.
Note that at 66°C (150°F), lubricant life would be extended and off the chart at 300 months. Of
course, lubricant life cannot be extended indefinitely—contamination from dirt, wear debris, and
so on might dictate a shorter interval.
Another way to use Figure 4-2 is to follow a temperature line across the band. For example,
at 93°C (200°F), the best lubricant under stress would last about 45,000 hours (Point D in
Figure 4-2); the poorest lubricant, about one-tenth as long (Point E). More stress would move
the band to the left and shorten lubricant life. Irradiation is one of these stresses, but it takes a lot
of radiation—more than 107 rad—to shift the band appreciably.
The approximate 107-rad level is an irradiation threshold. Below it, most lubricants can tolerate
irradiation. Appreciably above it, the life of most lubricants is increasingly at risk (see Section
2). Similar temperature thresholds exist for many lubricants. Up to a certain level, thermal effects
are relatively minor but, above that threshold, the thermal component of total stress can become
increasingly large. This is tied in, of course, to the approximate doubling of chemical reaction
rate by each increase of 10°C (18°F) in temperature. If the rate is very low, a doubling does not
do much. When the reaction rate is appreciable, doubling has a discernible effect. The threshold
is where this rate becomes apparent. Temperature and radiation dose thresholds are shown for
various lubricants in Appendix A.
Oxidation is not addressed specifically in Figure 4-2 except as an increased stress that would
shift the band to the left. However, the lubricant life shown is for products exposed to air. This is
a normal condition, and only abnormal exposure conditions—for example, bubbling air through
the lubricant—would be considered an increase in stress.
4.5 Continuous Versus Intermittent Use and Lube Performance
In any plant, much lubricated equipment operates continuously under relatively stable
conditions, as when grease lubricates a motor bearing. The life of that grease or greased bearing
can be estimated from prior experience or, more generally, from a knowledge of lubrication
practice. Often, such bearings can run continuously for years. Sometimes, the lubricant must be
replenished at prescribed intervals. Occasionally, the bearing must be replaced when it becomes
noisy or shows other distress.
In other situations, a piece of equipment might be on standby status until a specified event
occurs. Then, on signal, the equipment must quickly come up to speed and perform its function.
This intermittent duty is not always benign—start-stop operation of bearings (especially under
load) can create wear debris from unusual slippage, even with proper lubrication. A spinning
bearing also tends to deflect dirt, dust, and debris more readily than does a stationary unit.
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Further, as a heated bearing cools after running, it tends to attract rust-producing moisture. Also,
a grease in a stationary bearing can slowly separate oil from the gel, causing the lubricant to dry
out. Then, too, stationary bearings are vulnerable to vibrations that can shorten bearing life
because of fretting or false brinelling (see Section 3.6). Therefore, extended periods of inactivity
are not good for long-term performance. Care must be taken to exercise the lubricated equipment
occasionally.
When radiation is involved during lubrication, one would expect frequent operation to be more
damaging to the lubricant than intermittent operation. This is because more exposure to oxygen
in the air is involved during agitation and oxidation is accelerated by irradiation. However, this
does not hold for greases. Their key gel structure generally benefits from shearing action
(agitation), and this offsets the effect of increased oxidation.
In any event, good maintenance practices dictate that the lubricated equipment should undergo
the following:
• Periodic inspections for signs of oil leakage, accumulation of dirt, oil thickening, grease
drying, or wear fragments in the lubricant.
• Periodic exercise to ensure that it functions properly without distress. This also maintains
adequate distribution of grease to lubricated parts.
• Periodic lubricant changes based on experience. Lacking experience, change should be based
on intervals established in similar applications. In some instances, lubricant change-out
periods are specified by the equipment supplier.
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5
TESTS AND ANALYSES
Lubricant testing is recommended for several reasons, including the following:

• To check an incoming lubricant to verify its authenticity.
• To determine if the quality of a lubricant in storage is still acceptable.
• To study the condition (wear, for example) of the machine being lubricated. If there is a
problem with the lubricant, there is a strong possibility that the machine will need
maintenance.
• To determine whether preventive maintenance is being performed properly and effectively.
• To know when it is time to relubricate the machine.
Lubricant testing is both an art and a science. The art is in determining how much science to use
in addressing a concern. The full complement of lubricant tests is very broad in its scope and
complexity, but seldom is the full set of tests required. Part of the process involves the following:
• Selecting adequate and appropriate tests
• Recognizing anomalies and trends and determining the necessary analyses to pinpoint the
issue
• Not “overkilling” with the unnecessary—do the minimum that will resolve the concern
5.1 Sampling
The first and most crucial step in lubricant testing is to get a representative sample. Samples
should be taken from equipment in service or within 15 minutes of shutdown, as follows:
• When the system is stabilized, neither just before nor just after makeup lubricant has been
added.
• Ahead of filters or centrifuges so as not to miss the contaminants that they remove.
• In suitable, ultra-clean, well-labeled containers. Be consistent in the sampling method. Take
the sample from the same location and under the same operating conditions. In addition, be
aware that sampling from the bottom of sumps, where dense materials (for example, water
and metals) settle, can give valuable information about the history of the lubrication.
However, it will not assess system health at the time of sampling.
• With an awareness that any analysis program will only be as good as the sampling quality.
Nonrepresentative or contaminated samples will not result in good oil/machine data.
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Tests and Analyses
5.2 Troubleshooting
Operating equipment has a great tolerance for lubricant property changes. Greases or oils can
change by a consistency grade or two with the machinery being lubricated continuing to operate
smoothly. However, an off-grade or contaminated product can hasten equipment distress, which
might be manifested by any of the following:
• An increase in temperature (at the lubricated part)
• A decrease in output
• Noise
• A change in the vibration pattern
• Visual indicators (for example, leakage)
• Wear and corrosion
Often, the equipment distress can be anticipated by trending the data from lubricant analyses.
(More details are provided on trending in Section 5.5.) Whenever any of these symptoms occurs,
corrective action must be taken. The action required might sometimes be evident from the
information derived from the lubricant analysis program itself.
5.3 Lubricant Testing
The first line of surveillance in lubricant testing or the first step in isolating a problem is simple
on-site sensory examination. Much can be learned from looking at, feeling, and smelling the
used lubricant. These sensory tests can signal the need for more complex laboratory tests and can
cause a reprioritization of the receipt of results. A hierarchy or sequence of tests from simple to
complex is shown in Table 5-1. Remember to do the simple ones first.
Table 5-1
Sequence of lubricant testing
Test Type Description
Sensory tests Simple tests on-site; compare to known product.
Other simple tests Easily done on-site; back-to-back with known product.
Diagnostic tests Laboratory; relative test—compare to known product. Skill of technician is vital.
Standard tests Laboratory; well-developed ASTM methods formulated from round-robin
testing. Can be compared on the bases of determined repeatability and
reproducibility.
Analytical tests Laboratory; not always standard—compare to known product. Skill of
technician is vital. Often involves a judgment call.
Each of these test types is discussed in detail in the following sections.
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Tests and Analyses
5.3.1 Sensory Tests
These tests can be performed at the plant by personnel with limited experience. The best sample
containers for the sensory observations are 4-oz. (113-g) stoppered glass bottles for oils and 2-oz.
(57-g) capped bottles for greases. The stoppers/caps confine and concentrate odors for detection.
All the tests should be done at the same time as similar observations are being made on a known,
fresh, good product. Sensory tests, which can be useful in estimating priority for further lab tests
among many samples, include the following output:
• Appearance. Is the oil clear and bright? Or is it hazy and cloudy, indicating the presence of
water? Is it foamy? Does it show suspended matter? When examining grease, smear a small
amount on a piece of white paper with a knife or spatula. Examine the sample for lumps and
other particles, and do not forget the comparison with the fresh, unused sample.
• Color. Compare with that of the original product. This observation is sometimes useful with
light-colored materials. Darkening can indicate oxidation and/or exposure to high
temperatures or sunlight through a sight glass. Remember that color can change simply
through the addition of the new lubricant to the system being lubricated.
• Odor. Again, compare with that of the original product. Oxidized oils and greases eventually
acquire an acidic, pungent, or burned smell. This occurs also at a radiation dose of about 100
megarad. The strong odor of some additives might temporarily mask the developing pungent
smell.
• Feel. Oils should feel slippery; greases should feel buttery, not stringy or lumpy. Neither
should feel gritty, as from wear debris.
5.3.2 Other Simple Tests
Other easy tests that can be performed by plant personnel on lube oils include the following:
• Viscosity. This is a measure of the resistance to flow of an oil and is the most important
property in hydrodynamic lubrication (see Section 3.1). The various grading systems for oils
are given in Appendix B. Oil viscosity is generally specified by the equipment builder for
operating machinery. If the viscosity is too high (that is, the oil is too thick), performance can
be sluggish because of increased drag. This also can cause increased temperature, which has
an adverse effect on lubricants and sometimes on machine life. If viscosity is too low, the oil
film might not be able to keep the moving parts separated. In the absence of an antiwear or
antiscuff additive, this can result in metal-to-metal contact, contamination from wear debris,
and shorter life for both the lubricant and the machine. It is important to remember that
rotating machinery has a tolerance for everything but experiences major changes in viscosity
in service.
The simplest way to determining viscosity is to compare an unknown to a known material

through sensory tests—sight and feel. If this is not accurate enough for the required purpose,
a viscosity gauge, shown in Figure 5-1, can be used. This works on the principle that the rate
at which a ball falls in a column of oil depends on the viscosity of the oil.
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Tests and Analyses
Figure 5-1
A gauge for measuring the viscosity of oils
Used with permission from Visgage by Louis C. Eitzen Co.
With this device, the unknown is drawn into a tube containing a ball. A parallel tube
containing a known oil and a like sphere is used for the comparison. After the two oils are
allowed to reach equal temperatures and each ball the same starting point, the instrument is
inclined at a slight angle. This starts the spheres rolling. The inclination is stopped when
either oil’s sphere reaches a calibration point. Then, the position of the lagging ball in either
tube shows directly the viscosity of the unknown. High-viscosity and low-viscosity oils can
be used in this equipment. Accuracy of 95% or so is achievable with little effort.
• Consistency. This, as applied to a grease, is much like the viscosity of an oil—a measure of
its thickness. It can be estimated in a sensory examination, too. Collect a series of greases of
known thicknesses (National Lubricating Grease Institute [NLGI] penetrations) and compare
with the unknown. Use a knife or spatula to work the greases around; it is easy to spot the
known that matches the unknown.
• Water crackle test. This test might be appropriate when considerable amounts of water are
suspected in the oil. A metal plate is heated to at least 120°C (250°F), and a few drops of oil
are added (be careful; sometimes it spatters). If the oil crackles and pops, it suggests water in
excess of 0.1–0.2%. If it simply spreads and smokes, the water concentration is low.
• Blotter spot test. This is most useful when a series is conducted over a period. To do this
test, a drop or two of a representative oil sample are put on a piece of blotter paper. It is
important that the paper be placed so that the wetted area does not rest on a supporting
surface. After it reaches equilibrium, examine the oil spot, which might look like one of those
in Figure 5-2.
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Tests and Analyses
Figure 5-2
A sample blotter spot test
The spot is interpreted in the following way: no sludge means that the oil spot fades out with
indefinite boundaries. If there is sludge, dispersed sludge shows up as a sharply defined outer
boundary of the absorbed oil. A well-defined black inner spot indicates that the dispersing
properties of the oil have been overwhelmed by sludge. A more complex version of this test
is in Section 5.3.5.
• Examination of solid debris. When identifying the source of trouble in a machine, it is
important to know the nature and source of solid debris in the lubricating oil. Such debris can
be separated from an oil test sample or scraped from machine parts, the oil storage tank,
filters, or centrifuge bowls. The debris can then be washed free of oil with a volatile
petroleum solvent from a squeeze bottle (be aware of the fire hazard from the volatile
material). After drying, a magnet can separate iron-derived matter from the rest. Examination
with a 10X or stronger pocket magnifying glass or with a higher-power scope, if available,
will often help in deciding the nature and source of the debris. This material can be related to
the machine and its components. Results (the size and shape of the particles) can point to
needed action.
5.3.3 Diagnostic Laboratory Tests
The following are diagnostic laboratory tests that can be used to analyze lube oil:
• Oil viscosity and grease consistency. Both of these can be measured in more complex
laboratory tests. The ASTM D445 method is preferred for oil measurements and
D217 or D1403 for grease measurements. The grease apparatus involves dropping a standard
cone into a standard cup of grease. The depth of penetration is the measure of consistency,
expressed in 0.1 millimeters. The NLGI has classified greases in grades 000 to 6. The grease
consistencies versus grade are given in Appendix B.
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• Antiscuff and antiwear. These properties can be measured or studied in a precision

laboratory-testing device called the tribometer or pin-on-disk machine (ASTM G99). A pin is
pressed against a rotating disk. Friction coefficients and wear on the pin and on the disk are
measured. Various metal combinations can be used and various test conditions imposed, for
example load, speed, surface finish, and temperature.
• IR spectroscopy. In this lab procedure, a beam of IR light is passed through or bounced off a
thin film of an organic material—for example, a lubricant. The various chemical functional
groups within the organic molecule absorb the light at characteristic wave lengths. Thus, one
chemical group is distinguishable from another in the IR trace. The absorption peak heights
relate to the quantity of species present. Table 5-2 shows the IR peak regions of interest.
Table 5-2
IR peak regions of interest
Functional Group Wave Number, cm-1
Hydrocarbon base oil 680–775

1300–1500
2800–3050
EP/antiwear agents 900–1000
Soap grease gelling agents 1425–1650

Ester synthetic base oils 1720–1730
Oxidation products, rust inhibitors 1720–1730

3250–3450
Phenolic oxidation inhibitors 3600–3660
Note that there are several base oil peak regions. Additives, if their peaks coincide with these,
are masked effectively, hence the term dead band regions. One uses peaks outside the base
oil areas for functional group identification and quantitative work. Even when an additive
peak barely shows up in the full IR spectrum, it can be magnified by modern Fourier
transform IR using interferometers and computer enhancement for further identification. If a
sample of an additive in a product can be obtained (the lubricant supplier can provide a
sample), concentrations of it in a base oil or grease can be determined for quantitative IR
analysis. Comparison of the known additive peak height with those of the unknown will
establish the additive concentration in the latter.
The most common approach in using IR is to compare the spectrum of a used lubricant with
that of fresh product. It is particularly useful to place the spectra of the fresh and the used
product on the same trace—this makes comparison much easier. The spectra are studied to
identify the reasons for any differences and how they came about in the lubrication process,
for example, through contamination, oxidation, or thermal degradation. Incoming fresh
products and materials from storage can be studied in the same way to determine their
authenticity and condition. See examples of these spectra in NMAC Lube Notes, October
1999 issue. On page 2, an example of comparing incoming lubricants is shown. On page 5,
there is an example of monitoring the depletion of an oxidation inhibitor in a turbine oil.
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• Emission spectroscopy. Spectroanalysis, or spectro, involves subjecting a lubricant sample

to a high-energy spark, plasma, or flame. This treatment excites certain elements in the
sample, and they emit or absorb light at characteristic wavelengths. Study of the resulting
spectra reveals what metals are present. Major changes in the elements versus those in fresh
lubricant can indicate trouble from wear or contamination from other lubricants, dirt, and so
on. Spectro works best with oils. It can be applied to greases, too, but greases’ semisolid
nature can yield poorer results. Accuracy can be improved by digesting or ashing the oil or
grease sample and taking it up into solution. The test is then run on the solution. However,
this complicates the method and sharply increases its cost.
One widely used, routine emission spectro method yields values for about 20 metals in one
shot. It involves a rotating electrode (rotrode) that dips into the sample and carries it into a
high-energy spark area for burning. This can handle particles in an oil up to about 10 µm in
size. A modification of this method called rotrode filter spectroscopy (RFS) employs a
carbon filter to isolate the particles greater than 10 µm in size on the outer surface before
vaporizing them for analysis.
Another routine method with similar capabilities introduces the sample or a dilution of it into
an argon plasma (inductively coupled plasma). Higher energy or temperature is involved, and
the method lends itself well to automation.
Routine spectro does not “see” particles larger than 10 µm. (RFS is a development that
extends the particle size detection capabilities to approach those of ferrography.) Large metal
particles from scuffing are missed. One has to use the more complex total metals or digestion
method of analysis to see all the particles. Spectroanalysis gives no indication of the
compounds of which the elements are a part. For example, iron in spectro can be metallic but
also iron oxide, hydrated iron oxide (rust), iron sulfide, iron phosphate, and so on. The same
is true of metal organic species. Atomic absorption is another method; however, it is not
widely used in production analytical laboratories. X-ray diffraction is the primary analytical
method for the identification of crystalline compounds. Table 5-3 identifies sources of metals
found in lubricants.
Table 5-3
Sources of metals in lubricants
Source Metals
Dirt Al, Ca, Mg, K, Na, Si
Rust Fe (when water is present)
Grease Al, Ba, Ca, Li, Pb, Na, Si + dirt elements (clay)
Additives B, Ca, Mg, Ba, Mo, P ,K, Zn, Sb
Wear of bearings, gears Co, Cu, Sn, Zn, Mn, Fe, Cr, Ni, P
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• Ferrography. Figure 5-3 illustrates the importance of wear particle size and quantity in
determining the condition of operating equipment. Note that we need to get at particles above
the normal 10-µm size detectable with routine emission spectroscopy. This can be done
through the use of ferrography (or by the digestion method). Note also that in Figure 5-3,
some particle sizes (less than 10 µm) in benign wear also involve some of those in the other
failure modes. Therefore, a rapid rise in particles less than 10 µm can be indicative of a wear
problem.
Figure 5-3
Wear particle size/concentration and machine condition
The ferrograph magnetically separates materials, particularly ferrous metals, from wear,
contamination, and the like by size and quantity to reveal their source. Its effectiveness in
picking up the larger particles missed in routine emission spectroscopy is shown in Figure 5-4.
The particle characteristics from ferrography are often sufficiently specific to determine the wear
mode that formed the particle within the machine.
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Figure 5-4
Detection of wear and other particles
With direct reading ferrography, a diluted oil sample flows through a precipitator tube, where
a magnetic array separates particles according to size. Larger sizes separate first, and smaller
ones further down the tube. Light beams pass through the separated, collected particles to
provide information on the amount deposited.
Analytical ferrography involves flowing the diluted oil over a specially prepared microscope
slide, tilted to provide a known flow rate. A solvent wash removes the carrier oil, and a
ferrogram is prepared from the dried residue. This is examined (and photographed) through
an optical microscope. Identifiable solids include several types of steel, and, to a lesser
extent, associated copper, lead/tin alloys, friction polymers, molysulfides, silica, fibers, and
carbon flakes.
Some of the types of wear that are identifiable from ferrography and the causes of those types
are given in Table 5-4.
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Table 5-4
Wear and its causes
Wear Cause
Mild adhesive Acceptable low wear rates
Severe adhesive Scuffing, usually from excessive loads or speeds

Abrasive Cutting due to hard particles or hard, rough opposing surfaces
Contact fatigue Wear particles from pitting or spalling due to point or line contact
from rolling elements in gears and ball and roller bearings
Corrosive Corrosive wear products from chemical action of acids or water

to produce fine particles
Information from the direct reading technique is useful in trending data on the condition of a
machine. The more complex analytical ferrogram is effective when more data are needed in
anticipated stress situations.
• Particle counting. The importance of monitoring and controlling the concentration of
particle contamination in lubricating oils and hydraulic fluids cannot be overstated. Modern
lubrication programs in power generation use such monitoring and control for hydraulic
fluids (for example, electromechanical hydraulic control [EHC] fluids), turbine oils, pump
lubes, compressor lubricants, crankcase oils, gear oils, and fan/motor bearing oils. In recent
years, many case studies have shown how substantial improvements in the reliability of these
components can be achieved by monitoring and maintaining cleaner fluids.
The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) Solid Contaminant Code (ISO
4406:99) is probably the most widely used method for representing particle counts (number
of particles/mL) in lubricating oils and hydraulic fluids. The current standard employs a
three-range number system. The first range number corresponds to particles larger than 4 µm,
the second range number for particles larger than 6 µm, and the third for particles larger than
14 µm (see Table 5-5). As the range numbers increase by an increment of one digit, the
associated particle concentration roughly doubles. A typical ISO code for a turbine oil would
be ISO 17/15/12.
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Table 5-5
Particle count range numbers
Number of Particles per mL
More than Up to and Range Number

Including
80,000 160,000 24
40,000 80,000 23
20,000 40,000 22
10,000 20,000 21
5,000 10,000 20
2,500 5,000 19
1,300 2,500 18
640 1,300 17
320 640 16
160 320 15
80 160 14
40 80 13
20 40 12
10 20 11
5 10 10
2.5 5 9
1.3 2.5 8
0.64 1.3 7
0.32 0.64 6
0.16 0.32 5
0.08 0.16 4
0.04 0.08 3
0.02 0.04 2
0.01 0.02 1
Although there are many different methods used to arrive at target cleanliness levels for oils
in different applications, most combine the importance of machine reliability with the general
contaminant sensitivity of the machine. Organizations such as ASTM, Westinghouse, ABB
Group, and GE have published guidelines on turbine oil cleanliness.
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Particle counts can be obtained manually using a microscope or by an automatic instrument

called a particle counter. Oil analysis laboratories use many different types of automatic
particle counters. There are also several portable and on-line particle counters on the market.
The performance of these instruments can vary considerably depending on the design and
operating principle. Optical particle counters deploying laser or white light are widely used
because of their ability to count particles across a wide range of sizes. ISO 11500 and ISO
11171 are published standards related to the use of optical particle counters. Pore-blockage-
type particle counters have a narrower size range sensitivity. They are popular because of
their ability to discriminate between hard particles and other impurities in the oil, such as
water, sludge, and air bubbles. More than 10 different automatic particle counters are
available for fluid monitoring purposes.
5.3.4 Standard Laboratory Tests
Over the years, ASTM has developed standard test methods for a variety of materials, including
oils and greases. Committee D-2 oversees activities on lubricants. To standardize tests, several
laboratories perform them and then compare notes in a round-robin approach. Procedural
differences are gradually worked out until laboratories can duplicate one another. When
everyone is satisfied, the procedure is considered to be standardized and is given a D-number.
A key part of the method development is the statistical analysis of the test results according to
repeatability (one operator, one laboratory) and reproducibility (different operators, different
laboratories).
Important ASTM tests for lubricants with their designations and precision are given in Table 5-6.
The numbers given under repeatability and reproducibility columns show the expected tolerance
of the test results 95% of the time. Note that results from any laboratory, even with these
carefully developed test methods, are not absolute—they have pluses and minuses attached to
them. The ASTM precision values are the most accurate available.
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Table 5-6
Key tests for lubricants
Property ASTM Method Units Repeatability (Ir) Reproducibility (IR)
Greases
Consistency D217 0.1 mm 7* 20
D1403 0.1 mm 11 26
Dropping point D566 °C 7 13

D2265 °C 6* 15*
Oxidation D942 Psi drop 5* 9*
Bleeding D1742 Wt. % 10 17
Bearing life D3336 Hrs. NA NA
Oils
Timken EP D2509 % of value 23* 59*
Flash point D92 °F (°C) 15(8) 30(17)
Pour point D97 °F (°C) 5(3) 10(6)
Viscosity D445 cSt 0.35% mean 0.70% mean
Neutralization D664 mgKOH/g 6% mean 30% mean

number
D2896 mgKOH/g 3% (fresh oil) to 7% (fresh oil) to 32%
24% (used oil) (used oil) mean
mean
Oxidation rotating D2272 Min. to 25 10% mean 20% mean

pressure vessel Psi drop
oxidation test
(RPVOT)
Both Oils and Greases
Friction and wear G99-95A Friction coefficient +10% —

and wear
*The values vary with the level of data.
Two appropriate ASTM test methods that address this repeatability and precision relative to
power plant maintenance are ASTM D4378, In-Service Monitoring of Mineral Turbine Oil for
Steam or Gas Turbine, and ASTM D6224, In-Service Monitoring of Lubricating Oil for
Auxiliary Power Plant Equipment.
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5.3.5 Analytical Test Methods
An assortment of specific analytical techniques and procedures is available to the laboratory

chemist for studying lubricants. These include the following:
• Gas chromatography
• Scanning electron microscopy (for wear surfaces)
• Thermogravimetric analysis (TGA)
• Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC)
• RPVOT
• Remaining Useful Life Evaluation Routine (RULER 5)
• Thin-layer chromatography
A brief description of the last five methods is given in this section. These tests are not always
standard and depend on the skill of the operator. Validity and usefulness of the results can be
enhanced by direct comparison with results on a known material tested in the same way.
TGA is a promising tool for thermally separating certain greases into their component parts, for
example, as follows:
• Highly volatile: 50–150°C (122–302°F)
• Medium volatile: 150–650°C (302–1202°F)
• Combustible: 650–750°C (1202–1382°F)
• Inert and ash: remainder
This ASTM (E1131) method uses 10 mg of sample in the balance setup shown in Figure 5-5.
The procedure is what might be termed a destructive distillation. A heating cycle is programmed
over 25 minutes from 50°C to 750°C (122–1382°F), first in nitrogen and then in air. The residue
number correlates with the gelling agent content of metal-containing greases (most products). It
does not work with ashless greases, such as polyurea-gelled materials.
5
RULER is a patented technology of Fluitec International.
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Figure 5-5
A TGA setup
DSC is a thermal analysis technique that measures the heat flow associated with certain physical
and chemical changes in a lubricant. Of most interest is stability to oxidation, which shows up as
the time delay to the onset of the oxidative exothermal reaction. The method uses a few
milligrams of the test lubricant in the apparatus shown in Figure 5-6. One copper (catalytic) cell
or pan on a sensitive thermocouple contains the lubricant, and the other is an empty reference
cell on its own thermocouple.
Figure 5-6
A DSC apparatus
The apparatus is placed in an oven heated to a set temperature, for example, 200°C (392°F).
Oxygen is then passed over the two cells. When the antioxidant in the sample can no longer
afford protection, oxidation of the lubricant takes place and is detected by a temperature rise in
the cell containing the sample. Results correlate roughly with those from the standard RPVOT
method, ASTM D2272 (see Table 5-5).
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High-pressure DSC is a variant of DSC in which the oxidation takes place under 500-psi
(3447-kPa) pressure. This reduces volatilization of the test sample during thermal stress. This
ASTM method (D5483) is more complex than the atmospheric method and is not needed unless
volatile components are involved.
RPVOT (ASTM D2272), formerly the rotating bomb oxidation test, measures the oxidation
stability of turbine oil and is a principal way to determine the remaining useful life of the oil.
Oils deteriorate through oxidation, which, if allowed to go too far, results in deposit formation
and ultimate equipment failure. The traditional test for evaluating turbine oil oxidation stability
has been the ASTM D943 test. This test is unworkable for maintenance evaluations of turbine
oils in service. For example, some top-of-the-line turbine oils can go more than 20,000 hours to
reach the end point; a period of more than 8000 hours is common in this top group. Lesser-
quality standard materials go for 3000–5000 hours. These are very long times for research and
evaluation.
The RPVOT overcomes this difficulty. Top oils reach the end point in only 2000 minutes;
second-quality materials go for 400–600 minutes. The RPVOT is run at 302°F (150°C) in a
stainless steel vessel with water and a copper metal catalyst present. The vessel is pressurized
with oxygen to 90 psi (620.5 kPa) at 77°F (25°C), and the end point is to a drop of 25 psi
(172.4 kPa) in the oxygen pressure. Good correlations between the turbine oil stability test
(TOST) (ASTM D943) and RPVOT have been made. For these results and more details, see
Note No. 6, NMAC Lube Notes, October 1999.
RULER is an instrument that monitors the antioxidant levels in lubricants. The small, handheld
device employs linear sweep voltammetric techniques to measure the electrochemically active
antioxidants species in the lubricant (see Figure 5-7) and is an ASTM-approved standard
(according to ASTM D6810 and D6971).
Figure 5-7
The Fluitec RULER instrument
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A small sample of lubricant is diluted with a selected test solution, and a linear sweep voltage is
applied to the prepared test solution using a three-way sensing electrode consisting of two
platinum reference electrodes and one glassy carbon working electrode. When the voltage is
applied, the resulting (oxidation) current flow depends on the concentration of the active species,
that is, the individual antioxidants. Comparison of results with those from fresh lubricant (the
standard = 100% antioxidants concentration of RUL%) and other in-service oil samples from the
lubricated equipment allows an appraisal of remaining useful life (RUL% according to ASTM
D6971).
The choice of the test solution in the RULER test depends on the type of oil and the antioxidant
additive types. For example, esters are polar materials that are soluble in polar solvents, such as
acetone. Hydrocarbons are not in this category. Also, there are three main types of oxidation
inhibitors to consider, as follows:
• Aromatic amines
• Hindered phenols
• Metallic dithiophosphates and/or carbamates
Each individual antioxidant can be detected by different types of test solutions.
The working principle of the RULER method is based on voltammetric analysis in which the oil
sample is mixed with an electrolyte and a solvent and placed in an electrolytic cell to detect the
electrochemical (antioxidant activity). The oil samples (maximum 400 µL) are diluted in an
acetone/electrolyte mixture (RULER green test solution), enhancing extraction of the
antioxidants into the solvent phase. When performing a voltammetric analysis, the potential
across the electrodes varies linearly with time, and the resulting current is recorded as a function
of the potential. With increased voltage to the sample in the cell, the various additive species
under investigation in the oil oxidize electrochemically. A typical current-potential curve
produced during the practice of the voltammetric test is illustrated in Figure 5-8. Initially, the
applied potential produces an electrochemical reaction with a rate so slow that virtually no
current flows through the cell. As the voltage is increased (see Figure 5-8), the electroactive
species (such as antioxidants) begin to oxidize at the microelectrode surface, producing an
anodic rise in the current or oxidation reaction. The data recorded during this oxidation reaction
can then be used to predict the remaining useful life of the lubricant or used to evaluate the
remaining antioxidant additives of the used samples. The peak of a zincdialkyldithiophosphate
additive is followed by an amine (PANA) and then by a hindered phenol (BHT) (see Figure 5-8).
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Figure 5-8
Example of three additives and voltammetric (RULER) response
The heights of the rounded peaks relate to additive concentrations (see Figure 5-9). Values for
the fresh lubricant are used as the 100% standard; the values for the test solution/base
oil/electrolyte alone serve as the 0% standard. Various in-between points can be arrived at
accurately by testing known concentrations of the additives in question in base oil. With careful
work, repeatability of ±5% is claimed for determining the percentage of remaining antioxidant.
For more details, see Note No. 5, NMAC Lube Notes, July 1995 and ASTM D-6971, D-6810, and
D-4378.
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Figure 5-9
Voltammetric (RULER) graph showing the new oil (the blue/upper line) and in-service
turbine oil (the red/lower line) (From gas turbine oil after 11,612 operating hours with
aromatic diamines [Antioxidant #1] and phenols [Antioxidant #2].)
Thin-layer chromatography (from Herguth Laboratories, Inc.) is a technique for separating a

sample into its components for study. This separation involves two mutually immiscible phases,
one of which is stationary. The latter is sometimes a solid, as in thin-layer chromatography. The
stationary phase is attached to a solid support material, for example, a plate. The sample, when
dropped or smeared on the coated plate, moves across or through this stationary phase by
capillary action and is separated by the differences in the chemical and physical properties of the
components. These differences also govern the rate of movement or migration of the individual
components. The components emerge or are eluted from the system in the order of their
interaction with the stationary phase. This technique is called radial planer chromatography.
Separation of components occurs through adsorption or similar processes. The blotter spot test
(see Section 5.3.2) is a simple version of this chromatography. However, the blotter test relies
only on diffusion around an initial spot on blotter or filter paper. There is no special solid phase.
Figure 5-10 illustrates radial planer chromatographs of fresh and used gear oils.
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Figure 5-10
Chromatographs of fresh and used gear oils
When thin-layer chromatography is used as an oil analysis tool, various machine/oil

combinations will show unique trends during the life of the machine and oil. These trends are
indicated by bands or zones of different colors and/or densities of the chromatographs. Even
unwanted wear metals and debris can be observed, as can the presence of an incorrect oil used as
makeup.
Ideally, a reference oil is tested to establish the baseline of fresh, clear new oil. Used oils from
the machine are then spotted on the chromatographic substrate at regular, time-based intervals.
Changes in the appearance of the bands/zones are a clear indication that something has changed
in the machine or oil. A close look at the zones with the unaided eye or, if needed, a 10X-power
magnifying glass can even be correlated with the ISO Particle Code, water contamination, or
wear debris. As with most analytical methods, this method is not a predictor of future
performance, but rather is a measurement of the situation at the time of sampling. For more
details on this topic, see Note 5, NMAC Lube Notes, November 2000.
5.4 Using Test Results
A single test result on a lubricant cannot be considered as definitive, even though it might be on
a properly collected sample with a carefully performed procedure. This is because of the inherent
variability of any test. The only available statistical appraisal of test precision is for ASTM
procedures. That is one of the reasons they are so widely used when standard tests are required.
Table 5-5 lists these data for some key procedures. To cite an example, the repeatability of the
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quarter-scale grease penetration test, D1403, is listed as 11 points. This means that 95% of the
time, a result by this procedure will fall within ±11 points of the true value. Approximately 5%
of the time, the result will fall outside this envelope. So, ± tolerances are attached to any result.
When a result seems outside the acceptable variability band, begin again with a new sample and
a new test. If the second result checks the first, it might truly be showing a problem. The cause of
this problem should receive attention. If the two results diverge, additional testing is needed to
resolve the disparity.
Nonstandard tests (that is, test methods without an ASTM-type statistical matrix) present a
different picture. With such tests, test credibility needs to be established. Replicate tests will
determine repeatability, but not reproducibility. However, repeatability data should be enough to
allow reliable tests. Merely compare results on an unknown or used lubricant with those for fresh
material. Use this approach particularly with shortened or special tests conducted at low cost by
many commercial laboratories.
5.5 Trending
Enough cannot be said for having in hand samples of the unused lubricant that was originally
charged to a piece of equipment under study. At the least, one should have stored data on tests
run on the fresh material when it was introduced. Then, as data are obtained on used material,
they can be compared directly with the stored information. Essentially all test procedures profit
from such comparisons.
A lubricant analysis program should feature periodic sampling and testing. The test data can then
be plotted on a continuing graph, as in Figure 5-11 [1], to establish a trend. Place test variable
limits above and below the trend line. This way, minor variations will not affect the equipment
operation but results outside these limits will be noticeable. If, on resample and retest, the results
return to the trend line, all is well. If not, a problem exists that needs attention. At some point, the
trend line will break away and a preset warning limit or flag will come up. When this occurs,
retest to verify results, then go for change-out, makeup or inhibitor addition, and so on, and study
further if needed. Note the warning limit line in Figure 5-11.
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Figure 5-11
Sample plot of lubricant properties
5.6 Warning Limits
Classic warning limits for oils are given in Table 5-7 [1]. These warning limits are derived from
past experience; no definitive studies have been conducted to ascertain these points. The
following discussions about these limits are for clearer understanding:
• Determine which property test limit of the lubricant is the most critical and trend it. For
example, for turbine oils, this will be oxidation inhibitor content. The inhibitor is sacrificed
in protecting the oil (or grease). When its concentration is reduced sharply, oxidation of the
lubricant takes place to form acids and eventually polymers that increase viscosity. But acid
formation and viscosity increases occur late; a decrease in inhibitor content is an early
warning sign or leading indicator of deterioration.
• Sometimes accelerated performance tests are needed to assess remaining performance
properties. For example, DSC or RPVOT (ASTM D2272) is useful for antioxidation
performance. The sacrificed inhibitor might generate oil-soluble species that accelerate
lubricant breakdown.
• The application involving a lubricant also affects its warning limit. A 50% additive depletion
with an oil in a turbine system might mean that years of service still remain for the product.
A similar drop in inhibitor content with a reactor cooling pump oil might dictate action soon.
• A warning limit for greases is measured by penetration (ASTM D217) more than 30 points
up or down from the original value.
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Table 5-7
Typical warning limits for certain lubricant services
Service Oils
Property Diesel Steam/Gas Hydraulic Gear Air
Engine Turbine System Compressor
Appearance:
Color/odor
Wear metals content: Unusual change from original
By emission/absorption
spectroscopy
Calcium content: NA (Note 3) 20 NA NA NA
By absorption, ASTM D
4626T, ppm, maximum
Viscosity at 40°C (100°F): 10–25 10 10 10 10
(ASTM D 445), change, %. (Note 2) (Note 2) (Note 2) (Note 2)
Foam Seq. I, ml, max.
(ASTM D892) NA 450/10 NA NA NA
Water content: 0.2 0.05–0.2 0.05 0.03–0.1 0.1
% vol. max. (Note 4) (Note 4)
(ASTM D 95) (Note 5)
Total acid number: NA 0.3 NA NA NA
mg KOH/g, max.
(ASTM D 664)
Oxidation inhibitor (Note 1): NA 50 50 NA NA
% of new lube, minimum
Oxidation life:
RVPOT minutes, % of new 25 (Note 6)
lube (ASTM D2272)
EP additive2: NA NA NA 50 50
% of new lube, minimum
Rust test: NA Fail test Fail test NA NA
Oil (ASTM D 665)
Base number: >3 NA NA NA NA
mg KOH/g, minimum
Fuel dilution: 3 NA NA NA NA
Vol. %, maximum
Notes:
1. These points can be determined by IR analysis and RULER. Also, the atomic absorption procedure can be used
for EP additives.
2. This is not a sensitive criterion. Other limits should be used for early warning. If original viscosity is known,
apply the 10% increase to it to arrive at the warning limit.
3. NA = not applicable.
4. Depending on the application.
5. Based on experience and ASTM D6224 and D4378.
6. Accompanied by acid number increase.
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5.7 Cleanup Considerations
A lubricant is changed because the maintenance plan is being followed or because there is a
possible problem to resolve. In the latter case, cleanup is essential even if the replacement
lubricant is the same type as the old one. This is because the old lubricant has had a problem or
been the indicator of a problem. The old lubricant becomes a contaminant in the new lubricant
and is best removed, if possible.
The principal way to ensure cleanliness in the system being changed is to drain the system, add
fresh lubricant, drain again, and repeat until the debris is removed. Sampling and sensory testing,
as previously covered, should suffice for determining when flushing is sufficient. This procedure
should also be followed when making a change to an updated product. Such a change might take
place even though no equipment or lubricant distress has been noted.
When a high-viscosity oil needs to be replaced, it is effective to use an oil with much lower
viscosity to flush it out thoroughly. Be sure to follow that flush with an additional flush with the
new oil about to be put into service.
Greases are more of a problem with cleanup than are oils. The general pattern is to introduce new
lubricant and expel old grease at the same time until sufficient old product has emerged. This is
generally accomplished with the machine in operation to prevent overfilling. Open rolling
element bearings can be handled in this fashion. Double-shielded bearings are another problem,
and attempts to regrease them may or may not be successful, depending on prevailing conditions.
For further discussion of this, see Note 1 of the June 1998 NMAC Lube Notes.
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6
LUBRICATION RESOURCES
It is important for a new engineer to be aware of the available resources. One of these resources
is the EPRI Lubrication Support Program, which has been in existence since the mid-1980s and
the inception of NMAC. The Lubrication Support Program provides nuclear and fossil members
technical support in the area of plant lubrication. This support consists of the NMAC Lube Notes
newsletter and Technical Support and Lubrication publications. This section examines these
resources in more detail.
6.1 NMAC Lube Notes Newsletter
Lube Notes is an annual newsletter that addresses current lubrication issues facing members. The
newsletter is in question-and-answer format and includes a quick response and detailed response.
Topics covered include the following:
• Oil analysis
• Turbine oils
• Motor-operated valve (MOV) lubricants
• Testing
• Greases
• Bearings
The current issue of Lube Notes is available on the NMAC web site along with several back
issues. Lube Notes offers a quick, easy method to stay up to speed on industry issues.
6.2 EPRI Technical Support
NMAC has provided technical support to its members in the area of equipment lubrication since
1985. The EPRI Lubrication consultant is available to members on an as-needed basis. Support
ranges from explanation of a problem to opinion on what lubricant to use given the application.
The support is also provided by EPRI technical staff and outside experts. The consultant can be
contacted directly or by using the NMAC hotline e-mail address (NMACHotline@epri.com).
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Lubrication Resources
6.3 EPRI Lubrication Publications
Over the years, EPRI has developed several lubrication-related reports. These reports provide
guidance ranging from turbine oil compatibility to MOV stem nut lubrication and qualification.
This section identifies those reports and provides brief abstracts of them. All of the reports listed
are available for download at www.epri.com.
6.3.1 Lube Oil Predictive Maintenance, Handling, and Quality Assurance

Guideline (1004384)
This report was prepared by EPRI to assist member utilities in the improvement of maintenance
processes. It presents the key elements that should be included in conducting comprehensive
lubrication program evaluations and in setting up a well-organized lubrication program. EPRI
believes that utilities can make organizational and procedural improvements that will yield
optimal lubrication programs. This report also serves as an excellent reference document because
it describes key lubrication tools, processes, and procedures. It defines how these elements can
contribute to plant operations when they are incorporated into maintenance strategies and
assigned the proper priority.
6.3.2 Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Turbine Oil Compatibility

(1016272)
As oil companies continue to consolidate product lines, utilities are faced with oil formulation
changes. These new-generation oils contain updated additive packages and more highly refined
base stocks, which raise concerns over performance and oil compatibility within existing
systems. Moreover, the reformulated oils may not perform as expected when mixed with
traditional in-service oils or may not perform as expected in some machines. Prior experiences
with foaming and deposit issues seem to have been linked to base oil and additive changes. The
purpose of this project was to conduct rigorous lab testing in order to evaluate stated
performance levels of Mobil DTE 732 turbine oil and its compatibility with in-service lubricants
Mobil DTE 797 and Exxon Teresstic GT 32.
6.3.3 Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Lube Notes Compilation, 1989–

2007 (1015254)
Proper equipment lubrication is a necessity for trouble-free operation in both nuclear and fossil
power plants. In 1989, NMAC began publishing Lube Notes biannually. The intent of the
newsletter was to address common lubrication issues and provide assistance to plant maintenance
personnel. Lubrication topics vary from component-specific case studies to generic testing
analysis. This report compiles all of the Lube Notes published from 1989 through 2007. In
addition, a new subject index is included as an appendix to the report as a quick reference guide.
This report replaces the EPRI report Lube Notes Compilation, 1989–2001 (1006848).
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6.3.4 Turbine Oil Lubrication Compatibility Testing (1011028)
New-generation lubricating oils formulated with Group II base stocks and containing new
additive technologies are being added to oils formulated with Group I base stocks already in
most lubricated systems. As a result, there is increasing evidence that in many cases, the new oil
does not perform as expected. The lack of performance so far has been seen as increased deposits
throughout lubricated systems, increased air entrainment, and increases in copper values. Other
lubricant properties may be affected.
The purpose of this research was to test and confirm that new lubricants being offered to the
power industry have suitable performance characteristics and do not pose unnecessary risks to
plant equipment, reliability, or performance. The project used accepted industry testing standards
(ASTM, American Petroleum Institute [API], and so on). This report provides the results of these
tests on two commonly used turbine oils—Exxon/Mobil DTE 797 and Exxon Terrestic GT 32.
The testing and the results described in this report were funded jointly by NMAC and EPRI’s
Turbine-Generator Users Group.

Recirculation Pump Motor Lubrication Oil Systems Maintenance Guide (1013456)
Reactor coolant pumps used in pressurized water reactors (PWRs) and reactor recirculation
pumps used in boiling water reactors are used to move water through the reactor for cooling and
control purposes and are required to run continuously for the duration of a fuel cycle. These
components are generally inaccessible during power operation; therefore, reliability is critical for
plant operation. Problems reported have included oil leakage at power, the need for additional
reservoirs to accommodate leakage, oil degradation (foaming and particulate), and sludge
resulting from the design of the motor. Some of the problems are a result of new oil formulations
and other changes made by the oil suppliers. This report summarizes many of the issues and
solutions that are being implemented in the industry to limit motor oil leakage. The experience
from motor specialists has been collected to limit maintenance and materials errors related to
large motor maintenance.
6.3.6 Turbine-Generator Auxiliary Systems, Volume 1: Turbine-Generator

Lubrication System Maintenance Guide (1010191)
The report includes a description of the lubrication system components for the major
manufacturer-supplied systems. Technical description, troubleshooting, and preventive and
component maintenance are the main topics in the equipment maintenance section. A preventive
maintenance basis was developed for the report. Technical description and sampling and analysis
recommendations are the main topics in the lubricating oil section. Safety issues are included for
the component and oil sections of the report.
6-3
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6.3.7 Effective Practical Grease Practices (1020247)
Best practices for initial greasing, periodic regreasing, and sampling of greased rolling element
bearings do not exist. Guidance about the amount of initial grease packing of the bearing housing
to the recommended equipment status (in-service or secured) during periodic regreasing is
varied. Additionally, there is disagreement as to regreasing practices of shielded and double-
shielded bearings. The use of auto-greasing devices, grease reliefs, auto drains, and ultrasonic/
acoustic grease guns has not been adequately researched. This report addresses these issues and
reports the findings. In areas in which experiences/best practices from utilities were not
available, testing was constructed and reported. Guidance was also developed for the proper
sampling of a greased roller element bearing to determine lubricant condition, wear debris
analysis, and contamination levels.
6.3.8 Oil Lubrication for Rotating Equipment—Guide (1019517)
This report addresses lubrication systems for major pieces of plant equipment that may require
additional attention. It includes sections on lubrication methods, constant-level oilers;
contamination, degradation, and control; and guidance and information on major pieces of plant
equipment and their lubrication systems. Specific information on major equipment includes basic
lubrication system operation, general maintenance guidance, troubleshooting, and lubrication
system vulnerabilities and operating experience. A glossary of terms and acronyms used in the
report is also included. References that were used in the development of this report are provided
as a source for additional information.

(1009609)
This report documents the results of a program to assess the frictional performance of various
lubricants in an MOV stem lubrication application. The program assesses the effects of stem
loading time history (rate of loading) and temperature on stem friction for 12 stem lubricants.
In addition, the report documents tests conducted at regular intervals on gearbox grease samples
using both conventional and innovative techniques to assess their relative effectiveness in
detecting grease degradation.
6.3.10 EPRI Motor-Operated Valve Performance Prediction Program: Stem/Stem

Nut Lubrication Test Report (TR-102135)
The thrust output capability of an MOV is strongly influenced by the coefficients of friction
between the valve stem and stem nut. EPRI completed a scoping study to evaluate the friction
and wear characteristics of 21 stem/stem nut lubricants. Several lubricants exhibited excellent
performance. The report states that EPRI would select the most promising lubricants for more
extensive testing and assessment.
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11577208
6.3.11 Comparative Analysis of Polyrex EM and SRI Greases for Use in EQ Motor
Bearings (1011946)
This report provides a summary of a comparative analysis of Polyrex EM 6 and SRI 7 greases for
use in environmental qualification (EQ) motor bearings. The test program included thermal
aging and radiation exposures to verify that EM would function during both service and accident
conditions. Pure SRI, pure EM, and three mixtures of SRI and EM were tested. Tests proved EM
to be better than SRI in oxidation resistance, shear stability, and wear protection. Tests also
showed SRI and EM to be compatible, allowing EM to be used to regrease bearings currently
lubricated with SRI. Based on the test results from this project, EM is considered an acceptable
replacement for SRI in mild and harsh motor bearing applications. Bearings currently greased
with SRI may be regreased with EM.
6.3.12 MOV Long Life Grease—Evaluation for Limitorque Limit Switch Gearboxes:
Used in Nuclear Safety Related Applications (1010058)
This report documents testing and evaluation of MOV Long Life #1 (MOVLL #1) as a
replacement for Mobilgrease 28 in Limitorque limit switch gearboxes used in nuclear safety
related applications. MOV-LL #1 was previously evaluated for use in Limitorque main gearbox
applications (see the EPRI report Comparative Analysis of Nebula and MOV Long Life Greases
for Limitorque Main Gearbox Applications [1003483]). Nuclear power industry representatives
requested this evaluation in hopes of being able to reduce the number of greases required in
maintaining Limitorque MOVs.
6.3.13 Comparative Analysis of Nebula and MOV Long Life Greases for Limitorque
Main Gearbox Applications (1003483)
This report provides a summary of a comparative analysis of Nebula EP (NEP) and MOVLL
greases for Limitorque main gearbox applications. MOVLL was chosen for the work as a result
of a previous study summarized in the November 2001 NMAC Lube Notes (“Replacement for
Nebula EP Greases”). ExxonMobil has discontinued manufacturing of the NEP greases. This is a
concern because the Nebula greases are used in the nuclear power industry to lubricate the main
gearbox of Limitorque MOVs. The project also evaluated the compatibility of the two greases.
The test program involved analytical tests to compare critical characteristics of the two greases
under normal, high-temperature, and irradiated conditions. Results of the test program will allow
utilities to use the MOVLL in place of NEP and to top off Limitorque main gearboxes currently
greased with NEP.
6
Polyrex EM is a registered trademark of Exxon Mobil Corp.
7
SRI is now a registered trademark of Chevron.
6-5
11577208
6.4 Other Industry Resources
There are multiple industry groups and forums available to the public for lubrication-related
questions. Noria and the Society of Tribologists and Lubrication Engineers tend to be at the
forefront of discussions.
6-6
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7
REFERENCES
1. Chevron Research Bulletin, “Grease,” 1976, 1983; “Automotive Engine Oils,” 1989;
“Testing Used Engine Oils,” 1983; and “Industrial Oil,” 1985.
2. C. Bolt, “Radiation Effects on Organic Materials,” Chapter 9, Academic Press (1963), and
Bolt chapter in Boozer, Handbook of Lubrication, Volume 1, CRC Press (1983).
3. ASTM D943-81 (04a), Test Method for Oxidation Characteristics of Inhibited Mineral Oils
[Turbine Oil Stability Test (TOST)]. ASTM International, Philadelphia, PA.
4. ASTM D3336, Test Method for Life of Lubricating Greases in Ball Bearings at Elevated
Temperatures. ASTM International, Philadelphia, PA.
5. D. Godfrey, “Recognition and Solution of Some Common Wear Problems Related to
Lubricants and Hydraulic Fluids.” Lubrication Engineering, 43, 2 (1987).
6. E. W. Meyers, NLGI Spokesman 47, (1), 24, 1983.
7. F. S. Meade, “Compatibility of Greases.” Rock Island Arsenal Report 61-2132, 1961.
8. D. Turner, “The Skinny on Grease Compatibility.” Machinery Lubrication Magazine,
January 2009.
9. “Shelf Life of Petroleum Products.” ExxonMobil Technical Information Sheet.
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11577208
A
LUBRICANT PROPERTY TABLES
The lubricants listed in Tables A-1 through A-13 are readily available products that, for the most
part, have been used successfully by NMAC members. However, they are examples only and not
meant to exclude other products with equivalent specifications. For details pertaining to safety
and performance, one needs only to enter a product name in an Internet search engine and link to
the material safety data sheet and performance data sheet.
Table A-1
Turbine oils: ISO Viscosity Grades 32, 46, and 68
Operating Limit Range

Profile Application Products Temperature Radiation
°C (°F) (Note 1) Rad (Note 2)
Products are Main steam • Arco Ideal

made from highly turbines and • Chevron Regal rust- and
refined mineral auxiliaries: oxidation-inhibited
oils plus oxidation (R&O) 60 –95
6
5x10 –5x10
7
• Main bearings
and corrosion • ConocoPhillips Turbine (140–200)
inhibitors. • Pump bearings
Oil
Products provide • Small gear sets
• Esso Teresso
rust protection, • Circulating
foam • Mobil DTE Light, 724
systems
suppression, and • Shell Turbo T
• Compressor
release of
crankcases
entrained water.
• Control
systems
Same as the Same plus gas • BP Turbinol Select
preceding, plus turbines • Castrol Perfecto HPT
increased • Chevron GST 32, 2300
oxidation and 65–107 7 x106–108
• ConocoPhillips Diamond
thermal (150–225)
Class Turbine Oil
stabilities.
• Mobil DTE 732, 832
SHC 824 (Note 3)
• Pennzbell Turbine Oil
• Shell Turbo Oil TX, CC
Notes:
1. Products contain no solids other than gelling agent.
2. Lower value is the point at which no significant change is expected. Lubricant should be replaced at the upper
value or its performance watched closely. 1 rad ≅ 0.01 gray ≅ 100 ergs/g ≅ 0.01 joule/kg ≅ 4.30 x 10-6 Btu/lb.
3. Synthetic base oils.
A-1
11577208
Lubricant Property Tables
Table A-2
Engine oils for large diesels (Many can also be used for smaller diesels [API CD
Classification]. Oils made exclusively for smaller diesels are numerous and varied; they
are beyond the scope of this report.)
Profile Application Products
High Base Reserve (True Base No. [TBN] >10 mg KOH/g)
Products are made from Crankcases of auxiliary diesel • BP Energol REO

premium base oils plus engines—railroad/marine type— • Chevron Diesel Engine Oils
additives to provide used for emergency power. Delo 6170 CFO, Marine 1000
detergency and resistance • Lyondell Gascon Supreme Plus
to wear, corrosion,
• Mobil Mobilgard 450 NC
oxidation, and foaming.
Typically, products have • Pennzoil RR513, RR517
high base reserve to • Shell Caprinus XR
accommodate high-sulfur
fuels (>0.5% sulfur).
Another group will
accommodate low-sulfur
fuels. Many oils (no zinc)
are compatible with silver-
lined sleeve bearings.
Low Base Reserve (TBN 7–9 mg KOH/g)
Products recommended for • Chevron Marine Engine Oil

modern low-sulfur diesel fuel (see Delo 194 (no zinc), Delo 100,
Lube Notes No. 4, July 1996). Delo 400
Most oils contain zinc additives • Mobil Delvac
and likely will not be compatible • Pennzoil Long Life Heavy Duty
with silver-lined bearings in EMD Engine Oil
engines. However, such silver
• Phillips Super HD II Motor Oil
bearings should have been
phased out by 2006. Also, silver • Shell Rotella T
bearings can be retrofitted with
bronze (at a cost).
A-2
11577208
Table A-3
Low-pressure hydraulic oil: ISO Viscosity Grades 32, 46, 68, and 100
Profile Application Products (Note 1) Temperature Radiation

Products are made • Moderate-duty • BP AW

from refined hydraulic systems, • Castrol Hyspin
mineral oils plus general machinery AW
oxidation and • Reciprocating air • Chevron AW
corrosion inhibitors, compressors Hydraulic 7 7
antiwear/antiscuff • Circulating systems 65–105 10 –5x10
• Conoco
agents, and foam and bearings (plain (150–220)
Hydroclear
suppressants. They and rolling element) Multipurpose
contain lower levels where loads and R&O
of additives than in temperatures are
high-pressure • Exxon Humble
moderate
hydraulic oil. Hydraulic H
• Reduction gears,
• Lyondell Duro;
speed reducers,
Polarvis
and high-speed
spindles at • Mobil Hydraulic
moderate loads ISO
Notes:
1. High-pressure hydraulic oils also function satisfactorily in low-pressure systems.
2. Long life (years) can be expected at the lower value. Life is about halved by each increase of 10°C (18°F) in
operating temperature. Oil change-outs should be expected with prolonged use at the upper temperature values.
A-3
11577208
Table A-4
High-pressure hydraulic oil (Note 1): ISO Viscosity Grades 32, 46, 68, and 100

Products are • Vane, gear, and • BP Energol HLP-

made from refined piston-type pumps HM
mineral oils plus operating in heavy- • Castrol Paradine
oxidation and duty hydraulic AW, Tribol
corrosion systems above 943AW
inhibitors, 1000 psi (6895
• Chevron Rando
antiwear/antiscuff kPa). Operating
HD
agents, and foam temperatures are
above those typical • Conoco
suppressants. 7 8
of low-pressure Hydroclear AW 70–115 5x10 –10
systems. • Mobil Nuto H (160–240)
• Hydraulically • Mobil DTE 10
activated Excel, 20 series;
equipment. SHC (Note 4)
• Machine tools and 500 series
presses. • Pennzoil
Pennzbell AW
• Shell Tellus
Notes:
1. High-pressure hydraulic oils also function satisfactorily in low-pressure systems.
A-4
11577208
Table A-5
Compressor oils

Premium quality • Reciprocating • BP Turbinol–T

multipurpose and rotary air • Castrol
industrial oils compressors Reciprocating
made from • Mild-duty Compressor Oil,
specially refined industrial gear Tribol 1750
mineral oils; can sets (Note 3)
contain • Oil mist systems • Chevron
antioxidant, Compressor Oil
• Hydraulic
antiscuff agent, 260 R&O, Machine 7 7
systems 71–115 10 –5x10
alkalinity, rust R&O LVI,
• Multistage (160–240)
inhibitor, metal Syntholube
deactivator, foam compressors
• Conoco
suppressant,
Hydroclear-
and/or mist control
Diamond Class
agent
• Lyondell
Compressor 7585
• Mobil Rarus 427,
800 (Note 3) series;
SHC 1024, 1026
(Note 3)
• Pennzoil
Pennzcom
• Shell Corena S
Notes:
A-5
11577208
Table A-6
High-load extreme pressure: EP gear lubricants

Products are • Enclosed gear • BP Energol - GR

made from highly systems - XP
refined mineral • Chain drives, • Castrol EP Gear
oils plus sulfur- sprockets, Lubricant; Alpha
phosphorus bearings, and Gear, Tribol 1100
antiscuff (EP) couplings • Chevron Gear
agents. They can • High-horsepower Compound EP,
also contain gear drives and Meropa
antiwear agents, reducers • Conoco
antioxidants,
• Spur, bevel, and Hydroclear EP
corrosion 60–95
7
10 –10
8
worm gears • Lyondell Pennant
inhibitors, and (140–200)
foam • Hypoid gears at NL
suppressants. moderate • Mobil Spatan EP,
These lubes are temperatures, Mobilgear 600
lead-free. loads, and speeds XP series; SHC
• Worm drive axles (Note 3) series
• Heavy, suddenly • Pennzoil Super
(shock-) loaded Maxol EP
equipment • Shell Omala,
• Applications where Omala Fluids HD
the American Gear
Manufacturers
Association
specifies an
“extreme pressure”
(antiscuff) lubricant
Notes:
value or its performance watched closely. 1 rad ≅ 0.01 gray ≅ 100 ergss/g ≅ 0.01 joule/kg ≅ 4.30 x 10-6 Btu/lb.
A-6
11577208
Table A-7
Open gear lubricants

Products are • Antiscuff (EP) Lithium soap-gelled

high-viscosity film for slowly
moving parts • Chevron
mineral oils,
Molygrease EP
sometimes • Industrial
gelled to give equipment such • Conoco Tacna M 5
black, tacky as slow-moving, • Exxon Dynagear
greases. heavily loaded • Mobil Mobilux EP III
Generally, they gears, hoists,
• Shell Retinax AM
contain special and cranes
Calcium complex- 65–120 5x107–2x108
fillers, such as • Wire rope gelled (150–250)
molybdenum
(Note 4)
sulfide and/or • Chevron Open
graphite. They Gear Grease; NC;
also contain rust Aerosol
,
inhibitors and (Note 3) Texclad 2
wetting agents. • Shell Rhodina
Products are Grease SDX 2
stringy.
Ungelled
• Castrol Open Gear
800, Molub-Alloy
936 SF Open Gear
• Mobil Mobiltac
(Note 3) Series
• Pennzoil Open
Gear and Wire
Rope Spray
• Shell Cardium Fluid
EP
Notes:
3. Some contain a nonflammable solvent (often halogenated), usually packaged in aerosol form or in cartridges for
ease of application.
4. Might be used at higher temperatures in situations where the hydrocarbon carrier is evaporated and the solids
remain as the lubricant.
A-7
11577208
Table A-8
Antiseizure compounds
Profile Application Products (Note 1) Carrier/ Temperature Radiation

Solid* °C (°F) (Note 2) Rad (Note 3)
9
Products are • Threads Acheson DAG 154 So/G, R 455 (850) >10
typically • Keyways Graphite Lube
dispersions of
• Valve Bostik 980 (1800) >109
solids in a
components
petroleum Never-Seez Gr/Cu
carrier. Solids • Studs and Regular
can be graphite, bolts
Nuclear NiGrade Gr/N
molybdenum • Cable and
sulfide, copper, rods Chesterton Nickel Gr/N 1430 (2600) >109
or nickel flakes. Antiseize
Products are Compound 772
usually specific Chevron Tool Gr/G, Cu 400 (750) >109
to an application Joint Compound
and are not
interchangeable Dow Corning
or compatible. 1000 Gr/G, Cu 1150 (2100) >109
Usually applied
by spray or G-N Gr/G, M 400 (750) >109
brush. Molykote P37 Gr/G, Zr 1400 (2550) >109
Huron
*Key for Carrier/Solid
Neolube No. 1, 2 So/G, R 200 (400) >109
Carrier:
SO = Solvent Neolube No. 650 Gr/G 635 (1200) >109
GR = Grease
Jet Lube SS-30 Gr/Cu, R 980 (1800) >109
O = Oil
Loctite
Solid:
G = Graphite N1000 O/G, Cu 980 (1800) >109
M = MoS2
Cu = Copper N5000 O/G, N 1430 (2600) >109
N = Nickel
R = Resin N7000 Gr/G 464 (850) >109
Z = Zinc, Zinc Oxide
Zr = Zirconium Dioxide 550 Moly Gr/G, M 400 (750) >109
A = Aluminum
Nikal Gr/N, R 1430 (2600) >109
Nuclear Non- Gr/G 1315 (2400) >109
Metallic
Texaco Thread Gr/Cu 980 (1800) >109
Compound
Zinc Gr/Z 350 (660) >109
Notes:
1. Not intended as a complete list.
A-8
11577208
Table A-9
Limitorque valve actuator lubricants
Profile Application Products (Note 1) Temperature Radiation

Calcium sulfonate Main gear case Cor-Tek MOV Plus, 95–150 5x107–3x108
complex gelled grease Long Life (200–300)
(see Table A-11).
Lithium complex-gelled Mobilith AW 95–150 5x107–2x108

(see Table A-11). (200–300)
Calcium sulfonate Geared limit Cor-Tek MOV Plus, 95–150 5x107–3x108

complex-gelled grease switch Long Life (200–300)
(see Table A-11).
Ester-based, lithium Mobil Beacon 325 95–120 107–2x108

soap-gelled product, (200–250)
formulated for use over
a wide temperature
range.
Synthetic hydrocarbon- Mobil Mobilgrease 28 95–163 108–5x108

based, clay-gelled (200–325)
product. Designed for
use over a wide
temperature range.
Lubricated for motor Motor bearings Long life product NA NA

life, as supplied. (Note 4)
Greases, solid Valve stem/ Many with varied NA NA

lubricants. stem nut success
Notes:
1. Do not mix products. Acceptable substitutes may be made if they meet or exceed Limitorque lubricant
specifications and plant EQ requirements.
4. Limitorque is not responsible for continued 1E qualification unless motors are returned to Limitorque for repair.
If return is not possible, the user assumes this responsibility.
A-9
11577208
Table A-10
Fire-resistant hydraulic fluids

7 8
Three types are Industrial Water-Glycol 95 (200) 5x10 –2x10
commercially hydraulic and
• BP Energol: FRG-46
available (the control
types are applications • Castrol Anvol WG 46
not where • Chevron Hydraulic Safety
interchangeable hazardous Fluid
or compatible) conditions • Houghto-Safe 400-600
require the use Series
of a fire-resistant
• Mobil FR 200D Fluid
fluid
• Pennzoil Glycol FR
Caution: do not
mix fluid types. Water-in-Oil Emulsion 80 (180) 5x106–5x107
• Conoco FR
• Lyondell Duro FR-HD
• Mobil Pyrogard D
• Pennzoil Maxmul FRP/G
Oil-in-Water Emulsion 80 (180) 5x106–5x107
• Pennzbell HWCF
Phosphate Ester 95 (200) 106–107

• Supresta Fyrquel EHC, GT
• Forsythe (FMC) Reolube
• Houghton International
Houghto-Safe 1000 Series
• Mobil Pyrogard 53
• Pennzoil Pennzsafe FE
Notes:
A-10
11577208
Table A-11
General-purpose greases—Grades 00, 0, 1, 2, and 3

Products are Bearings: Lithium soap-gelled
made from • Motor • BP Energrease-LS-EP
refined mineral •
• Pump Castrol Longtime PD
oils plus gelling • Chevron Multifak-EP
agent, • Fan 95–135
• Conoco EP Conolith 107–108
oxidation and • Compressor (200–275)
• Lyondell Litholine HE-P
corrosion • Couplings
inhibitors, and • Mobil Mobilux EP
antiscuff (EP) • Pennzoil Pennlith
agents • Shell Alvania EP, Alvania Grease
RL, Nerita HV
Lithium complex-gelled
• BP Energrease LC-EP
• Castrol Pyroplex Blue, Molub-alloy
860 ES
• Chevron Ulti-Plex EP; Ulti-Plex
Synthetic EP (Note 3), Starplex
• Conoco Conolith HT 95–150 5x107–108
• Lyondell Litholine Complex EP (200–300)
• Mobil Unirex N, Unirex EP2
Mobilith AW, SHC (Note 3) 15,
100
• Pennzoil Premium Lithium
Complex
• Shell Albida
Calcium sulfonate complex (Calcium
carbonate/sulfonate-gelled)
• Castrol SFG 95–150 5x107–3x108
• Compton G-2000 Series (200–300)
• Cor-Tek MOV Plus, Long Life
• Petro-Canada Peerless LLG
Polyurea-gelled
• Chevron Rykon Premium EP,
Black Pearl EP; SRI (Note 4)
120–175 5x107–3x108
• Conoco Polyurea (Note 4), EP
Polyurea (250–350)
• Mobil Polyrex EM (Note 4), EP
• Shell Stamina Grease RL2
Notes:
4. Designed primarily for ball and roller bearings. Contains no EP additive.
A-11
11577208
Table A-12
Coupling greases

Products are made Couplings: • Chevron

from high-viscosity Coupling
mineral oils, gelled • Flexible
• Falk LTG
with a soap and/or a • Geared
polymer. Most • KOP-FLEX
• High- KSG
contain antioxidants speed
and antiscuffing KHP 1 66–95
7
10 –10
8
(EP) agents. • High-load • Mobil Mobilux (150–200)

Products are EP 111,
designed to resist Mobilgrease
separation by XTC
centrifugal force.
• Shell Alvania
Greae CG
Notes:
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Table A-13
Grease types and performance [1]
Dropping Condition After Maximum Water Stability of Bleeding

Point Heating to 200°C Temperature Effects Penetration Tendency
°C (°F) (400°F) and for on Working
Cooling Prolonged
Use °C (°F)
Gelling
Agents
Calcium 85–150 Oil and soap 70–120 Highly Good to Medium

soap (185–300) separate (160–250) resistant excellent
(Note 1)
Calcium 260–300 Hardens; OK after 120–150 Highly Excellent Low

complex (500–570) working (250-300) resistant
Calcium 300–320 Little change after 150–175 Highly Excellent Low

sulfonate (570–610) working (300–350) resistant
complex
Lithium 170–200 Little change after 120–135 Some Poor to High

soap (340–390) working (250–275) emulsificat excellent
(Note 2) ion to (Note 3)
resistant
(Note 3)
Lithium 260–300 Little change after 150–175 Resistant Excellent Medium

complex (500–570) working 300–350
Polyurea, 240–260 Little change after 150–175 Highly Fair to Low

polyurea (465–500) working (300–350) resistant excellent
complex
Inorganics 260+ Little change after 120–140 Resistant Fair to Low

(500+) working (250-285) excellent
Sodium 175–300 Hardens; OK after 120–150 Emulsifies Fair Medium

soap (350–570) working (250-300)
Barium 200–260 Little change after 120–140 Highly Good Low

soap (390–500) working (250-285) resistant
Aluminum 240–270 Slight hardening 110–135 Resistant Good to Low

complex (465–520) (230–275) excellent
Notes:
1. Includes calcium hydroxystearate-gelled products.
2. Includes lithium hydroxystearate-gelled products.
3. The better products are lithium hydroxystearate-gelled.
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B
GLOSSARY
alkylaromatic Alkyl (paraffinic) side chain on an aromatic

(such as benzene or naphthalene) ring.
antiscuff Formerly called extreme pressure (EP).

Antiscuff additives enhance scuff resistance of
lubes and reduce metal-to-metal contact. This
decreases tendency toward seizing and galling.
ASTM ASTM International (formerly, the American

Society for Testing and Materials).
atomic absorption spectroscopy An analytical method in which a small quantity

of a sample is introduced into a flame. The
absorption spectra are characteristic of some
materials present, for example, metals.
AW Antiwear. Denotes the presence of an antiwear

additive in an oil to minimize wear.
consistency General term: viscosity in oils; penetration in

greases.
emission spectroscopy An analytical method in which a small quantity

of a sample is sparked. The spectrum of light
emitted is characteristic of some materials
present, for example, metals present as
elements.
ester Reaction product between an organic acid and

an alcohol [RC(O)OR].
ferrography An analytical method whereby magnetic

material (for example, iron and chromium)
under the influence of a magnetic field is
isolated and studied optically. Yields
information on large as well as small particles
and their possible source.
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Glossary
FTIR Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy
Grade, penetration Standard NLGI grease consistency classes

(grade definitions) are as follows:
NLGI ASTM (D 217) Penetration,
Grade No. 60 Stroke,
Worked, 25°C (77°F), 0.1 mm
000 445–475
00 400–430
0 355–385
1 310–340
2 265–295
3 220–250
4 175–205
5 130–160
6 85–115
Grade, viscosity Standard viscosity classifications by ISO.
Grades are matched to centistoke viscosities at
40°C (104°F); for example, 32 grade is about
32 cSt at 40°C. Grades range from 2 to 1500.
HD Heavy duty. HD oils are extra-inhibited with

antioxidation and antiwear additives to
withstand unusually high stresses.
highly refined mineral oil Refined to the point that all or most of the
naturally occurring inhibitors or impurities are
removed, for example, a white oil or a near-
white oil. Also, hydrorefined or hydrocracked
oils.
hydrolysis Interaction with water.
infrared IR. An analytical method whereby infrared

light is passed through or bounced off a sample.
Many organic substances have characteristic
absorbencies at specific wavelengths.
inhibitor A chemical naturally present or added to

lubricants to enhance or suppress certain
properties or characteristics.
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Glossary
ISO International Standards Organization
lubricant A material, usually an oil or a grease, designed

to reduce friction and wear between moving
machine elements, act as a hydraulic medium
to remove heat, and so on.
molysulfide A laminar solid powder of sulfides of

molybdenum added to lubricants to enhance
antiscuff performance.
NL Non-lead. In most gear lubricants, lead has

been displaced by other additives.
NLGI National Lubricating Grease Institute.
OEM Original equipment manufacturer.
penetration In a grease, the depth of entry in 1/10 mm of a

(according to ASTM D217, D1403) dropped standard cone into a grease sample. A
measure of consistency (the higher the
penetration, the lower consistency of the
grease).
pyrolysis Interaction with heat.
R&O Rust- and oxidation-inhibited.
radiolysis Treatment with radiation; interaction with

radiation.
viscosity Property of a fluid or semifluid that offers

continuous resistance to flow. Usually
measured as the time of flow through a
calibrated orifice, expressed as centistokes
(cSt, mm²/s). Other means of expression are
also used. The interrelationships of these are
shown in Figure B-1.
worked penetration Penetration (or consistency) of a grease

(according to ASTM D217, D1403) measured after a number of double strokes, for
example 60 in a standard apparatus that
provides shear. Expressed as P 60, P 10,000, and
so on.
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Glossary
Table B-1
Viscosity equivalents
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C
TRANSLATED TABLE OF CONTENTS
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Translated Table of Contents
《核电厂维护应用中心》：润滑指南，
修订版 4（前版 1003085）
1019518
总结报告 2009 年 12 月
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报告摘要
目前，多种润滑剂在发电厂中都有不同用途。因此，维护人员在为指定用途选择正确润滑
剂时需要简明的指导。同时，也需要掌握一些关于润滑剂特性方面的专业知识，以确定其
适用性。
背景
从过去的经验来看，本润滑报告曾为发电厂参与设备操作和维护的相关人员提供了很多实
用信息。本修订版的《润滑指南》收纳了润滑业内的最新变化，包括产品线和功能的加强
和废止。像在修订版 2
中一样，它也包括了美国电力科学研究院（EPRI）报告《润滑剂辐射效应》（NP-
4735）中的各主题。
目的
• 为需要使用润滑剂的设备操作人员提供综合指导
• 提供关于当前油润滑和脂润滑及其在不同设备应用中的操作限制的相关信息
• 为 EPRI 其他相关润滑报告提供参考
结果
本报告阐述了润滑剂、润滑、测试、摩擦以及磨损的相关问题。其中包括基础润滑、应用
问题、测试以及分析章节。另外，还提供了概述每种润滑剂的使用类别、适用于指定用途
的润滑剂以及润滑剂的温度和辐射耐受性表格。技术术语词汇表也包含其中，作为为指定
用途选择正确润滑剂时的指导。最后，提供了关于判断润滑剂剩余寿命的相关信息，可有
助于减少无谓的、高成本的润滑剂更换。
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方法
为协助修订本报告，特组建了由设备润滑工程师组成的技术顾问小组（TAG）。TAG
找出了需要更新的多个领域，包括测试方法、相容性研究以及润滑油产品线的更换（附录
A）。此外，本报告还新增了一个章节，其中借鉴了现有 EPRI
关于特定主题的润滑研究，方便快速参考。
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EPRI 远景
润滑知识在维护人员的日常工作中发挥着重要作用。本报告以简明扼要的形式提供了关于
常用润滑剂特性的大量信息。选择正确的相容性润滑剂可有助于防止出现计划外维护或停
机。本报告中包含的信息对于培训讲解员及润滑技术领域的新手非常有用。本修订版的《
润滑指南》收纳了润滑工业领域内的最新变化，包括产品线和功能的加强和废止。
关键词
润滑剂
润滑
电厂工程
电厂维护
电厂运行
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摘要
本报告提供了从许多制造商处收集的润滑剂信息；这些润滑剂非常适用于各种核电厂。从
温度和辐射剂量的角度，详细列出了润滑剂的工作极限。报告中还阐述了如何使用润滑剂
、辐射如何对其产生影响以及辐射如何与润滑剂的成分产生关联等基本主题。所阐述的其
他主题还包括摩擦和磨损，以及润滑剂的应力效应、贮存期、相容性、故障排查和测试等
，所有这些主题均在维护工作中占据着重要地位。需要特别关注的是，测试章节新增了几
种测试方法。旨在使本报告能更有效地供发电厂的维护和工程人员使用。
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目录
1 润滑剂：润滑剂的定义及使用方法........................................................................................ 1-1
1.1 基础油 ..........................................................................................................................1-1
1.2 主要测量方法 ...............................................................................................................1-3
1.3 添加剂 ..........................................................................................................................1-4
1.3.1 VI 改良剂 .............................................................................................................1-5
1.3.2 洗涤剂/分散剂......................................................................................................1-5
1.3.3 基本金属化合物 ...................................................................................................1-5
1.3.4 抗磨损和防刮擦（EP）添加剂 ............................................................................1-5
1.3.5 抗氧化剂..............................................................................................................1-6
1.3.6 防锈剂和消泡剂 ...................................................................................................1-7
1.3.7 胶凝剂 .................................................................................................................1-7
1.4 合成润滑剂 ...................................................................................................................1-7
2 对润滑剂和弹性体的辐射效应............................................................................................... 2-1
2.1 对润滑剂的影响............................................................................................................2-1
2.2 对弹性体的影响............................................................................................................2-7
3 润滑、摩擦及磨损 ................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.1 流体动力润滑 ...............................................................................................................3-1
3.2 弹性液压润滑 ...............................................................................................................3-2
3.3 边界润滑 ...................................................................................................................... 3-3
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3.3.1 物理吸附膜 ..........................................................................................................3-3
3.3.2 化学吸附膜 ..........................................................................................................3-4
3.3.3 化学反应膜 ..........................................................................................................3-5
3.4 固体润滑剂 ...................................................................................................................3-6
3.5 机械加工表面的性质.....................................................................................................3-6
3.6 摩擦和磨损 ...................................................................................................................3-7
3.6.1 摩擦磨损..............................................................................................................3-7
3.6.2 磨损原理..............................................................................................................3-8
3.6.2.1 腐蚀（水分和摩擦） ......................................................................................3-8
3.6.2.2 电蚀 .............................................................................................................3-10
3.6.2.3 疲劳 .............................................................................................................3-12
3.6.2.4 塑性变形 ......................................................................................................3-13
3.6.2.5 研磨和粘着磨损 ...........................................................................................3-13
4 润滑剂的选择和应用问题...................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 如何为新设备选择润滑剂 .............................................................................................4-1
4.2 混合型产品的相容性.....................................................................................................4-1
4.2.1 油.........................................................................................................................4-2
4.2.2 脂.........................................................................................................................4-2
4.3 贮存期 ..........................................................................................................................4-6
4.4 时间/温度/辐射相关注意事项........................................................................................4-7
4.5 连续性与间歇性使用和润滑油性能 ...............................................................................4-8
5 测试与分析........................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1 取样..............................................................................................................................5-1
5.2 故障排查 ...................................................................................................................... 5-2
5.3 润滑剂测试 ...................................................................................................................5-2
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5.3.1 感官试验..............................................................................................................5-3
5.3.2 其他简单试验.......................................................................................................5-3
5.3.3 实验室诊断试验 ...................................................................................................5-5
5.3.4 标准实验室试验 .................................................................................................5-12
5.3.5 分析试验方法.....................................................................................................5-14
5.4 运用试验结果 .............................................................................................................5-20
5.5 趋势分析 ....................................................................................................................5-21
5.6 警告限制 ....................................................................................................................5-22
5.7 清除注意事项 .............................................................................................................5-24
6 润滑资源 .............................................................................................................................. 6-1
6.1 NMAC 润滑油新闻通讯 ................................................................................................6-1
6.2 EPRI 技术支持 .............................................................................................................6-1
6.3 EPRI 润滑刊物 .............................................................................................................6-2
6.3.1 润滑油预测性维护、处理及质量保证指南（1004384） ......................................6-2
6.3.2 核电厂维护应用中心：涡轮机油相容性（1016272）..........................................6-2
6.3.3 核电厂维护应用中心：润滑油注释汇编，1989– 2007（1015254）...................6-2
6.3.4 涡轮机油润滑相容性测试（1011028） ...............................................................6-3
6.3.5
核电厂维护应用中心：反应堆冷却剂泵/反应堆再循环泵发动机润滑油系统
维护指南（1013456） ......................................................................................................6-3
6.3.6 涡轮发电机辅助系统，卷 1：涡轮发电机润滑系统维护指南（1010191） ..........6-3
6.3.7 切实有效的脂润滑实务（1020247） ...................................................................6-4
6.3.8 旋转设备的油润滑—指南（1019517） ...............................................................6-4
6.3.9 电动阀润滑剂性能和状态评估（1009609） ........................................................6-4
6.3.10 EPRI 电动阀性能预测计划：阀杆/阀杆螺母润滑试验报告（TR-102135）.........6-4
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6.3.11 应用于 EQ 发动机轴承的聚脲基润滑脂 EM 和 SRI

润滑脂的对比分析（1011946）........................................................................................6-5
6.3.12 MOV 长效润滑脂— Limitorque

限位开关齿轮箱的评估：应用于核安全相关的应用领域（1010058） ..............................6-5
6.3.13 应用于 Limitorque 主齿轮箱的 Nebula 和 MOV 长效润滑脂的对比分析 .............6-5
6.4 其他行业资源 ...............................................................................................................6-6
7 参考文献 .............................................................................................................................. 7-1
A 润滑剂特性表 ....................................................................................................................... A-1
B 词汇表.................................................................................................................................. B-1
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图目
图 1-1 抗磨损和防刮擦添加剂的效果 .........................................................................................1-6
图 1-2 碳氢化合物氧化过程........................................................................................................1-6
图 2-1 辐射效应的剂量水平........................................................................................................2-2
图 2-2 伽马光子和有机物质的相互作用......................................................................................2-2
图 2-3 导致各种基液失效的辐射剂量上限 ..................................................................................2-3
图 2-4 对锂复合凝胶、矿物油基润滑脂产生的辐射分解效应 .....................................................2-4
图 2-5 放射性矿物油基蒸汽涡轮机油在涡轮机油稳定性试验中的相对氧化稳定性 .....................2-5
图 2-6 温度和照射对钠盐增厚的矿物油基润滑脂轴承寿命的影响 ..............................................2-6
图 2-7 常用润滑剂和弹性体在照射时的相对灵敏度 ....................................................................2-8
图 2-8 弹性体对照射所产生的抗力 .............................................................................................2-9
图 3-1 流体动力润滑...................................................................................................................3-2
图 3-2 弹性液压润滑...................................................................................................................3-2
图 3-3 边界润滑(分段粗糙度) .....................................................................................................3-3
图 3-4 物理吸附膜的表现形式—非极性分子...............................................................................3-4
图 3-5 物理吸附膜—极性分子 ....................................................................................................3-4
图 3-6 化学吸附膜 ......................................................................................................................3-5
图 3-7各种参数对摩擦系数的影响 ..............................................................................................3-5
图 3-8 机械加工表面...................................................................................................................3-6
图 3-9 腐蚀磨损示例...................................................................................................................3-9
图 3-10 磨擦腐蚀示例...............................................................................................................3-10
图 3-11 释电示例......................................................................................................................3-11
图 3-12 电蚀示例......................................................................................................................3-11
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图 3-13 表面疲劳示例...............................................................................................................3-12
图 3-14 磨粒磨损示例...............................................................................................................3-13
图 3-15 轻度粘连示例...............................................................................................................3-14
图 4-1 不同胶凝剂脂混合物的相容性 .........................................................................................4-4
图 4-2 时间/温度/照射的相互作用...............................................................................................4-7
图 5-1 油粘度测量器...................................................................................................................5-4
图 5-2 吸墨纸斑点试验样例........................................................................................................5-5
图 5-3 磨损粒度/浓度和机械状态................................................................................................5-8
图 5-4 磨损及其他颗粒检测........................................................................................................5-9
图 5-5 TGA 安装.......................................................................................................................5-15
图 5-6 DSC 装置 ......................................................................................................................5-15
图 5-7 Fluitec RULER 仪器 ......................................................................................................5-16
图 5-8 三种添加剂和伏安（RULER）响应示例........................................................................5-18
图 5-9 显示新油和使用中的涡轮机油的伏安（RULER）图......................................................5-19
图 5-10 新、旧齿轮油的气相色谱.............................................................................................5-20
图 5-11 润滑剂特性样图 ...........................................................................................................5-22
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表格清单
表 1-1 油和脂的要求...................................................................................................................1-1
表 1-2 美国石油学会（American Petroleum Institute）基础油类别 ...........................................1-2
表 1-3 PAO 合成基础油和各种矿物基础油的特性对比 ...............................................................1-3
表 1-4 各种润滑剂中的常用添加剂 .............................................................................................1-4
表 1-5 合成基础油及其应用........................................................................................................1-8
表 2-1 照射对常用油的影响........................................................................................................2-7
表 2-2 照射对常用脂的影响........................................................................................................2-7
表 2-3 弹性体对常用油和脂的影响所产生的抗力 .......................................................................2-8
表 4-1 脂的相容性 ......................................................................................................................4-3
表 4-2 脂相容性试验...................................................................................................................4-5
表 5-1 润滑剂测试序列 ...............................................................................................................5-2
表 5-2 引人关注的红外峰区域 ....................................................................................................5-6
表 5-3 润滑剂中的金属源 ...........................................................................................................5-7
表 5-4 磨损及其原因.................................................................................................................5-10
表 5-5 粒子计数范围数字 .........................................................................................................5-11
表 5-6 润滑剂主要试验 .............................................................................................................5-13
表 5-7 关于某些润滑剂使用的一般警告限制.............................................................................5-23
表 A-1 涡轮机油：ISO 粘度等级32、46 和 68 .......................................................................... A-1
表 A-2 用于大型柴油机的发动机油............................................................................................ A-2
表 A-3 低压液压油：ISO 粘度等级32、46、68 和 100 ............................................................. A-3
表 A-4 高压液压油：ISO 粘度等级32、46、68 和 100 ............................................................. A-4
表 A-5 压缩机油 ........................................................................................................................ A-5
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表 A-6 高负荷极压：极压（EP）齿轮润滑剂 ............................................................................ A-6
表 A-7 开放式齿轮润滑剂 .......................................................................................................... A-7
表 A-8 防粘剂 ............................................................................................................................ A-8
表 A-9 Limitorque 阀门驱动器润滑剂 ........................................................................................ A-9
表 A-10 耐火液压油................................................................................................................. A-10
表 A-11 一般用途的润滑脂—等级 00、0、1、2 和 3.............................................................. A-11
表 A-12 耦合器润滑脂 ............................................................................................................. A-12
表 A-13 润滑脂的分类和性能 .................................................................................................. A-13
表 B-1 粘度等值 ........................................................................................................................ B-4
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核電廠維護應用中心：潤滑指南修訂版
4（前版：1003085）
1019518
2009 年 12 月總結報告
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報告摘要
目前，發電廠將多種潤滑劑用於各種不同的用途。因此，維護人員需要簡明的指引，幫助
他們針對指定用途選擇正確的潤滑劑。同時，他們也需要掌握一些關於潤滑劑特性方面的
專業知識，以確定其適用性。
背景
從過去經驗來看，本潤滑報告已為發電廠參與相關操作和維護的人員提供了十分實用的資
訊。本《潤滑指南》修訂版收納了潤滑業內的最新變化，包括產品線和功能的加強和廢止
。如在修訂版 2 中一樣，它也包括了美國電力科學研究院 (EPRI)
報告《潤滑劑輻射效應》（NP-4735）中的各種主題。
目的
• 為需要使用潤滑劑的設備操作人員提供綜合指引
• 提供關於目前油潤滑和脂潤滑及其在不同設備應用中的操作限制的相關資訊
• 為 EPRI 其他相關潤滑報告提供參考
結果
本報告闡述了潤滑劑、潤滑、測試、摩擦以及磨損的相關問題。其中包括基礎潤滑、應用
問題、測試以及分析章節。另外，還提供了概述每種潤滑劑的使用類別、適用於指定用途
的潤滑劑以及潤滑劑的溫度和輻射耐受性表格。其中也包含技術術語辭彙表，可供針對指
定用途選擇正確的潤滑劑。最後，提供了關於判斷潤滑劑剩餘壽命的相關資訊，可有助於
減少無謂的、高成本的潤滑劑更換。
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方法
為協助修訂本報告，特別組建了由設備潤滑工程師組成的技術諮詢小組 (TAG)。TAG
找出了需要資訊更新的多個領域，包括測試方法、相容性研究以及潤滑油產品線的更換（
附錄 A）。此外，本報告還新增了一個章節，其中借鑒了現有 EPRI
關於特定主題的潤滑研究，方便快速參考。
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EPRI 遠景
潤滑知識在維護人員的日常工作中發揮著重要作用。本報告以簡明扼要的形式提供了關於
常用潤滑劑特性的大量資訊。選擇正確的相容性潤滑劑可有助於防止出現計劃外維護或停
機。本報告中包含的資訊對於訓練講師及潤滑技術領域的新手非常有用。本《潤滑指南》
修訂版收納了潤滑業內的最新變化，包括產品線和功能的加強和廢止。
關鍵字
潤滑劑
潤滑
核電廠工程
核電廠維護
核電廠運轉
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摘要
本報告針對許多製造商生產的潤滑劑提供相關資訊；這些潤滑劑非常適用於各種核電廠應
用場合。本報告從溫度和輻射劑量的角度詳細列出了潤滑劑的工作極限。報告中還闡述了
如何使用潤滑劑、輻射如何對其產生影響以及輻射如何與潤滑劑的成分產生關聯等基本主
題。所闡述的其他主題還包括摩擦和磨損，以及潤滑劑的應力效應、儲存期、相容性、故
障排除和測試等，所有這些主題均在維護作業中佔據著重要地位。特別值得注意的是，測
試章節新增了幾種測試方法。其目的在於使本報告可更有效地為發電廠的維護和工程人員
提供幫助。
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目錄
1 潤滑劑：潤滑劑的定義及使用方法........................................................................................ 1-1
1.1 基礎油 ..........................................................................................................................1-1
1.2 主要測量方法 ...............................................................................................................1-3
1.3 添加劑 ..........................................................................................................................1-4
1.3.1 VI 改良劑 .............................................................................................................1-5
1.3.2 洗滌劑/分散劑......................................................................................................1-5
1.3.3 基本金屬化合物 ...................................................................................................1-5
1.3.4 抗磨損和防擦 (EP) 添加劑...................................................................................1-5
1.3.5 抗氧化劑..............................................................................................................1-6
1.3.6 防銹劑和消泡劑 ...................................................................................................1-7
1.3.7 凝膠劑 .................................................................................................................1-7
1.4 合成潤滑劑 ...................................................................................................................1-7
2 對潤滑劑和彈性體的輻射效應............................................................................................... 2-1
2.1 對潤滑劑的影響............................................................................................................2-1
2.2 對彈性體的影響............................................................................................................2-7
3 潤滑、摩擦及磨損 ................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.1 流體動力潤滑 ...............................................................................................................3-1
3.2 彈性液壓潤滑 ...............................................................................................................3-2
3.3 邊界潤滑 ...................................................................................................................... 3-3
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3.3.1 物理吸附膜 ..........................................................................................................3-3
3.3.2 化學吸附膜 ..........................................................................................................3-4
3.3.3 化學反應膜 ..........................................................................................................3-5
3.4 固體潤滑劑 ...................................................................................................................3-6
3.5 機械加工表面的性質.....................................................................................................3-6
3.6 摩擦和磨損 ...................................................................................................................3-7
3.6.1 摩擦磨損..............................................................................................................3-7
3.6.2 磨損機理..............................................................................................................3-8
3.6.2.1 腐蝕（水分和摩擦） ......................................................................................3-8
3.6.2.2 電蝕 .............................................................................................................3-10
3.6.2.3 疲勞 .............................................................................................................3-12
3.6.2.4 塑性變形 ......................................................................................................3-13
3.6.2.5 磨粒和粘著磨損 ...........................................................................................3-13
4 潤滑劑的選擇和應用問題...................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 如何為新設備選擇潤滑劑 .............................................................................................4-1
4.2 混合型產品的相容性.....................................................................................................4-1
4.2.1 油.........................................................................................................................4-2
4.2.2 脂.........................................................................................................................4-2
4.3 儲存期 ..........................................................................................................................4-6
4.4 時間/溫度/輻射相關注意事項........................................................................................4-7
4.5 連續性與間歇性使用和潤滑油性能 ...............................................................................4-8
5 測試與分析........................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1 取樣..............................................................................................................................5-1
5.2 故障排除 ...................................................................................................................... 5-2
5.3 潤滑劑測試 ...................................................................................................................5-2
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5.3.1 感官試驗..............................................................................................................5-3
5.3.2 其他簡單的試驗 ...................................................................................................5-3
5.3.3 實驗室診斷試驗 ...................................................................................................5-5
5.3.4 標準實驗室試驗 .................................................................................................5-12
5.3.5 分析試驗方法.....................................................................................................5-14
5.4 運用試驗結果 .............................................................................................................5-20
5.5 趨勢分析 ....................................................................................................................5-21
5.6 警告限制 ....................................................................................................................5-22
5.7 清除注意事項 .............................................................................................................5-24
6 潤滑資源 .............................................................................................................................. 6-1
6.1 NMAC 潤滑油電子報....................................................................................................6-1
6.2 EPRI 技術支援 .............................................................................................................6-1
6.3 EPRI 潤滑出版品..........................................................................................................6-2
6.3.1 潤滑油預測性維護、處理以及品質保證指南 (1004384) ......................................6-2
6.3.2 核電廠維護應用中心：渦輪機油相容性(1016272)...............................................6-2
6.3.3 核電廠維護應用中心：潤滑油注釋彙編，1989– 2007 (1015254) ......................6-2
6.3.4 渦輪機油潤滑相容性測試 (1011028) ...................................................................6-3
6.3.5
核電廠維護應用中心：反應堆冷卻劑幫浦/反應堆再循環幫浦馬達潤滑油系
統維護指南 (1013456) ......................................................................................................6-3
6.3.6 渦輪發電機輔助系統，卷 1：渦輪發電機潤滑系統維護指南 (1010191)..............6-3
6.3.7 有效實用脂潤滑實務 (1020247) ..........................................................................6-4
6.3.8 轉動設備油潤滑—指南（1019517) .....................................................................6-4
6.3.9 電動閥潤滑劑性能和狀態評估 (1009609) ............................................................6-4
6.3.10 EPRI 電動閥性能預測計劃：閥杆/閥杆螺母潤滑試驗報告 (TR-102135).............6-4
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6.3.11 用於 EQ 發動機軸承的聚脲基潤滑脂 EM 和 SRI 潤滑脂的比較分析

(1011946) .........................................................................................................................6-5
6.3.12 MOV 長效潤滑脂— Limitorque

限位元開關齒輪箱的評估：用於核能安全相關的應用領域 (1010058) ..............................6-5
6.3.13 用於 Limitorque 主齒輪箱的 Nebula 和 MOV 長效潤滑脂的比較分析

(1003483) .........................................................................................................................6-5
6.4 其他業界資源 ...............................................................................................................6-6
7 參考文獻 .............................................................................................................................. 7-1
A 潤滑劑特性表格 ................................................................................................................... A-1
B 辭彙表.................................................................................................................................. B-1
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圖目
圖 1-1 抗磨損和防擦添加劑的效果 .............................................................................................1-6
圖 1-2 碳氫化合物氧化過程........................................................................................................1-6
圖 2-1 輻射效應的劑量水準........................................................................................................2-2
圖 2-2 伽馬光子和有機物質的相互作用......................................................................................2-2
圖 2-3 導致各種基液失效的輻射劑量上限 ..................................................................................2-3
圖 2-4 對鋰複合凝膠、礦物油基潤滑脂產生的輻射分解效應 .....................................................2-4
圖 2-5 放射性礦物油基蒸汽渦輪機油在渦輪機油穩定性試驗中的相對氧化穩定性 .....................2-5
圖 2-6 溫度和照射對鈉鹽增厚的礦物油基潤滑脂軸承壽命的影響 ..............................................2-6
圖 2-7 常用潤滑劑和彈性體在照射時的相對靈敏度 ....................................................................2-8
圖 2-8 彈性體對照射所產生的抗力 .............................................................................................2-9
圖 3-1 流體動力潤滑...................................................................................................................3-2
圖 3-2 彈性液壓潤滑...................................................................................................................3-2
圖 3-3 邊界潤滑 (分段粗糙度) ....................................................................................................3-3
圖 3-4 物理吸附膜的表現形式—非極性分子...............................................................................3-4
圖 3-5 物理吸附膜—極性分子 ....................................................................................................3-4
圖 3-6 化學吸附膜 ......................................................................................................................3-5
圖 3-7各種參數對摩擦係數的影響 ..............................................................................................3-5
圖 3-8 機械加工表面...................................................................................................................3-6
圖 3-9 腐蝕磨損範例...................................................................................................................3-9
圖 3-10 磨擦腐蝕範例...............................................................................................................3-10
圖 3-11 釋電範例......................................................................................................................3-11
圖 3-12 電蝕範例......................................................................................................................3-11
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圖 3-13 表面疲勞範例...............................................................................................................3-12
圖 3-14 磨粒磨損範例...............................................................................................................3-13
圖 3-15 輕度粘連範例...............................................................................................................3-14
圖 4-1 不同凝膠劑脂混合物的相容性 .........................................................................................4-4
圖 4-2 時間/溫度/照射的相互作用...............................................................................................4-7
圖 5-1 油粘度測量器...................................................................................................................5-4
圖 5-2 吸墨紙斑點試驗樣例........................................................................................................5-5
圖 5-3 磨損粒度/濃度和機械狀態................................................................................................5-8
圖 5-4 磨損及其他顆粒檢測........................................................................................................5-9
圖 5-5 TGA 安裝.......................................................................................................................5-15
圖 5-6 DSC 裝置 ......................................................................................................................5-15
圖 5-7 Fluitec RULER 儀器 ......................................................................................................5-16
圖 5-8 三種添加劑和伏安 (RULER) 回應範例 ..........................................................................5-18
圖 5-9 顯示新油和使用中的渦輪機油的伏安 (RULER) 圖 ........................................................5-19
圖 5-10 新、舊齒輪油的氣相色譜.............................................................................................5-20
圖 5-11 潤滑劑特性樣圖 ...........................................................................................................5-22
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表格清單
表 1-1 油和脂的要求...................................................................................................................1-1
表 1-2 美國石油學會 (American Petroleum Institute) 基礎油類別 ..............................................1-2
表 1-3 PAO 合成基礎油和各種礦物基礎油的特性比較 ...............................................................1-3
表 1-4 各種潤滑劑中的常用添加劑 .............................................................................................1-4
表 1-5 合成基油及其應用 ...........................................................................................................1-8
表 2-1 照射對常用油的影響........................................................................................................2-7
表 2-2 照射對常用脂的影響........................................................................................................2-7
表 2-3 彈性體對常用油和脂的影響所產生的抗力 .......................................................................2-8
表 4-1 脂的相容性 ......................................................................................................................4-3
表 4-2 脂相容性試驗...................................................................................................................4-5
表 5-1 潤滑劑測試序列 ...............................................................................................................5-2
表 5-2 引人關注的紅外峰區域 ....................................................................................................5-6
表 5-3 潤滑劑中的金屬源 ...........................................................................................................5-7
表 5-4 磨損及其原因.................................................................................................................5-10
表 5-5 粒子計數範圍數字 .........................................................................................................5-11
表 5-6 潤滑劑的主要試驗 .........................................................................................................5-13
表 5-7 關於某些潤滑劑使用的一般警告限制.............................................................................5-23
表 A-1 渦輪機油：ISO 粘度等級32、46 和 68 .......................................................................... A-1
表 A-2 用於大型柴油機的引擎機油............................................................................................ A-2
表 A-3 低壓液壓油：ISO 粘度等級32、46、68 和 100 ............................................................. A-3
表 A-4 高壓液壓油：ISO 粘度等級32、46、68 和 100 ............................................................. A-4
表 A-5 壓縮機油 ........................................................................................................................ A-5
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表 A-6 高負荷極壓：極壓(EP)齒輪潤滑劑 ................................................................................. A-6
表 A-7 開放式齒輪潤滑劑 .......................................................................................................... A-7
表 A-8 防粘劑 ............................................................................................................................ A-8
表 A-9 Limitorque 閥門驅動器潤滑劑 ........................................................................................ A-9
表 A-10 耐燃液壓油................................................................................................................. A-10
表 A-11 一般用途的潤滑脂—等級 00、0、1、2 和 3.............................................................. A-11
表 A-12 耦合器潤滑脂 ............................................................................................................. A-12
表 A-13 潤滑脂的類型和性能 .................................................................................................. A-13
表 B-1 粘度等值 ........................................................................................................................ B-4
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Centre d’applications de
maintenance nucléaire : Guide de
lubrification, révision 4
(précédemment 1003085)
1019518
Rapport final, décembre 2009
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SOMMAIRE DU RAPPORT
De nombreux lubrifiants sont utilisés à des fins diverses dans les centrales nucléaires. Le
personnel de maintenance doit recevoir des directives concises pour choisir le bon lubrifiant pour
une application donnée. Il est aussi nécessaire de posséder des connaissances spécifiques sur les
caractéristiques d'un lubrifiant pour en déterminer son application.
Données fondamentales
Dans le passé, ce rapport sur la lubrification a fourni des renseignements utiles au personnel des
centrales nucléaires visé par ce secteur de l'exploitation et de la maintenance. Cette révision du
Guide de lubrification incorpore des changements apportés dans l'industrie de lubrification,
notamment la consolidation et l'abandon de certaines gammes de produits et leurs
caractéristiques. Comme pour la révision 2, il comporte aussi des sujets qui ont été traités dans le
rapport Effets de la radiation sur les lubrifiants (NP-4735) de l'Electric Power Research Institute
(EPRI).
Objectifs
• Offrir des directives générales au personnel des centrales concerné par les lubrifiants
• Offrir des informations sur les huiles et graisses actuelles et sur leurs limites d'exploitation
pour différentes applications dans les centrales
• Donner des références à d'autres rapports d'EPRI touchant à la lubrification
Résultats
Ce rapport traite des lubrifiants, de la lubrification, des essais, de la friction et de l'usure. Il
comporte des sections sur la lubrification de base, les problèmes d'application, les essais et
l'analyse. Des tableaux offrent des profils de chaque catégorie d'utilisation, des lubrifiants pour
des applications spécifiques, des tolérances de température et de radiation pour ces lubrifiants.
Un glossaire des termes techniques est également inclus, tout comme des directives sur le choix
du bon lubrifiant pour des applications spécifiques. Des informations sur la détermination de la
durée de vie restante d'un lubrifiant sont offertes car elles peuvent contribuer à réduire le nombre
de vidanges inutiles et coûteuses.
Approche
Un groupe de consultation technique (TAG) composé d'ingénieurs chargés de la lubrification a
été formé pour aider à la révision du rapport. Le groupe de consultation technique a identifié
plusieurs secteurs à améliorer, notamment les méthodes d'essai, les études de compatibilité et les
changements dans les gammes de produits (Annexe A). De plus, un nouveau chapitre fait
référence à des études existantes d'EPRI sur la lubrification visant des sujets spécifiques et a été
incorporé pour permettre une référence rapide.
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Point de vue de l'EPRI

La connaissance de la lubrification est importante dans le travail quotidien du personnel de
maintenance. Ce rapport offre en condensé une quantité importante de renseignements sur les
propriétés des lubrifiants communément utilisés. En effectuant un bon choix de lubrifiants qui
sont compatibles, on peut éviter des maintenances imprévues ou des arrêts. L'information
contenue dans ce rapport peut s'avérer utile aux instructeurs et aux personnes étant initiées à la
technologie de la lubrification. Cette révision du Guide de lubrification incorpore des
changements récents au sein de l'industrie de la lubrification, notamment la consolidation et
l'abandon de certaines gammes de produits et leurs caractéristiques.
Mots-clés
Lubrifiants
Lubrification
Ingénierie des centrales
Maintenance des centrales
Exploitation des centrales
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RESUME
Ce rapport offre des informations sur les lubrifiants de nombreux fabricants ; les lubrifiants sont
appropriés pour diverses applications dans les centrales nucléaires. Les limites d'exploitation des
lubrifiants en termes de température et de la dose d'irradiation sont énumérées. Le rapport traite
aussi des notions fondamentales sur l'emploi des lubrifiants, la façon dont ils sont affectés par la
radiation, et comment cela se rapporte à leur composition. La friction et l'usure sont les deux
sujets de base présentés, de même que les effets causés par la contrainte, la durée de
conservation, la compatibilité, le dépannage et les essais : tous ces sujets sont importants pour la
maintenance. La section portant sur les essais a fait l'objet d'une attention particulière avec l'ajout
de plusieurs nouvelles méthodes d'essai. Le rapport est destiné au personnel de maintenance et
technique des centrales.
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TABLE DES MATIERES
1 LUBRIFIANTS : QUE SONT-ILS ET COMMENT FONCTIONNENT-ILS..............................1-1

1.1 Huiles de base .............................................................................................................1-1
1.2 Mesures principales .....................................................................................................1-3
1.3 Additifs .........................................................................................................................1-4
1.3.1 Améliorants d'indice de viscosité ........................................................................1-5
1.3.2 Détergents/Dispersants.......................................................................................1-5
1.3.3 Composés en métal de base ..............................................................................1-5
1.3.4 Additifs antiusure et antiéraflure..........................................................................1-5
1.3.5 Antioxydants........................................................................................................1-6
1.3.6 Inhibiteurs d'oxydation et antimousse .................................................................1-7
1.3.7 Gélifiants .............................................................................................................1-7
1.4 Lubrifiants synthétiques ...............................................................................................1-7
2 EFFETS DE L'IRRADIATION SUR LES LUBRIFIANTS ET LES ELASTOMERES .............2-1

2.1 Effet sur les lubrifiants..................................................................................................2-1
2.2 Effet sur les élastomères .............................................................................................2-7
3 LUBRIFICATION, FRICTION ET USURE ..............................................................................3-1

3.1 Lubrification hydrodynamique ......................................................................................3-1
3.2 Lubrification élastohydrodynamique ............................................................................3-2
3.3 Lubrification de limite ...................................................................................................3-3
3.3.1 Film adsorbé physiquement ................................................................................3-3
3.3.2 Film adsorbé chimiquement ................................................................................3-4
3.3.3 Film de réaction chimique ...................................................................................3-5
3.4 Lubrifiants solides ........................................................................................................3-6
3.5 Nature des surfaces usinées .......................................................................................3-6
3.6 Friction et usure ...........................................................................................................3-7
3.6.1 Usure par friction.................................................................................................3-7
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3.6.2 Mécanismes d'usure ...........................................................................................3-8

3.6.2.1 Corrosion (humidité et friction) ......................................................................3-8
3.6.2.2 Érosion électrique........................................................................................3-10
3.6.2.3 Fatigue ........................................................................................................3-12
3.6.2.4 Déformation plastique .................................................................................3-13
3.6.2.5 Usure par abrasion et par adhérence..........................................................3-13
4 CHOIX DES LUBRIFIANTS ET PROBLEMES D'APPLICATION .........................................4-1

4.1 Comment choisir un lubrifiant pour un nouvel équipement..........................................4-1
4.2 Compatibilité des produits mélangés ...........................................................................4-1
4.2.1 Huiles ..................................................................................................................4-2
4.2.2 Graisses ..............................................................................................................4-2
4.3 Durée de conservation.................................................................................................4-6
4.4 Facteurs de temps/température/radiation ....................................................................4-7
4.5 Emploi continu ou intermittent et performance du lubrifiant.........................................4-8
5 ESSAIS ET ANALYSES.........................................................................................................5-1
5.1 Échantillonnage ...........................................................................................................5-1
5.2 Dépannage ..................................................................................................................5-2
5.3 Essais portant sur les lubrifiants ..................................................................................5-2
5.3.1 Essais sensoriels ................................................................................................5-3
5.3.2 Autres essais simples .........................................................................................5-3
5.3.3 Essais de diagnostic en laboratoire ....................................................................5-5
5.3.4 Essais standards en laboratoire........................................................................5-12
5.3.5 Méthodes d'essai analytiques ...........................................................................5-14
5.4 Emploi des résultats des essais.................................................................................5-20
5.5 Tendances .................................................................................................................5-21
5.6 Limites de détection ...................................................................................................5-22
5.7 Facteurs de nettoyage ...............................................................................................5-24
6 DOCUMENTATION DE REFERENCE SUR LA LUBRIFICATION........................................6-1

6.1 Bulletin de notes sur les lubrifiants du CAMN..............................................................6-1
6.2 Soutien technique EPRI...............................................................................................6-1
6.3 Publications d'EPRI portant sur la lubrification ............................................................6-2
6.3.1 Directives sur la maintenance anticipée par lubrification, maniement et
assurance de la qualité (1004384) ...................................................................................6-2
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6.3.2 Centre d’applications de maintenance nucléaire : Compatibilité des huiles

pour turbines (1016272) ...................................................................................................6-2
6.3.3 Centre d’applications de maintenance nucléaire : Compilation de notes
sur les lubrifiants, 1989 - -2007 (1015254).......................................................................6-2
6.3.4 Essais de compatibilité sur la lubrification des turbines (1011028).....................6-3
6.3.5 Centre d’applications de maintenance nucléaire : Guide de maintenance
des circuits de graissage des pompes de liquide de refroidissement de
réacteurs/moteurs de pompes de recirculation de réacteurs (1013456) ..........................6-3
6.3.6 Systèmes auxiliaires des turbo-alternateurs, volume 1 : Guide de
maintenance des circuits de lubrification des turbo-alternateurs (1010191) ....................6-3
6.3.7 Pratiques de graissage efficaces et pratiques (1020247) ...................................6-4
6.3.8 Guide de lubrification pour équipement rotatif(1019517) ....................................6-4
6.3.9 Évaluation de la performance et de l'état des lubrifiants de vannes
motorisées (1009609).......................................................................................................6-4
6.3.10 Programme EPRI de prévision de la performance des vannes motorisées :
Rapport d'essai de lubrification de tige/d'écrou de tige (TR-102135) ...............................6-4
6.3.11 Analyse comparative des graisses Polyrex EM et SRI à utiliser dans les
roulements moteur (1011946) ..........................................................................................6-5
6.3.12 Graisse longue durée pour vannes motorisées – Évaluation pour boîtes
d'engrenages de contacteur de fin de course Limitorque : Utilisation dans des
applications liée à la sécurité des centrales (1010058)....................................................6-5
6.3.13 Analyse comparative des graisses longue durée Nebula et pour vannes
motorisées pour applications de réducteur principal Limitorque (1003483) .....................6-5
6.4 Autre documentation industrielle..................................................................................6-6
7 REFERENCES .......................................................................................................................7-1
A TABLEAUX DES PROPRIETES DES LUBRIFIANTS ......................................................... A-1
B GLOSSAIRE B-1
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LISTE DES FIGURES
Figure 1-1 Effet des additifs antiusure et antiéraflure ................................................................1-6

Figure 1-2 Processus d'oxydation des hydrocarbures ...............................................................1-6
Figure 2-1 Niveaux de dosage pour les effets d'irradiation........................................................2-2
Figure 2-2 Interaction entre un photon gamma et la matière organique ....................................2-2
Figure 2-3 Limites supérieures des doses d'irradiation résultant en la défaillance de
divers fluides de base ........................................................................................................2-3
Figure 2-4 Effets de la radiolyse sur une graisse de mélange gélifié de lithium à base
d'huile minérale ..................................................................................................................2-4
Figure 2-5 Stabilité relative de l'oxydation des huiles irradiées à base d'huile minérale de
turbine à vapeur dans les essais de stabilité d'huile de turbine .........................................2-5
Figure 2-6 Effet de la température et de l'irradiation sur la durée de service d'une graisse
pour palier à base d'huile minérale épaissie de sodium ....................................................2-6
Figure 2-7 Sensibilité relative des lubrifiants et des élastomères communs à l'irradiation ........2-8
Figure 2-8 Résistance des élastomères à l'irradiation ...............................................................2-9
Figure 3-1 Lubrification hydrodynamique...................................................................................3-2
Figure 3-2 Lubrification élastohydrodynamique .........................................................................3-2
Figure 3-3 Lubrification limite (rugosité fragmentée) .................................................................3-3
Figure 3-4 Représentation d'un film adsorbé physiquement — molécules non polaires ...........3-4
Figure 3-5 Film adsorbé physiquement - molécules polaires.....................................................3-4
Figure 3-6 Film adsorbé chimiquement .....................................................................................3-5
Figure 3-7 Effets de divers paramètres sur le coefficient de friction ..........................................3-5
Figure 3-8 Surface usinée..........................................................................................................3-6
Figure 3-9 Exemple d'usure par corrosion .................................................................................3-9
Figure 3-10 Exemple de corrosion par frottement ...................................................................3-10
Figure 3-11 Exemple de décharge électrique ..........................................................................3-11
Figure 3-12 Exemple d'érosion électrique................................................................................3-11
Figure 3-13 Exemple de fatigue de surface .............................................................................3-12
Figure 3-14 Exemple d'usure par abrasion ..............................................................................3-13
Figure 3-15 Exemple d'adhérence moyenne ...........................................................................3-14
Figure 4-1 Compatibilité de mélanges de graisse avec différents gélifiants ..............................4-4
Figure 4-2 Interaction temps/température/irradiation.................................................................4-7
Figure 5-1 Jauge pour mesurer la viscosité des huiles..............................................................5-4
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Figure 5-2 Exemple d'un essai ponctuel sur papier buvard .......................................................5-5
Figure 5-3 Taille/concentration de particules d'usure et état de l'appareil .................................5-8
Figure 5-4 Détection de l'usure et autres particules...................................................................5-9
Figure 5-5 Configuration de l'analyse thermogravimétrique ....................................................5-15
Figure 5-6 Appareil de calorimétrie par balayage différentiel ..................................................5-15
Figure 5-7 Voltampèremètre Fluitec RULER ...........................................................................5-16
Figure 5-8 Exemple de trois additifs et réaction du voltampèremètre (RULER) ......................5-18
Figure 5-9 Graphique du voltampèremètre (RULER) illustrant la nouvelle huile et l'huile
de turbine en service........................................................................................................5-19
Figure 5-10 Chromatographes d'huiles d'engrenages neuves et usées ..................................5-20
Figure 5-11 Exemple d'un tracé des propriétés des lubrifiants ................................................5-22
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LISTE DES TABLEAUX
Tableau 1-1 Exigences relatives aux huiles et graisses ............................................................1-1

Tableau 1-2 Catégories d'huiles de base de l'American Petroleum Institute .............................1-2
Tableau 1-3 Propriétés comparées des huiles polyalfaoléfines de base synthétiques et
des diverses huiles à base minérale ..................................................................................1-3
Tableau 1-4 Additifs communs dans divers lubrifiants...............................................................1-4
Tableau 1-5 Huiles à base synthétique et leurs applications .....................................................1-8
Tableau 2-1 Effets de l'irradiation sur les huiles communes......................................................2-7
Tableau 2-2 Effets de l'irradiation sur les graisses communes..................................................2-7
Tableau 2-3 Résistance des élastomères aux effets des huiles et graisses communes ...........2-8
Tableau 4-1 Compatibilité des graisses .....................................................................................4-3
Tableau 4-2 Essais de compatibilité des graisses .....................................................................4-5
Tableau 5-1 Séquence des essais portant sur les lubrifiants ....................................................5-2
Tableau 5-2 Plages maximales d'intérêt en infrarouge..............................................................5-6
Tableau 5-3 Sources de métaux dans les lubrifiants .................................................................5-7
Tableau 5-4 Usure et ses causes ............................................................................................5-10
Tableau 5-5 Fourchette de numération des particules ............................................................5-11
Tableau 5-6 Principaux essais pour les lubrifiants...................................................................5-13
Tableau 5-7 Limites de détection types pour certains lubrifiants .............................................5-23
Tableau A-1 Huiles pour turbines : Catégories de viscosité ISO 32, 46 et 68 .......................... A-1
Tableau A-2 Huiles moteur pour gros moteurs Diesel .............................................................. A-2
Tableau A-3 Huile hydraulique basse pression : Catégories de viscosité ISO 32, 46, 68
et 100 ................................................................................................................................ A-3
Tableau A-4Huile hydraulique haute pression : Catégories de viscosité ISO 32, 46, 68 et
100 .................................................................................................................................... A-4
Tableau A-5 Huiles pour compresseurs.................................................................................... A-5
Tableau A-6 Charge élevée, pression extrême : Lubrifiants d'engrenages à pression
extrême ............................................................................................................................. A-6
Tableau A-7 Lubrifiants pour engrenages à découvert............................................................. A-7
Tableau A-8 Mélanges antigrippage ......................................................................................... A-8
Tableau A-9 Lubrifiants pour actionneurs de vannes Limitorque.............................................. A-9
Tableau A-10 Liquides hydrauliques résistants au feu ........................................................... A-10
Tableau A-11 Graisses d'usage général—Catégories 00, 0, 1, 2 et 3.................................... A-11
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Tableau A-12 Graisses pour raccords .................................................................................... A-12

Tableau A-13 Types et performance des graisses ................................................................. A-13
Tableau B-1 Équivalents de viscosité ....................................................................................... B-4
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原子力保全アプリケーションセンター
：潤滑ガイド
改訂4版（旧1003085）
1019518
2009年12月最終レポート
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レポート概要
発電所では様々な目的のために多くの潤滑油が使用されている。保全技術者は、当該の
適用に正しい潤滑油を選定するための簡潔なガイドラインが必要である。また、潤滑油
の適用性を決定するためには、潤滑油の特徴についての具体的な知識が必要である。
背景
従来、この潤滑レポートでは、発電所の運転と保全に携わる技術者に役立つ情報を提供
してきた。潤滑ガイドの本改訂版では、製品ラインや仕様の統合および廃止を含む潤滑
産業界での変化を反映している。改訂2版と同様に、Electric Power Research
Institute（EPRI）レポート、潤滑油における照射の影響（NP-
4735）で取上げられたトピックスも含まれている。
目的
• 潤滑油に携わる発電所の技術者に一般ガイドを提供すること
• 現在の油とグリースに関する情報および発電所の異なる適用に対するそれらの運転
制限についての情報を提供すること
• 他のEPRI潤滑関連レポートに関する参考情報を提供すること
結果
本レポートでは潤滑油、潤滑、試験、摩擦、および摩耗を取上げている。基本的潤滑、
適用問題、試験および分析のセクションが含まれている。各使用カテゴリー、特定適用
のための潤滑油およびこれらの潤滑油の温度特性と耐放射線性を示す表が提供されてい
る。技術用語集ならびに特定適用に適切な潤滑油を選定するためのガイドも含まれてい
る。潤滑油の余寿命を決定するための情報が提供されているので、不必要でコストの高
い潤滑油交換の削減に役立つであろう。
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アプローチ
電力会社の潤滑エンジニアで構成されたテクニカルアドバイザリーグループ（TAG）
が本レポートの改訂を支援するために結成された。TAGは試験方法、適合性調査およ
び潤滑油製品ラインの変更（付録A）など、更新する複数の分野を特定した。
さらに、EPRIによる既存の潤滑に関する特定のトピックについての研究を参照する新
しい章が含まれており、迅速に参照できるようになっている。
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EPRIの展望
潤滑の知識は保全技術者が日々作業を行う上で重要である。本レポートでは、一般的に
使用される潤滑油の特性に関する充実した情報が簡潔に記載されている。正確かつ適合
性のある潤滑油を選定することが、予定外の保全や停止を防ぐことに役立つ。本レポー
トに含まれる情報は、トレーニング指導者および潤滑技術の担当になったばかりの人に
役立つであろう。潤滑ガイドの本改訂版では、製品ラインや仕様の統合および廃止を含
む最近の潤滑産業界での変化を反映している。
キーワード
潤滑油
潤滑
発電所エンジニアリング
発電所の保全
発電所の運転
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要約
本レポートには多くのメーカーの原子力発電所の様々な適用に適した潤滑油に関する情
報が記載されており、温度および放射線量に関する潤滑油の運転制限が記載されている
。レポートでは、潤滑油の仕組み、照射による影響および成分との関連の基本について
も取上げられている。
この他、すべて保全に関して重要なトピックである、摩擦および摩耗、並びに潤滑油の
ストレス効果、保管期間、適合性、トラブルシューティングおよび試験などが取上げら
れている。
試験のセクションは、いくつかの新しい試験法が加えられ、特に注目される。レポート
は発電所の保全技術者およびエンジニアに使用されることを目的としている。
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目次
1 潤滑油:潤滑油とはなにか、およびその仕組み.......................................................................1-1
1.1 基油..............................................................................................................................1-1
1.2 基幹測定 ......................................................................................................................1-3
1.3 添加剤 ..........................................................................................................................1-4
1.3.1 Vl 改良剤 .............................................................................................................1-5
1.3.2 洗浄剤/分散剤......................................................................................................1-5
1.3.3 基礎金属化合物 ...................................................................................................1-5
1.3.4 耐摩耗および磨減防止（EP）添加剤 .................................................................1-5
1.3.5 酸化防止剤 ..........................................................................................................1-6
1.3.6 防錆剤と抗発泡剤 ...............................................................................................1-7
1.3.7 ゲル化剤..............................................................................................................1-7
1.4 合成潤滑油 ...................................................................................................................1-7
2 潤滑油およびエラストマーへの照射の影響............................................................................2-1
2.1 潤滑油への影響............................................................................................................2-1
2.2 エラストマーへの影響 .................................................................................................2-7
3 潤滑、摩擦および摩耗 ............................................................................................................3-1
3.1 流体潤滑 ......................................................................................................................3-1
3.2 弾性流体潤滑 ...............................................................................................................3-2
3.3 境界潤滑 ......................................................................................................................3-3
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3.3.1 物理吸着膜 ..........................................................................................................3-3
3.3.2 化学吸着膜 ..........................................................................................................3-4
3.3.3 化学反応膜 ..........................................................................................................3-5
3.4 固体潤滑剤 ...................................................................................................................3-6
3.5 機器加工表面の性質.....................................................................................................3-6
3.6 摩擦および摩耗............................................................................................................3-7
3.6.1 摩擦摩耗..............................................................................................................3-7
3.6.2 摩耗のメカニズム ...............................................................................................3-8
3.6.2.1 腐食（湿気と摩擦） ......................................................................................3-8
3.6.2.2 電食 .............................................................................................................3-10
3.6.2.3 疲労 .............................................................................................................3-12
3.6.2.4 塑性変形 ......................................................................................................3-13
3.6.2.5 アブレイシブおよび凝着摩耗......................................................................3-13
4 潤滑油の選定および適用問題 .................................................................................................4-1
4.1 新しい機器に潤滑油を選択する方法 ...........................................................................4-1
4.2 混合製品の適合性 ........................................................................................................4-1
4.2.1 油.........................................................................................................................4-2
4.2.2 グリース..............................................................................................................4-2
4.3 保管期間 ......................................................................................................................4-6
4.4 時間/温度/放射線の考慮点 ...........................................................................................4-7
4.5 継続的使用と断続的使用および潤滑油のパーフォーマンス .......................................4-8
5 試験と分析 ..............................................................................................................................5-1
5.1 サンプリング ...............................................................................................................5-1
5.2 トラブルシューティング .............................................................................................5-2
5.3 潤滑油の試験 ...............................................................................................................5-2
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5.3.1 感度試験..............................................................................................................5-3
5.3.2 その他の簡易試験 ...............................................................................................5-3
5.3.3 実験室での診断試験............................................................................................5-5
5.3.4 実験室での標準試験..........................................................................................5-12
5.3.5 分析試験法 ........................................................................................................5-14
5.4 試験結果の使用..........................................................................................................5-20
5.5 傾向分析 ....................................................................................................................5-21
5.6 警戒限界 ....................................................................................................................5-22
5.7 既存油除去クリーニング上の考察 .............................................................................5-24
6 潤滑に関わる情報源................................................................................................................6-1
6.1 NMACの潤滑油ノートニュースレター ........................................................................6-1
6.2 EPRI技術サポート .......................................................................................................6-1
6.3 EPRIの潤滑に関する発行物.........................................................................................6-2
6.3.1 潤滑油の予知保全、取扱いおよび品質保証ガイド（1004384）........................6-2
6.3.2
原子力保全アプリケーションセンター：タービンオイルの適合性（10162
72） 6-2
6.3.3
原子力保全アプリケーションセンター：潤滑油ノート編集1989～2007（
1015254） ........................................................................................................................6-2
6.3.4 タービンオイル潤滑の適合性試験（1011028） .................................................6-3
6.3.5 原子力保全アプリケーションセンター：原子炉冷却材ポンプ・
原子炉再循環ポンプ電動機潤滑油系統の保全ガイド（1013456）..................................6-3
6.3.6 タービン発電機補助系統
第1巻:タービン発電機潤滑系統の保全ガイド（1010191） .............................................6-3
6.3.7 効果的なグリースプラクティス（1020247）.....................................................6-4
6.3.8 回転機器の油潤滑—ガイド（1019517）............................................................6-4
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6.3.9 電動弁の潤滑油パーフォーマンスおよび状態評価（1009609）........................6-4
6.3.10 EPRI MOVパーフォーマンスの予測プログラム:

ステム/ステムナット潤滑の試験レポート（TR-102135）...............................................6-4
6.3.11 EQ電動機ベアリング用のPolyrex EMおよびSRIグリースの

比較解析（1011946） ......................................................................................................6-5
6.3.12 MOV Longlifeグリース– Limitorqueリミットスイッチギヤボックスの
評価: 原子力安全系での使用（1010058） .......................................................................6-5
6.3.13 Limitorqueメインギヤボックス適用のNebulaおよびMOV Longlife

グリースの比較解析（1003483） ....................................................................................6-5
6.4 その他の産業界の情報源 .............................................................................................6-6
7 参考文献..................................................................................................................................7-1
A 潤滑油特性の表 ..................................................................................................................... A-1
B 用語集.................................................................................................................................... B-1
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図のリスト
図1-1 耐摩耗および磨減防止添加剤の効果................................................................................1-6
図1-2 炭化水素の酸化過程.........................................................................................................1-6
図2-1 照射による影響に対する線量レベル................................................................................2-2
図2-2 ガンマ光子と有機物の相互作用.......................................................................................2-2
図2-3 様々なベース流体が損傷する放射線量の上限 .................................................................2-3
図2-4 リチウム錯体ゲル化鉱油ベースのグリースに対する放射線分解効果 .............................2-4
図2-5
タービンオイル安定性試験における照射鉱油ベースの蒸気タービンオイルの相対酸
化安定性.............................................................................................................................2-5
図2-6 ナトリウム塩が肥厚した鉱油ベースのグリースの軸受寿命に対する温度および
照射の影響 .........................................................................................................................2-6
図2-7 一般的な潤滑油とエラストマーの照射に対する相対感度 ...............................................2-8
図2-8 エラストマーの照射に対する抵抗 ...................................................................................2-9
図3-1 流体潤滑...........................................................................................................................3-2
図3-2 弾性流体潤滑....................................................................................................................3-2
図3-3 境界潤滑（部分的な粗度） ..............................................................................................3-3
図3-4 物理吸着膜の説明—無極性分子.......................................................................................3-4
図3-5 物理吸着膜—極性分子 .....................................................................................................3-4
図3-6 化学吸着膜 .......................................................................................................................3-5
図3-7 摩擦係数に対する様々なパラメータの効果 .....................................................................3-5
図3-8 機械加工表面....................................................................................................................3-6
図3-9 腐食摩耗の例....................................................................................................................3-9
図3-10 フレッティング腐食の例..............................................................................................3-10
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図3-11 電気放電の例................................................................................................................3-11
図3-12 電食の例.......................................................................................................................3-11
図3-13 表面疲労の例................................................................................................................3-12
図3-14 アブレイシブ摩耗の例 .................................................................................................3-13
図3-15 軽度凝着の例................................................................................................................3-14
図4-1 グリース混合物の異なるゲル化剤との適合性 .................................................................4-4
図4-2 時間/温度/放射線の相互作用 ............................................................................................4-7
図5-1 油の粘度計測器 ................................................................................................................5-4
図5-2 ブロッタースポット試験の例 ..........................................................................................5-5
図5-3 摩耗粒径/濃度および機械状態 .........................................................................................5-8
図5-4 摩耗および他の粒子の検出 ..............................................................................................5-9
図5-5 TGA設定.........................................................................................................................5-15
図5-6 DSC装置 ........................................................................................................................5-15
図5-7 Fluitec RULER計器 ........................................................................................................5-16
図5-8 3つの添加剤と電解電量計（RULER）の反応例 ............................................................5-18
図5-9 新規油と供用中タービンオイルを示す電解電量計（RULER）グラフ ..........................5-19
図5-10 新しいギア油と使用済みギア油のクロマトグラフ ......................................................5-20
図5-11 潤滑油特性のサンプルプロット...................................................................................5-22
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表のリスト
表1-1 油とグリースの要求事項..................................................................................................1-1
表1-2 米国石油協会の基油カテゴリー.......................................................................................1-2
表1-3 PAO合成基油および様々な鉱物ベース油の比較特性 ......................................................1-3
表1-4 様々な潤滑油に使用されている一般的な添加物..............................................................1-4
表1-5 合成基油およびその適用..................................................................................................1-8
表2-1 一般的な油の照射の影響..................................................................................................2-7
表2-2 一般的なグリースの照射の影響.......................................................................................2-7
表2-3 一般的な油およびグリースの影響に対するエラストマーの抵抗.....................................2-8
表4-1 グリースの適合性 ............................................................................................................4-3
表4-2 グリース適合性試験.........................................................................................................4-5
表5-1 潤滑油試験の手順 ............................................................................................................5-2
表5-2 赤外線吸収の大きい波長..................................................................................................5-6
表5-3 潤滑油の中の金属の源 .....................................................................................................5-7
表5-4 摩耗とその原因 ..............................................................................................................5-10
表5-5 粒子数範囲の数 ..............................................................................................................5-11
表5-6 潤滑油の主要試験 ..........................................................................................................5-13
表5-7 特定潤滑油サービスの典型的な警戒限界 ......................................................................5-23
表A-1 タービンオイル:ISO粘度等級 32、46、68 ..................................................................... A-1
表A-2 大型ディーゼルのエンジン油 ......................................................................................... A-2
表A-3 低圧油圧オイル:ISO粘度等級 32、46、68、100 ........................................................... A-3
表A-4 高圧油圧オイル:ISO粘度等級 32、46、68、100 ........................................................... A-4
表A-5 コンプレッサ油............................................................................................................... A-5
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表A-6 高負荷超高圧:EPギア潤滑油 .......................................................................................... A-6
表A-7 オープンギア潤滑油 ....................................................................................................... A-7
表A-8 焼付防止剤...................................................................................................................... A-8
表A-9 Limitorque弁駆動装置潤滑油 .......................................................................................... A-9
表A-10 耐火性油圧流体........................................................................................................... A-10
表A-11 汎用グリース—等級 00、0、1、2、3 ........................................................................ A-11
表A-12 カップリングのグリース ............................................................................................ A-12
表A-13 グリースタイプとパーフォーマンス .......................................................................... A-13
表B-1 等価粘性 ......................................................................................................................... B-4
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Nuclear Maintenance Applications

Center: 윤활 지침, 4차 개정판 (이전
번호 1003085)
1019518
최종 보고서(2009년 12월)
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보고서 개요
발전소에서는 다양한 목적으로 다수의 윤활유가 사용된다. 정비 요원에게는 해당 용도에

알맞은 정확한 윤활유를 선택하는 것에 대한 간결한 지침이 필요하다. 또한 적용
윤활유의 결정을 위해서는 윤활유 특성에 대한 지식이 있어야 한다.
배경
본 윤활 관련 보고서는 발전소운전 및 정비 부서 중에서 윤활 분야에 관련된 발전소
직원에게 유용한 정보를 제공해 왔다. 이 윤활 지침 개정판은 생산 라인 및 기능의 통합,
생산 중지 등과 같은 윤활 업계의 각종 변화를 반영하고 있다. 2차 개정판과 마찬가지로
본 윤활 지침에는 EPRI 보고서 “ 윤활유에 대한 방사선의 영향(NP-4735)” 에서 다루는
주제도 포함되어 있다.
목적
• 윤활유 관련 발전소 직원에게 일반적 지침을 제공한다.
• 발전소 내의 다양한 용도에 사용되는 기존의 오일과 그리스, 그리고 이들의 운용

제한에 관한 정보를 제공한다.
• 다른 EPRI 윤활 관련 보고서들의 참조 문헌으로 사용될 수 있다.
성과
본 보고서는 윤활유, 윤활, 시험, 마찰 및 마모를 다룬다. 본 보고서에는 기본 윤활, 사용
시 문제, 시험, 분석에 관한 내용이 담겨 있다. 표를 통해 각 용도 범위, 특정 용도를 위한
윤활유, 그리고 윤활유의 온도 및 방사선 내성 등을 제공한다. 기술 용어 설명과 특정
용도를 위한 정확한 윤활유 선택 지침도 포함하였다. 윤활유의 잔여 수명을 결정하는
것에 관한 정보도 제시하여 불필요한 고가의 윤활유 교체를 줄일 수 있도록 했다.
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접근 방법
보고서의 개정 지원을 위해 설비 윤활 엔지니어로 구성된 기술 자문단(TAG)을 구성했다.
기술 자문단은 시험 방법, 적합성 연구, 윤활유 생산 라인 변경 등 변경이 필요한 여러
분야를 파악했다(부속서 A). 또한 특정 주제에 관한 EPRI의 기존 윤활 관련 연구를
정리한 장을 추가하여 쉽게 참조할 수 있도록 했다.
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EPRI의 관점
윤활 계통에 대한 이해는 정비 요원의 일상 업무에 매우 중요하다. 본 보고서는
일상적으로 사용되는 윤활유 특성에 관한 많은 정보를 간략한 형태로 제공한다.
정확하고 적합한 윤활유를 선택하면 비계획 정비 또는 운전 정지를 예방하는 데 도움이
된다. 본 보고서의 정보는 교육 강사와 윤활 기술의 기본을 학습하는 학습자가 유용하게
사용할 수 있다. 이 윤활 지침 개정판은 생산 라인 및 기능의 통합, 생산 중지 등과 같은
윤활 업계의 각종 변화를 반영하고 있다
주요 용어
윤활유
윤활
발전소 설계(engineering)
발전소 정비
발전소 운전
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개요
본 보고서는 다양한 원자력 발전소 용도에 적합한 여러 제조회사의 윤활유에 대한

정보를 담고 있다. 온도 및 방사선량에 대한 윤활유 운용 범위를 목록으로 나타냈다. 또한
본 보고서는 윤활유의 작용, 윤활유에 대한 방사선의 영향, 그리고 이 요소들과 윤활유
성분과의 관련성 등과 같은 기본 사항을 다룬다. 기타 기본적 주제로서 마찰 및 마모를
제시하였고, 윤활유 응력 효과, 저장 수명, 적합성, 문제 해결, 시험 등 정비에 중요한
항목들을 포함했다. 시험 절에 추가된 여러 가지 새로운 시험 방법은 특히 주목을 받았다.
본 보고서는 발전소 정비 및 공학 기술자가 사용할 수 있도록 작성했다.
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목차
1윤활유의 정의와 작용............................................................................................................ 1-1
1.1 기유..............................................................................................................................1-1
1.2 주요 측정 사항 .............................................................................................................1-3
1.3 첨가제 ..........................................................................................................................1-4
1.3.1 점도 지수 향상제 .................................................................................................1-5
1.3.2 세제/분산제 .........................................................................................................1-5
1.3.3 기본 금속 화합물 .................................................................................................1-5
1.3.4 내마모 및 내손상 (EP) 첨가제 .............................................................................1-5
1.3.5 산화 방지제 .........................................................................................................1-6
1.3.6 방청제 및 거품 억제제.........................................................................................1-7
1.3.7 Gel화제 ...............................................................................................................1-7
1.4 합성 윤활유 ..................................................................................................................1-7
2 윤활유 및 탄성체에 대한 방사선의 영향 ............................................................................... 2-1
2.1 윤활유에 대한 영향 ......................................................................................................2-1
2.2 탄성체에 대한 영향 ......................................................................................................2-7
3 윤활, 마찰 및 마모................................................................................................................ 3-1
3.1 유체 윤활 ..................................................................................................................... 3-1
3.2 탄성 유체 윤활 .............................................................................................................3-2
3.3 경계 윤활 ..................................................................................................................... 3-3
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3.3.1 물리적 흡착 막.....................................................................................................3-3
3.3.2 화학적 흡착 막.....................................................................................................3-4
3.3.3 화학 반응 막 ........................................................................................................3-5
3.4 고체 윤활제 ..................................................................................................................3-6
3.5 가공 표면의 성질..........................................................................................................3-6
3.6 마찰 및 마모 .................................................................................................................3-7
3.6.1 마찰 마모.............................................................................................................3-7
3.6.2 마모 메커니즘......................................................................................................3-8
3.6.2.1 부식(수분 및 마찰).........................................................................................3-8
3.6.2.2 전식 .............................................................................................................3-10
3.6.2.3 피로 .............................................................................................................3-12
3.6.2.4 소성 변형 .....................................................................................................3-13
3.6.2.5 연삭 마모 및 응착 마모 ................................................................................3-13
4 윤활유 선택 및 적용 문제 ..................................................................................................... 4-1
4.1 새 장비의 윤활유 선택 방법 .........................................................................................4-1
4.2 혼합 제품의 적합성 ......................................................................................................4-1
4.2.1 오일 .....................................................................................................................4-2
4.2.2 그리스 .................................................................................................................4-2
4.3 저장 수명 ..................................................................................................................... 4-6
4.4 시간/온도/방사선 검토..................................................................................................4-7
4.5 연속 사용/간헐적 사용 시의 비교 및 윤활 성능 ............................................................4-8
5 시험 및 분석 ......................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.1 시료 채취 ..................................................................................................................... 5-1
5.2 문제 해결 ..................................................................................................................... 5-2
5.3 윤활유 시험 ..................................................................................................................5-2
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5.3.1 관능 시험.............................................................................................................5-3
5.3.2 기타 간략 시험.....................................................................................................5-3
5.3.3 진단을 위한 실험실 시험 .....................................................................................5-5
5.3.4 표준 실험실 시험 ...............................................................................................5-12
5.3.5 분석 시험 방법...................................................................................................5-14
5.4 시험 결과 활용 ...........................................................................................................5-20
5.5 추이 파악 ...................................................................................................................5-21
5.6 주의 한도 ...................................................................................................................5-22
5.7 세정 시 고려 사항.......................................................................................................5-24
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6 윤활 관련 자료 ..................................................................................................................... 6-1
6.1 NMAC 윤활 관련 소식지 ..............................................................................................6-1
6.2 EPRI의 기술 지원.........................................................................................................6-1
6.3 EPRI의 윤활 관련 간행물.............................................................................................6-2
6.3.1 윤활유 예측 정비, 취급, 품질 보증 지침(1004384)..............................................6-2
6.3.2 Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: 터빈 오일 적합성(1016272) ............6-2
6.3.3 Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: 윤활 관련 사항 정리, 1989–

2007 (1015254) ................................................................................................................6-2
6.3.4 터빈 오일 윤활 적합성 시험(1011028) ................................................................6-3
6.3.5 Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: 원자로 냉각재 펌프/원자로

재순환 펌프 모터 윤활 계통 정비 지침(1013456) .............................................................6-3
6.3.6 터빈-발전기 보조 계통, 1권: 터빈-발전기 윤활 계통 정비 지침(1010191) ...........6-3
6.3.7 효율적 그리스 활용 사례(1020247).....................................................................6-4
6.3.8 회전 기기 오일 윤활 지침(1019517)....................................................................6-4
6.3.9 모터 구동 밸브 윤활제 성능 및 상태 평가(1009609) ...........................................6-4
6.3.10 EPRI 모터 구동 밸브 성능 예측 프로그램: 스템 너트 윤활 시험 보고서(TR-

102135) 6-4
6.3.11 EQ 모터 베어링에서 폴리렉스 EM 및 SRI 그리스를 사용하기 위한 비교

분석(1011946) ..................................................................................................................6-5
6.3.12 모터 구동 밸브용 장수명 그리스 – Limitorque 리미트 스위치 기어 박스의

평가: 핵 안전 관련 응용에 사용(1010058) ........................................................................6-5
6.3.13 Nebula 및 모터 구동 밸브용 장수명 그리스를 Limitorque 주 기어 박스에

사용하기 위한 비교 분석(1003483) ..................................................................................6-5
6.4 기타 업계 자료 .............................................................................................................6-6
7 참고 문헌 ............................................................................................................................. 7-1
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A 윤활유 특성 표 ..................................................................................................................... A-1
B 용어 ..................................................................................................................................... B-1
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그림 목록
그림 1-1 내마모 및 내손상 첨가제의 효과..................................................................................1-6
그림 1-2 탄화수소 산화 과정......................................................................................................1-6
그림 2-1 방사선량에 따른 방사선 영향 ......................................................................................2-2
그림 2-2 감마 광자와 유기 물질 간의 상호 작용.........................................................................2-2
그림 2-3 다양한 기유에 문제를 야기하는 방사선량의 상한........................................................2-3
그림 2-4 리튬 복합 겔 광유 기반 그리스에 대한 방사선 분해의 영향 .........................................2-4
그림 2-5 터빈 오일 안정성 시험에서 방사선 조사 광유 기반 증기 터빈 오일의 상대적

산화 안정성 결과 ................................................................................................................2-5
그림 2-6 나트륨 염 농화 광유 기반 그리스의 수명에 대한 온도 및 방사선 조사의 영향.............2-6
그림 2-7 일반 윤활유 및 탄성체의 방사선 조사에 대한 상대 감도 .............................................2-8
그림 2-8 탄성체의 방사선 조사 내성 ..........................................................................................2-9
그림 3-1 유체 윤활 .....................................................................................................................3-2
그림 3-2 탄성 유체 윤활 .............................................................................................................3-2
그림 3-3 경계 윤활(조도 세분화) ................................................................................................3-3
그림 3-4 물리적 흡착 막 – 비극성 분자 ....................................................................................3-4
그림 3-5 물리적 흡착 막 – 극성 분자 ........................................................................................3-4
그림 3-6 화학적 흡착 막 .............................................................................................................3-5
그림 3-7다양한 변수가 마찰 계수에 미치는 영향 .......................................................................3-5
그림 3-8 가공 표면 .....................................................................................................................3-6
그림 3-9 부식 마모의 예 .............................................................................................................3-9
그림 3-10 찰과 부식의 예 .........................................................................................................3-10
그림 3-11 전기적 방전의 예 .....................................................................................................3-11
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그림 3-12 전식의 예 ................................................................................................................. 3-11
그림 3-13 표면 피로의 예 .........................................................................................................3-12
그림 3-14 연삭 마모의 예 .........................................................................................................3-13
그림 3-15 가벼운 응착의 예 .....................................................................................................3-14
그림 4-1 그리스와 여러 Gel화제 혼합물의 적합성 .....................................................................4-4
그림 4-2 시간/온도/방사선 조사의 상호 작용 .............................................................................4-7
그림 5-1 오일 점도 측정계 .........................................................................................................5-4
그림 5-2 압지 시험의 예 .............................................................................................................5-5
그림 5-3 마모 입자 크기/농도 및 기계 상태 ................................................................................5-8
그림 5-4 마모 및 기타 입자 검출 ................................................................................................5-9
그림 5-5 TGA 설정 ...................................................................................................................5-15
그림 5-6 DSC 장치...................................................................................................................5-15
그림 5-7 Fluitec RULER측정기 ................................................................................................5-16
그림 5-8 3가지 첨가제 및 전압-전류(RULER) 응답의 예 .........................................................5-18
그림 5-9 신품 오일과 사용 중 터빈 오일의 전압-전류(RULER) 그래프 ....................................5-19
그림 5-10 신품 및 중고품 오일의 크로마토그래프 ...................................................................5-20
그림 5-11 윤활유 특성의 도시 예 .............................................................................................5-22
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표 목록
표 1-1 오일 및 그리스의 요구 기준.............................................................................................1-1
표 1-2 American Petroleum Institute의 기유 분류 ......................................................................1-2
표 1-3 PAO 합성 기유 및 여러 광물성 기유의 특성 비교 ...........................................................1-3
표 1-4 일반적 윤활유 첨가제......................................................................................................1-4
표 1-5 합성 기유 및 응용 ............................................................................................................1-8
표 2-1 일반 오일에 대한 방사선 조사의 영향 .............................................................................2-7
표 2-2 일반 그리스에 대한 방사선 조사의 영향..........................................................................2-7
표 2-3 일반 오일 및 그리스에 대한 탄성체의 내성 .....................................................................2-8
표 4-1 그리스의 적합성 ..............................................................................................................4-3
표 4-2 그리스 적합성 시험 .........................................................................................................4-5
표 5-1 윤활유 시험 순서 .............................................................................................................5-2
표 5-2 IR 피크 관심 영역 ............................................................................................................5-6
표 5-3 윤활유 내 금속 발생 원인 ................................................................................................5-7
표 5-4 마모 및 원인 ..................................................................................................................5-10
표 5-5 입자 개수에 대한 범위 수 ..............................................................................................5-11
표 5-6 주요 윤활유 시험 ...........................................................................................................5-13
표 5-7 윤활유 사용 시 일반적 주의 한도 ..................................................................................5-23
표 A-1 터빈 오일: ISO 점도 등급 32, 46, 68.............................................................................. A-1
표 A-2 대형 디젤 엔진 오일 ....................................................................................................... A-2
표 A-3 저압 유압 작동유: ISO 점도 등급 32, 46, 68, 100 .......................................................... A-3
표 A-4 고압 유압 작동유: ISO 점도 등급 32, 46, 68, 100 .......................................................... A-4
표 A-5 압축기 오일.................................................................................................................... A-5
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표 A-6 고부하 극압: EP 기어 윤활유 ......................................................................................... A-6
표 A-7 개방 기어 윤활유............................................................................................................ A-7
표 A-8 내소부성 화합물............................................................................................................. A-8
표 A-9 Limitorque 밸브 구동기 윤활유 ...................................................................................... A-9
표 A-10 내화 수력 유체 ........................................................................................................... A-10
표 A-11 범용 그리스 - 등급 00, 0, 1, 2, 3 ................................................................................ A-11
표 A-12 커플링 그리스 ............................................................................................................ A-12
표 A-13 그리스 종류 및 성능 ................................................................................................... A-13
표 B-1 점도 등가표.................................................................................................................... B-4
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Centro de Aplicaciones de
Mantenimiento para Centrales
Nucleares: guía de lubricación,
revisión 4 (anteriormente 1003085)
1019518
Informe definitivo, diciembre de 2009
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RESUMEN DEL INFORME
En las centrales nucleares se utiliza un gran número de lubricantes para distintos propósitos, por
lo que el personal de mantenimiento necesita directrices precisas para seleccionar el lubricante
adecuado para cada aplicación específica. Además, es necesario contar con conocimientos
específicos sobre las características de los lubricantes con el fin de determinar su aplicabilidad.
Antecedentes
En el pasado, este informe sobre lubricación proporcionó información de utilidad para el
personal encargado de esta área de la operación y el mantenimiento en las centrales nucleares. La
revisión de la Lubrication Guide (Guía de lubricación) incorpora los cambios experimentados
por el sector de la lubricación, incluida la consolidación y retirada de diversas líneas de
productos y aplicaciones. Como ya se hiciera en la revisión 2, se han incluido también los temas
abordados en el informe del Instituto de Investigación de Energía Eléctrica de los EE.UU.
(EPRI) Radiation Effects on Lubricants (Efectos de la radiación sobre los lubricantes) (NP-
4735).
Objetivos
• Proporcionarle directrices generales al personal encargado de los lubricantes en las centrales
• Ofrecer información sobre los aceites y grasas disponibles en la actualidad y sus limitaciones
de operación en diferentes aplicaciones de planta
• Incluir referencias a otros informes de EPRI relacionados con la lubricación
Resultados
Este informe aborda aspectos relacionados con los lubricantes, la lubricación, las pruebas de
lubricación, la fricción y el desgaste, e incluye secciones sobre principios básicos de lubricación,
problemas de aplicación, pruebas y análisis. El documento también incorpora tablas sobre los
perfiles de cada categoría de utilización, los lubricantes para aplicaciones específicas, así como
las tolerancias a la temperatura y radiación de dichos lubricantes. Asimismo, el informe
proporciona un glosario de términos técnicos y directrices para seleccionar el lubricante
adecuado para cada aplicación específica, además de ofrecer información para poder determinar
la vida útil restante de los lubricantes, aspecto este que puede ayudar a reducir cambios de
lubricantes costosos e innecesarios.
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Enfoque
Durante la elaboración del informe se reunió un grupo de asesoramiento técnico (GAT)
integrado por ingenieros de empresas eléctricas que ayudó en la revisión del mismo. El GAT
identificó numerosas áreas que debían actualizarse, incluidos los métodos de prueba, los estudios
de compatibilidad y los cambios en las líneas de lubricantes (Anexo A). Además, se incluyó un
nuevo capítulo con alusiones a los estudios sobre lubricación para aplicaciones específicas
publicados por EPRI con el objetivo de proporcionar un punto de referencia rápida.
La perspectiva de EPRI
El personal de mantenimiento necesita contar con conocimientos de lubricación para poder
desarrollar sus trabajos diarios en la central. Este informe proporciona una cantidad significativa
de información concisa sobre las propiedades de los lubricantes más comunes, lo que resulta de
utilidad para seleccionar lubricantes compatibles y adecuados, contribuyendo así a evitar paradas
o situaciones de mantenimiento no programadas. La información contenida en este informe
puede resultar útil a los instructores de formación y a aquellos individuos que estén
familiarizándose con las tecnologías de lubricación. Esta revisión de la Lubrication Guide (Guía
de lubricación) incorpora los cambios experimentados por el sector de la lubricación, incluida la
consolidación y retirada de diversas líneas de productos y aplicaciones.
Palabras clave
Lubricantes
Lubricación
Ingeniería de planta
Mantenimiento de planta
Operaciones de planta
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RESUMEN
El presente informe proporciona información sobre lubricantes de muchas marcas que pueden
utilizar las centrales nucleares para distintas aplicaciones, además de proponer límites de
operación relativos a la temperatura y dosis de radiación. El informe también aborda principios
básicos sobre cómo funcionan los lubricantes, cómo se ven afectados por la radiación y cómo se
relaciona esto con su composición. Otros temas fundamentales relacionados con el
mantenimiento que trata el informe son la fricción y el desgaste, así como los efectos de la
tensión sobre los lubricantes, su vida útil, su compatibilidad, la identificación y resolución de
problemas asociados con ellos y las pruebas para su control. La sección sobre pruebas ha
recibido una atención particular con la incorporación de varios nuevos métodos en este informe,
que está destinado sobre todo al personal de ingeniería y mantenimiento de planta.
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ÍNDICE
1 LUBRICANTES: Qué son y cómo funcionan .........................................................................1-1

1.1Aceites de base................................................................................................................1-1
1.2Mediciones clave..............................................................................................................1-3
1.3Aditivos.............................................................................................................................1-4
1.3.1Mejoradores VI .........................................................................................................1-5
1.3.2Detergentes/Dispersantes ........................................................................................1-5
1.3.3Compuestos metálicos básicos ................................................................................1-5
1.3.4Aditivos antidesgaste y antirroce (presión extrema).................................................1-5
1.3.5Antioxidantes ............................................................................................................1-6
1.3.6Inhibidores del óxido y antiespumantes ...................................................................1-7
1.3.7Agentes gelificantes .................................................................................................1-7
1.4Lubricantes sintéticos ......................................................................................................1-7
2 EFECTOS DE LA RADIACIÓN SOBRE LUBRICANTES Y ELASTÓMEROS .....................2-1

2.1Efectos sobre los lubricantes ...........................................................................................2-1
2.2Efectos sobre los elastómeros .........................................................................................2-7
3 LUBRICACIÓN, FRICCIÓN Y DESGASTE ...........................................................................3-1

3.1Lubricación hidrodinámica................................................................................................3-1
3.2Lubricación elastohidrodinámica ......................................................................................3-2
3.3Lubricación límite .............................................................................................................3-3
3.3.1Película absorbida físicamente.................................................................................3-3
3.3.2Película absorbida químicamente ............................................................................3-4
3.3.3Película de reacción química....................................................................................3-5
3.4Lubricantes sólidos...........................................................................................................3-6
3.5Naturaleza de las superficies mecanizadas .....................................................................3-6
3.6Fricción y desgaste ..........................................................................................................3-7
3.6.1Desgaste por fricción................................................................................................3-7
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3.6.2Mecanismos de desgaste.........................................................................................3-8
3.6.2.1 Corrosión (por humedad y fricción) ...............................................................3-8
3.6.2.2 Erosión eléctrica..........................................................................................3-10
3.6.2.3 Fatiga ..........................................................................................................3-12
3.6.2.4 Deformación plástica ..................................................................................3-13
3.6.2.5 Desgaste abrasivo y adhesivo ....................................................................3-13
4 SELECCIÓN DE LUBRICANTES Y PROBLEMAS DE APLICACIÓN..................................4-1

4.1Cómo seleccionar un lubricante para un nuevo equipo ...................................................4-1
4.2Compatibilidad de productos mezclados..........................................................................4-1
4.2.1Aceites......................................................................................................................4-2
4.2.2Grasas ......................................................................................................................4-2
4.3Vida útil ............................................................................................................................4-6
4.4Consideraciones de tiempo, temperatura y radiación ......................................................4-7
4.5............................ Comparación entre la utilización continua e intermitente del lubricante y el
rendimiento de este...............................................................................................................4-8
5 PRUEBAS Y ANÁLISIS .........................................................................................................5-1

5.1Muestreo ..........................................................................................................................5-1
5.2Identificación y resolución de problemas .........................................................................5-2
5.3Pruebas en lubricantes.....................................................................................................5-2
5.3.1Pruebas sensoriales .................................................................................................5-3
5.3.2Otras pruebas simples..............................................................................................5-3
5.3.3Pruebas diagnósticas de laboratorio ........................................................................5-5
5.3.4Pruebas estándar de laboratorio ............................................................................5-12
5.3.5Métodos de prueba analíticos ................................................................................5-14
5.4Utilización de los resultados de las pruebas ..................................................................5-20
5.5Determinación de tendencias.........................................................................................5-21
5.6Límites de aviso .............................................................................................................5-22
5.7Consideraciones sobre limpieza ....................................................................................5-24
6 RECURSOS DE LUBRICACIÓN ...........................................................................................6-1

6.1Boletín de Notas sobre Lubricación de NMAC.................................................................6-1
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6.2Soporte técnico de EPRI ..................................................................................................6-1

6.3Publicaciones sobre lubricación de EPRI.........................................................................6-2
6.3.1 Lube Oil Predictive Maintenance, Handling, and Quality Assurance Guideline
(Directrices sobre mantenimiento predictivo, manipulación y garantía de calidad de
aceites de lubricación) (1004384) 6-2
6.3.2 Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Turbine Oil Compatibility (Centro de
Aplicaciones de Mantenimiento para Centrales Nucleares: compatibilidad de aceites de
turbina) (1016272) 6-2
6.3.3 Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Lube Notes Compilation, 1989–2007
(Centro de Aplicaciones de Mantenimiento para Centrales Nucleares: compilación de las
Notas sobre Lubricación del periodo 1989-2007) (1015254) 6-2
6.3.4 Turbine Oil Lubrication Compatibility Testing (Pruebas de compatibilidad de aceites
de lubricación de turbinas) (1011028) 6-3
Recirculation Pump Motor Lubrication Oil Systems Maintenance Guide (Centro de
Aplicaciones de Mantenimiento para Centrales Nucleares: guía de mantenimiento de
sistemas de aceite de lubricación de los motores en bombas de recirculación y
refrigerante del reactor) (1013456) 6-3
6.3.6 Turbine-Generator Auxiliary Systems, Volume 1: Turbine-Generator Lubrication
System Maintenance Guide (Sistemas auxiliares de grupos turbo-generadores, volumen
1: guía de mantenimiento de sistemas de lubricación de grupos turbo-generadores)
(1010191). 6-3
6.3.7 Effective Practical Grease Practices (Prácticas de lubricación eficaces) (1020247)
6-4
6.3.8 Oil Lubrication for Rotating Equipment—Guide (Guía de aceites de lubricación para
equipos rotatorios) (1019517) 6-4
(Evaluación del funcionamiento y la condición de los lubricantes en válvulas motorizadas)
(1009609) 6-4
6.3.10 EPRI Motor-Operated Valve Performance Prediction Program: Stem/ Stem Nut
Lubrication Test Report (Programa de EPRI para la predicción del funcionamiento de
válvulas motorizadas: informe de pruebas de lubricación de tuercas vástago/vástago)
(TR-102135) 6-4
6.3.11 Comparative Analysis of Polyrex EM and SRI Greases for Use in EQ Motor
Bearings (Análisis comparativo de las grasas EM y SRI de Polyrex para su utilización en
cojinetes de motores de cualificación medioambiental) (1011946) 6-5
6.3.12 MOV Long Life Grease—Evaluation for Limitorque Limit Switch Gearboxes: Used
in Nuclear Safety Related Applications (Grasa MOV Long Life: evaluación para
engranajes de interruptores de final de carrera Limitorque utilizados en aplicaciones
relacionadas con la seguridad nuclear) (1010058) 6-5
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6.3.13 Comparative Analysis of Nebula and MOV Long Life Greases for Limitorque Main
Gearbox Applications (Análisis comparativo entre las grasas Nebula y MOV Long Life
para aplicaciones de engranajes principales Limitorque) (1003483) 6-5
6.4 Otros recursos del sector ...............................................................................................6-6
7 REFERENCIAS ......................................................................................................................7-1
A TABLAS DE PROPIEDADES DE LOS LUBRICANTES...................................................... A-1
B GLOSARIO ........................................................................................................................... B-1
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LISTA DE FIGURAS
Figure 1-1 Efecto de los aditivos antidesgaste y antirroce ........................................................1-6

Figura 1-2 Proceso de oxidación de los hidrocarburos..............................................................1-6
Figura 2-1 Niveles de dosis asociados con los efectos de la radiación.....................................2-2
Figura 2-2 Interacción entre los fotones gamma y la materia orgánica .....................................2-2
Figura 2-3 Límites máximos de las dosis de radiación que provocan fallos en distintos
fluidos de base .........................................................................................................2-3
Figura 2-4 Efectos de la radiólisis sobre una grasa de complejo de litio gelificado con
base de aceite mineral .............................................................................................2-4
Figura 2-5 Estabilidad de la oxidación relativa de los aceites de turbinas de vapor con
bases de aceite mineral en las pruebas de estabilidad de los aceites de
turbina ......................................................................................................................2-5
Figura 2-6 Efecto de la temperatura y la irradiación sobre la vida útil de una grasa con
base de aceite mineral espesada con sales de sodio en un cojinete ......................2-6
Figure 2-7 Sensibilidad relativa de los lubricantes y elastómeros comunes a la
irradiación.................................................................................................................2-8
Figura 2-8 Resistencia de los elastómeros a la irradiación .......................................................2-9
Figura 3-1 Lubricación hidrodinámica........................................................................................3-2
Figura 3-2 Lubricación elastohidrodinámica ..............................................................................3-2
Figura 3-3 Lubricación límite (rugosidad fragmentada) .............................................................3-3
Figura 3-4 Representación de películas absorbidas físicamente (moléculas no polares) .........3-4
Figura 3-5 Películas absorbidas físicamente (moléculas polares).............................................3-4
Figura 3-6 Película absorbida químicamente ............................................................................3-5
Figura 3-7 Efectos de distintos parámetros sobre el coeficiente de fricción ..............................3-5
Figura 3-8 Superficie mecanizada .............................................................................................3-6
Figura 3-9 Ejemplo de desgaste por corrosión ..........................................................................3-9
Figura 3-10 Ejemplo de corrosión por frotamiento...................................................................3-10
Figura 3-11 Ejemplo de descarga eléctrica .............................................................................3-11
Figura 3-12 Ejemplo de erosión eléctrica ................................................................................3-11
Figura 3-13 Ejemplo de fatiga de superficie ............................................................................3-12
Figura 3-14 Ejemplo de desgaste abrasivo .............................................................................3-13
Figura 3-15 Ejemplo de adhesión leve ....................................................................................3-14
Figura 4-1 Compatibilidad de mezclas de grasas con diferentes agentes gelificantes..............4-4
Figura 4-2 Interacción entre tiempo, temperatura y radiación ...................................................4-7
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Figura 5-1 Galga para medir la viscosidad de los aceites .........................................................5-4

Figura 5-2 Prueba del punto en papel secante de muestra.......................................................5-5
Figura 5-3 Tamaño/Concentración y condición de mecanizado de las partículas de
desgaste...................................................................................................................5-8
Figura 5-4 Detección de partículas de desgaste y de otra índole..............................................5-9
Figura 5-5 Configuración de un análisis termogravimétrico.....................................................5-15
Figura 5-6 Aparato de calorimetría por exploración diferencial ...............................................5-15
Figura 5-7 Instrumento RULER de Fluitec...............................................................................5-16
Figura 5-8 Ejemplo de tres aditivos y su respuesta voltamétrica (RULER) .............................5-18
Figura 5-9 Gráfica voltamétrica (RULER) que muestra la comparación entre un aceite de
turbina nuevo y otro en servicio .............................................................................5-19
Figura 5-10 Cromatografías de aceites de engranajes nuevos y usados................................5-20
Figura 5-11 Representación de muestra de las propiedades de los lubricantes .....................5-22
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LISTA DE TABLAS
Tabla 1-1 Requisitos de los aceites y las grasas ..................................................................1-1

Tabla 1-2 Categorías de aceites de base del Instituto Estadounidense del Petróleo
(American Petroleum Institute)..............................................................................1-2
Tabla 1-3 Comparativa de las propiedades del aceite con base sintética PAO y otros
aceites de base mineral ........................................................................................1-3
Tabla 1-4 Aditivos comunes en varios lubricantes ................................................................1-4
Tabla 1-5 Aceites con bases sintéticas y sus aplicaciones ...................................................1-8
Tabla 2-1 Efectos de la irradiación sobre los aceites comunes ............................................2-7
Tabla 2-2 Efectos de la irradiación sobre las grasas comunes .............................................2-7
Tabla 2-3 Resistencia de los elastómeros a los efectos de los aceites y las grasas
comunes................................................................................................................2-8
Tabla 4-1 Compatibilidad de las grasas ................................................................................4-3
Tabla 4-2 Pruebas de compatibilidad en grasas ...................................................................4-5
Tabla 5-1 Secuencia de las pruebas en lubricantes..............................................................5-2
Tabla 5-2 Regiones pico de IR de interés .............................................................................5-6
Tabla 5-3 Secuencia de pruebas en lubricantes ...................................................................5-7
Tabla 5-4 El desgaste y sus causas....................................................................................5-10
Tabla 5-5 Intervalos de conteo de partículas ......................................................................5-11
Tabla 5-6 Pruebas clave para lubricantes ...........................................................................5-13
Tabla 5-7 Límites de aviso ordinarios para algunas aplicaciones de los lubricantes ..........5-23
Tabla A-1 Aceites de turbina: grados de viscosidad ISO 32, 46 y 68................................... A-1
Tabla A-2 Aceites de motor para generadores diésel grandes............................................. A-2
Tabla A-3 Aceite hidráulico de baja presión: grados de viscosidad ISO 32, 46, 68 y
100 ....................................................................................................................... A-3
Tabla A-4 Aceite hidráulico de alta presión: grados de viscosidad ISO 32, 46, 68 y
100 ....................................................................................................................... A-4
Tabla A-5 Aceites de compresor........................................................................................... A-5
Tabla A-6 Presión extrema con carga alta: lubricantes de engranajes con presión
extrema ................................................................................................................ A-6
Tabla A-7 Lubricantes de engranajes abiertos ..................................................................... A-7
Tabla A-8 Compuestos antiagarrotamiento .......................................................................... A-8
Tabla A-9 Lubricantes de actuadores de válvulas Limitorque .............................................. A-9
Tabla A-10 Fluidos hidráulicos ignífugos .............................................................................. A-10
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Tabla A-11 Grasas para propósitos generales: grados 00, 0, 1, 2 y 3 ................................. A-11
Tabla A-12 Grasas para acoplamientos ............................................................................... A-12
Tabla A-13 Tipos de grasas y su rendimiento ...................................................................... A-13
Tabla B-1 Equivalentes de viscosidad .................................................................................. B-4
C-77
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Program:
Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center
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Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center - Lubrication Guide - Revision 4 - Formerly 1003085

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Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center:

Lubrication Guide, Revision 4 (Formerly 1003085)

Final Report, December 2009

EPRI Project Manager

ELECTRIC POWER RESEARCH INSTITUTE

(A) MAKES ANY WARRANTY OR REPRESENTATION WHATSOEVER, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, (I)

(B) ASSUMES RESPONSIBILITY FOR ANY DAMAGES OR OTHER LIABILITY WHATSOEVER

ORGANIZATION(S) THAT PREPARED THIS DOCUMENT

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

J. Howard Adams, PhD

This report was prepared by

Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)

J. Howard Adams, PhD

This report describes research sponsored by EPRI.

Nuclear Maintenance Applications Center: Lubrication Guide, Revision 4 (Formerly 1003085).

Kurt Bittner PSEG

Jacques Langlois Hydro-Quebec

David Anderson Tennessee Valley Authority

Norma Bihl Dominion

Dave Efron Pacific Gas and Electric

Chesley Brown Luminent

Larry Hopkins Omaha Public Power District

Glenn Langdon Constellation Energy Group

George Staniewski Ontario Power Generation

Roger Sagmoe Xcel Energy

Ludwig Burkle Oak Ridge National Laboratory

Steve Lemberger American Electric Power

2 RADIATION EFFECTS ON LUBRICANTS AND ELASTOMERS ......................................... 2-1

3 LUBRICATION, FRICTION, AND WEAR .............................................................................. 3-1

4 LUBRICANT SELECTION AND APPLICATION PROBLEMS .............................................. 4-1

5 TESTS AND ANALYSES ....................................................................................................... 5-1

6 LUBRICATION RESOURCES ............................................................................................... 6-1

A LUBRICANT PROPERTY TABLES ..................................................................................... A-1

B GLOSSARY .......................................................................................................................... B-1

C TRANSLATED TABLE OF CONTENTS .............................................................................. C-1

繁體中文 (Chinese – Traditional).......................................................................................... C-2

简体中文 (Chinese – Simplified) .......................................................................................... C-15

Français (French) ............................................................................................................... C-28

日本語 (Japanese).............................................................................................................. C-39

한국어 (Korean).................................................................................................................. C-52

Table 1-1 Oil and grease requirements ..................................................................................... 1-1

Properties Oils Greases

Prevent metal/metal contact x x

Act as a hydraulic medium x

Carry away contaminants x

Protect against corrosion x x

Protect against deposits x x

1.1 Base Oils

Base Oil Sulfur % Saturates % Viscosity Refining Method

Group I >300 ppm <90 80–119 Solvent refined/solvent

Group IV All NA Synthetic

Mineral Oils Mineral Oils Mineral Oils PAO

Viscosity, 40°C, cSt 32 44 39 32

VI 95 102 135 136

Pour point, °C -15 -15 -20 -66

Fire point, °C 240 — — 272

Aniline point, °C 108 115 127 127

* American Petroleum Institute base stock classification

1.2 Key Measurements

λ = viscosity in cSt at 40°C – viscosity in cSt at 100°C

Common Engine Oils Turbine Hydraulic Gear Compressor Greases

Antiscuff (extreme x x (Note)

Detergents/dispersants keep any deposit precursors in suspension instead of agglomerating to