A preliminary comparison of the mechanical

properties of chemically cured and
ultrasonically cured glass ionomer cements,
using nano-indentation techniques.
Towler MR, Bushby AJ, Billington RW, Hill RG.

Department of Materials Science and Technology, University of Limerick, Plassey Park,

Ireland. mark.towler@ul.ie

Abstract
There is a requirement for a dental cement with properties comparable or superior to
conventional glass ionomer cements (GICs) but with the command set properties of the
resin-modified GICs. The objective of this work was to show that the application of
ultrasound to conventional Fuji IX commercial glass ionomer cement imparts a command
set, whilst improving the short-term surface mechanical properties. Nano-indentation
techniques were employed to highlight the improvements in hardness and creep resistance
imparted to the cement through the application of ultrasound. The instant set imparted by
the application of ultrasound provides improved surface hardness and creep, particularly
within the first 24 h after setting. The surface hardness of the chemically cured Fuji IX (176
M Pa) increased by an order of magnitude when set ultrasonically (2620 M Pa), whilst creep
reduced to a negligible amount. Rapid setting allows for shorter chair time and an improved
clinical technique, making restorations more convenient for both the patient and clinician.

 Response to thermal stimuli of glass ionomer

cements.
 

Yan Z, Sidhu SK, Carrick TE, McCabe JF.

Source
School of Dental Sciences, University of Newcastle, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon
Tyne NE2 4BW, United Kingdom. Zhuoqun.Yan@ncl.ac.uk

Abstract
OBJECTIVES:
This study was designed to determine the dimensional changes of glass ionomers caused
by thermal stimuli under both dry and wet conditions.

METHODS:
Eight cylindrical specimens (6 mm x 4 mm) were made (using a stainless steel mold) of
each of the following materials: a conventional luting glass ionomer, two high viscosity
restorative glass ionomers, a resin-modified glass ionomer and a resin composite which
was used as a control. The thermal expansion characteristics were determined by a thermal
mechanical analyzer (TMA) under wet and dry conditions by heating the samples from 25 to
70 degrees C at 10 degrees C min (-1).

RESULTS:
All materials showed contraction on heating in dry ambient conditions. In wet conditions, all
glass ionomers maintained their original dimensions on heating, but the resin-modified glass
ionomer expanded. The resin composite showed expansion in both wet and dry conditions.
The results are explained in terms of the opposing effects of thermal expansion and
desiccation on heating.

SIGNIFICANCE:
Under wet conditions glass ionomers maintain their original dimensions when heated. This
kind of behavior may be considered as ‘smart’ behavio

 Influence of ultrasonic setting on tensile bond

strength of glass-ionomer cements to dentin.
Fagundes TC, Barata TJ, Bresciani E, Cefaly DF, Carvalho CA, Navarro MF.

Department of Operative Dentistry, Bauru School of Dentistry, University of São Paulo,

Brazil.

 
Abstract
PURPOSE:
The aim of this study was to evaluate the influence of ultrasonic treatment on the bond
strength of glass-ionomer cements to dentin.

MATERIALS AND METHODS:

Conventional (Fuji II: a; Ketac-Fil Plus: b), resin-modified (Fuji II LC Improved: c; Photac-Fil
Quick Aplicap: d), and more viscous conventional (Ketac Molar: e) glass-ionomer cements
were tested. Fifty human molars were sectioned mesiodistally, embedded in epoxy resin
with exposed buccal or lingual surfaces, and ground to obtain a flat dentin surface. A matrix
with a central orifice in the shape of an inverted truncated cone was built with a bovine tooth
and positioned on the dentin surface. In the control groups, the materials were inserted into
the matrix. In the test groups, the ultrasonic treatment was applied to the surface of the
matrix and the surface of the glass-ionomer cements. The specimens were stored in
deionized water for 24 h at 37 degrees C and subjected to bond strength tests. Data were
analyzed using two-way ANOVA and Tukey’s tests.

RESULTS:
The mean bond strengths in MPa for the control groups were: a: 2.21, b: 1.85, c: 8.65, d:
5.93, and e: 2.10. The results for the test groups were: a: 3.33, b: 2.19, c: 9.95, d: 6.10, and
e: 2.65. Ultrasonic treatment statistically increased the tensile bond strength of all tested
cements (p < 0.05).

CONCLUSION:
Ultrasonic treatment improved the bond strength of the glass-ionomer cements to dentin
after 24 h.

The effects of heat treatment on selected

properties of a conventional and a resin-
modified glass ionomer cement.
Rafeek RN.

Source
School of Dentistry, Faculty of Medical Sciences, The University of the West Indies, Mount
Hope, St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago. rrafeek@fms.uwi.tt

Abstract
This study investigated the effects of application of heat alone and heat & pressure on the
compressive strength and modulus, the stress relaxation characteristics and the fluoride
release of a conventional and a resin-modified glass ionomer cement. Cylindrical
specimens were made from both materials and divided into 3 groups. One group was heat
treated in an oven at 120 degrees C for 20 min, another group was subjected to heat &
pressure at 120 degrees C for 20 min at 6-bar pressure. The third group acted as a control.
The compressive strength and modulus, stress relaxation and fluoride release were tested
over 56 days. The results of this investigation indicate that heat treatment had no significant
effect on the conventional GIC used but significantly affected the resin modified GIC by
increasing both the compressive strength and modulus and reducing the stress relaxation
characteristics and the fluoride release. The use of GIC to produce inlay or onlay
restorations that adhere to tooth tissue and release fluoride would be highly desirable. The
results of this study indicate that it is possible to improve the strength of RMGIC with heat to
a limited extent, but fluoride release may decrease.

Heat-treated glass ionomer cement fissure

sealants: retention after 1 year follow-up.
 

Skrinjaric K, Vranic DN, Glavina D, Skrinjaric I.

Source
Department of Paediatric Dentistry, School of Dental Medicine, University of Zagreb,
Zagreb, Croatia. kristina.skrinjaric@zg.t-com.hr

Abstract
OBJECTIVE:
The aim of this study was to assess the retention rate of glass ionomer cement (GIC)
fissure sealants heated during setting time.
METHODS:
One hundred and twelve teeth with well-delineated fissure morphology were sealed with
composite resin and GIC. Composite resin (Helioseal F, Vivadent) was used in control
group A (56 teeth). GIC (Fuji VII, GC) was applied using split-mouth design with
conditioning in group B (26 teeth) and without surface conditioning in group C (30 teeth).
GIC was heated with external heat source (Elipar Trilight, Espe) for 40 s during the setting
time according to the manufacturer’s instructions. Fissure sealants were evaluated 1 year
after clinical service.

RESULTS:
Retention rate in group A was 80.4% after 1 year of clinical service. Group B showed
retention rate of 30.8%, and group C of 26.7%. Two new caries lesions were detected in
groups B and C. Significant differences in retention between the composite group and GIC
groups were obtained by Kruskal-Wallis and Mann-Whitney tests.

CONCLUSION:
It could be concluded that retention rate of GIC sealing treated with heat during setting time
was significantly lower than retention of conventional composite resin. The heating
procedure during setting of GIC sealants cannot be recommended as routine treatment in
clinical practice.

Effect of ultrasound on the setting

characteristics of glass ionomer cements
studied by Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy.
 

Talal A, Tanner KE, Billington R, Pearson GJ.

Department of Materials, Queen Mary University of London, London, E1 4NS, UK.

atalal@eng.gla.ac.uk

Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of ultrasound (US) application, US staring time and
US duration on the setting of glass ionomer cement (GIC) by using Attenuated Total
Reflectance Fourier Transform Infrared (ATR/FTIR) spectrometer.
METHODS: Two conventional GICs, Fuji IX Fast and Ketac Molar were studied. US
application was started at 30 s or 40 s after mixing and was applied for times between 15
and 55 s on samples of two different thicknesses. The samples were analysed using
ATR/FTIR.
RESULTS: US accelerated the curing process in both cements, US needed to be applied
for more than 15 s. Both Fuji IX and Ketac Molar showed increased setting on increasing
the US application duration from 15 s to 55 s. Increased setting of the GICs was produced
when US application started 40 s after mixing rather than 30 s after mixing.
CONCLUSIONS: The significant findings of the study include that US application
accelerated the setting processes, by accelerating the formation of the acid salts. The salt
formation increased with increase time of US application. The effect of application of US to
setting GICs is influenced by time of the start of application of the US. The effects appear to
material specific, with Ketac Molar showing a greater effect than Fuji IX.
 Kinetics of fluoride ion release from dental
restorative glass ionomer cements: the
influence of ultrasound, radiant heat and glass
composition.
Thanjal NK, Billington RW, Shahid S, Luo J, Hill RG, Pearson GJ.

Source
Department of Dental Physical Sciences, Barts and London School of Medicine and
Dentistry, Francis Bancroft Building, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End, London,
E1 4NS, UK.

Abstract
To compare the effect of ultrasonic setting with self curing on fluoride release from
conventional and experimental dental glass ionomer cements. To compare hand mixed and
capsule mixing and the effect of replacing some of the reactive glass with zirconia. In a
novel material which advocated using radiant heat to cure it, to compare the effect of this
with ultrasound. To evaluate the effect of ultrasound on a glass ionomer with fluoride in the
water but not in the glass. 10 samples of each cement were ultrasonically set for 55 s; 10
controls self cured for 6 min. Each was placed in 10 ml of deionised water which was
changed at 1, 3, 7, 14, 21, 28 days. The solution fluoride content was measured using a
selective ion electrode. All ultrasound samples released more fluoride than the controls.
Release patterns were similar; after a few days, cumulative fluoride was linear with respect
to t(1/2). Slope and intercept of linear regression plots increased with ultrasound. With
radiant heat the cement released less fluoride than controls. The effect of ultrasound on
cement with F in water increased only slope not intercept. Zirconia addition enhances
fluoride release although the cement fluorine content is reduced. Comparison of capsule
and hand mixing showed no consistent effect on fluoride release. Ultrasound enhances
fluoride release from GICs. As heat has an opposite effect the heat from ultrasound is not
its only action. The lesser effect on cement with fluoride only in the water indicates that of
ultrasound enhances fluoride release from glass.

Extrinsic energy sources affect hardness

through depth during set of a glass-ionomer
cement.
 

O’Brien T, Shoja-Assadi F, Lea SC, Burke FJ, Palin WM.

Biomaterials Unit, School of Dentistry, College of Medical and Dental Sciences, University
of Birmingham, St Chads Queensway, Birmingham B4 6NN, UK.

Abstract
OBJECTIVE: To investigate the effect of various energy sources on the upper and lower
surface hardness of a setting glass ionomer with various thicknesses.
METHOD: Cylindrical specimens (4 mm diameter by 1, 2 or 4 mm thickness) of a glass-
ionomer cement were prepared with no applied energy source (control), by preheating GIC
capsules in a waterbath prior to mixing, application of light with high irradiance or ultrasonic
excitation with a scaler tip. The upper and lower surface hardness was measured 0.5 h, 4 h
and 1 week following material mixing. The increase in temperature towards the lower
surface of each specimen was monitored throughout the first 5 min of setting.
RESULTS: No significant differences in hardness between upper and lower surfaces or
varying thicknesses were identified for control and preheated samples at any post-mix time
(p>0.05). At 0.5 h post-mix, the upper surface hardness of preheated, light and ultrasonic
treatments was significantly increased compared with that of the control groups. Following 4
h post-mix, the overall hardness of preheated samples was significantly greater (p<0.001)
than other sample groups, which were not statistically different (p=0.684). No significant
differences in hardness between test groups were identified following 1 week (p>0.05).
CONCLUSIONS: Preheating GIC capsules prior to mixing resulted in superior hardness
values through depth up to and including 4 h post-mix compared with specimen surfaces
treated with light irradiation or with an ultrasonic scaler tip.
Copyright 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
PMID: 20302904 [PubMed – indexed for MEDLINE]
1.         J Dent. 2010 Jun;38(6):490-5. Epub 2010 Mar 17.

An in-vitro study to compare the

microhardness of glass ionomer cement set
conventionally versus set under ultrasonic
waves.
Baloch F, Mirza A, Baloch D.

Abstract
OBJECTIVE:
To assess the difference of surface hardness of glass ionomer cement (GIC) set by
conventional setting method and under ultrasonically energized method.

METHOD:
20 cylindrical samples measuring 2.5mm (diameter) and 5mm (length) were prepared with
type IX GIC. Ten of these samples were allowed to set by conventional setting method and
other ten were set under ultrasonic excitation energy. After finishing and polishing of the
samples, three indentations were made on each sample using Vicker’s hardness machine
with a load of 300 gm for 15 seconds. The surface microhardness of the indents was
calculated by Vicker’s hardness formula.
RESULTS:
Surface microhardness of samples set by ultrasound setting method was significantly higher
than samples set by conventional method.

CONCLUSION:
This can be beneficial for the dental patients as when used as a restorative material, it will
have a long lasting effect and can also be used in posterior load bearing areas.

Effect of ultrasonic excitation on the porosity

of glass ionomer cement: a scanning electron
microscope evaluation.
Coldebella CR, Santos-Pinto L, Zuanon AC.

Department of Orthodontics and Pediatric Dentistry, Araraquara Dental School, São Paulo
State University, Rua Humaitá, 14801-903 Araraquara, SP, Brazil.
crcoldebella@yahoo.com.br

Abstract
BACKGROUND:
Ultrasonic excitation (US) was applied to glass ionomer cement (GIC) during early set time
to increase the advantageous properties of this material.

PURPOSE:
The aim of this in vitro study was to assess the inner porosity of GIC after US.

STUDY DESIGN:
A total of 16 specimens, for each material, were prepared from high-viscosity GIC Fuji IX
GP, Ketac Molar, and Ketac Molar Easymix. Half of these specimens (n = 8) received 30 s
of US during the initial cement setting. After completion of the material setting, specimens
were fractured and observed by scanning electronic microscopy to quantitatively assay
porosity inside the material using Image J software.

RESULTS:
Statistical data analysis revealed that US reduced the porosity for all tested materials (P ≤
0.05). The following reductions (expressed in percentages) were achieved: Fuji IX–from
3.9% to 2.8%; Ketac Molar Easy Mix–from 4.4% to 2.6%, and Ketac Molar–from 2.4% to
1.6%.

CONCLUSION:
Under the tested conditions, US was an effective method for porosity reduction inside the
material.

The effect of ultrasound on the uptake of

fluoride by glass ionomer cements.
Shahid S, Billington RW, Hill RG.

Source
Department of Dental Physical Sciences, Barts and The London School of Medicine and
Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, Mile End, London, E1 4NS, UK.
s.shahid@qmul.ac.uk

Abstract
Ultrasound has been shown to improve the set of glass ionomer cements (GICs) and also
other cement properties. In particular, the release of fluoride is enhanced. These cements
also can take up fluoride ion from liquids. The aim of this study is to investigate the effect of
ultrasound on this cement property. Two commercial dental restorative GICs were used
together with a modified commercial material and an experimental material based on a F-
free glass. All three commercial materials came in capsules which were mixed as makers
directed, the experimental material was mixed as in previous papers. Mixed cement was
placed polyethylene moulds to create 3 × 2 mm thick discs. These were either allowed to
standard set for 6 min or set with ultrasound for 55 s. 18 samples were made for each
material/set. Three samples were placed in 4 ml of 0.2% NaF solution for 24 h at 37°C. The
cylinders were removed and the F concentration of the solutions measured by ISE using
TISAB decomplexant. F uptake was determined by difference from the original NaF
concentration. The two conventional GICs showed reductions of 17.4 and 8.5% for
ultrasound compared to standard set whereas the modified material increased by 32.3%
and the experimental one by 20.6%. It is suggested that the effect of ultrasound may
increase the surface area of the residual glass particles in the GIC which would increase F
uptake. In GICs where considerable F ion is released into the cement matrix by the
enhanced reaction caused by ultrasound this may be sufficient to reverse the former effect
producing the reduced uptake observed.

   Ultrasonically set novel NVC-containing

glass-ionomer cements for applications in
restorative dentistry.
Moshaverinia A, Ansari S, Moshaverinia M, Schricker SR, Chee WW.

Advanced Prosthodontics, Craniofacial and Molecular Biology Program, Herman Ostrow

School of Dentistry, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, USA.
moshaver@usc.edu

Abstract
The objective of this study is to investigate the effects of application of ultrasound on the
physical properties of a novel NVC (N-vinylcaprolactam)-containing conventional glass-
ionomer cement (GIC). Experimental GIC (EXP) samples were made from the acrylic acid
(AA)-itaconic acid (IA)-NVC synthesized terpolymer with Fuji IX powder in a 3.6:1 P/L ratio
as recommended by the manufacturer. Specimens were mixed and fabricated at room
temperature and were conditioned in distilled water at 37°C for 1 day up to 4 week.
Ultrasound (US) was applied 20 s after mixing by placing the dental scaler tip on the top of
the cement and applying light hand pressure to ensure the tip remained in contact with
cement without causing any deformation. Vickers hardness was determined using a
microhardness tester. The working and setting times were determined using a Gillmore
needle. Water sorption was also investigated. Commercial Fuji IX was used as control for
comparison (CON). The data obtained for the EXP GIC set through conventional set (CS)
and ultrasonically set (US) were compared with the CON group, using one-way ANOVA and
the Tukey multiple range test at α = 0.05. Not only ultrasonic (US) application accelerated
the curing process of both EXP cement and CON group but also improved the surface
hardness of all the specimens. US set samples showed significantly lower water sorption
values (P < 0.05) due to improved acid-base reaction within the GIC matrix and accelerated
maturation process. According to the statistical analysis of data, significant increase was
observed in the surface hardness properties of CS and US specimens both in EXP samples
and the CON groups. It was concluded that it is possible to command set GICs by the
application of ultrasound, leading to GICs with enhanced physical and handling properties.
US application might be a potential way to broaden the clinical applications of conventional
GICs in restorative dentistry for procedures such as class V cavity restorations.

Influence of ultrasound or halogen light on

microleakage and hardness of enamel
adjacent to glass ionomer cement.
 

Guglielmi CA, Mohana A, Hesse D, Lenzi TL, Bonini GC, Raggio DP.

Source
Department of Orthodontics and Pediatric Dentistry, Faculdade de Odontologia da
Universidade de São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil.

Abstract
BACKGROUND:
The use of external sources of energy may accelerate the setting rate of glass ionomer
cements (GICs) allowing better initial mechanical properties.

AIM:
To investigate the influence of ultrasound and halogen light on the microleakage and
hardness of enamel adjacent to GIC restorations, after artificial caries challenge.

DESIGN:
Cavities were prepared in 60 primary canines, restored with GIC, and randomly distributed
into three groups: control group (CG), light group (LG) – irradiation with a halogen light-
curing unit for 60s, and ultrasonic group (UG) – application of ultrasonic scaler device for
15s. All specimens were then submitted to a cariogenic challenge in a pH cycling model.
Half of sample in each group were immersed in methylene blue for 4h and sectioned for dye
penetration analysis. The remaining specimens were submitted to Knoop cross-sectional
microhardness assessments, and mineral changes were calculated for adjacent enamel.

RESULTS:
Data were compared using Kruskal-Wallis test and two-way ANOVA with 5% significance.
Higher dye penetration was observed for the UG (P<0.01). No significant mineral changes
were observed between groups (P=0.844).

CONCLUSION:
The use of halogen light-curing unit does not seem to interfere with the properties of GICs,
whereas the use of ultrasound can affect its marginal sealing.

   Cervical microleakage in Class II open-

sandwich restorations: an in vitro study.
Fourie J, Smit CF.

Department of Periodontics and Oral Medicine, University of Pretoria, Faculty of Health

Sciences, School of Dentistry. Jeanine.fourie@up.ac.za

Abstract
INTRODUCTION:
The open-sandwich technique was proposed to solve the problem of cervical micro-leakage
of deep Class II composite restorations by making use of the self-adhesive nature of the
glass-ionomers. Recent advances in the properties of this family of materials may continue
to make the technique relevant today.

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES:

The aim of this in vitro study was to determine the effect of thermocycling, cervical position
and the use of different materials on the cervical microleakage of Class II open-sandwich
restorations.

METHODS:
Two hundred standardised Class II cavities with the cervical margins placed in either
enamel (100) or dentine (100) were prepared in 100 extracted human molars. Ketac Molar,
set with ultrasound (US), Ketac Molar, Ketac Nano and Vitremer were used in equal groups
to restore the cervical boxes, while Filtek Z250 was used to complete the restorations and
also provided a control group in which the sandwich technique was not used. One half of
each group was subjected to thermocycling. Microleakage was assessed by measuring the
distance of penetration of basic fuchsin dye along the cervical step.

RESULTS:
The open-sandwich technique significantly (p<0.001) reduced the microleakage otherwise
seen in Filtek Z250 when margins were placed in dentine and thermocycled.

CONCLUSIONS:
The use of an ultrasonically cured glass-ionomer in the open-sandwich resulted in the least
microleakage (after thermocycling) when the cervical margins of Class II restorations were
placed in dentine.