Julio-Claudian 27 BC – 14 Augustus Augustus was the last of the Second Triumvirate.

He transformed Rome from republic to

AD empire following the end of the Battle of Actium (31 BC). He was the first emperor from
the Julio-Claudian Dynasty line. His 40-years rule brought peace (Pax Romana) and
prosperity to the Greco-Roman world. Augustus doubled the size of the empire, adding
territories in Europe and Asia Minor. When he died, the Roman Senate declared him as a
god, like his adoptive father Julius Caesar.
14 – 37 Tiberius Tiberius was a brilliant and among the greatest Roman Emperor. Yet, he was remembered
as a cruel tyrant for killing many Senators in charge of treason. He was believed to murder
his popular nephew, Germanicus. Germanicus had gained popularity following his
campaign in Germania. Thus, fearing of him rebelling, Tiberius was suspected to murder
him. Following the death of his son, Drusus, he went to a self-imposed exile in Capri.
Tiberius delegated the empire in control of his advisor and prefect, Sejanus. Tiberius died in
Capri but it was assumed that Caligula ordered his assassination.
37 – 41 Caligula Caligula was declared co-emperor with Tiberius son, Gemellus. But, he was suspected of
murdering Gemellus and became a sole emperor. His short reign saw him excess Roman
treasury on lavish projects. Among his works is the Baths of Caligula. He planned to invade
Britain and marched his army to the northern shore of Gaul. However, he ordered them to
collect seashells as a spoil of war against the ocean. Caligula also insisted to be treated as a
god and planned to have his statue erected in Jerusalem. His harsh treatment to the Senate
and the nobles led to his assassination by Cassius Chaerea.
41 – 54 Claudius Following his ascension, Claudius executed the murderers of Caligula. His rule saw the
addition of Britannia into the empire, a feat that Julius Caesar had failed to achieve. He
brought relative peace to Rome with the restoration of the rule of law. Manipulated by his
wife Agrippina, Claudius declared his adopted stepson Nero as heir. He also appointed
Seneca to tutor Nero. Claudius died after being poisoned under the order of Agrippina.
54 – 68 Nero Nero was declared emperor when he was 14 years old. During his reign, the Great Fire of
Rome (64 AD) started, and he was believed to be responsible. But, Nero blamed the
Christians and began to persecute them. Nero rebuilt Rome around his Domus Aurea palace
complex. His rule is known for debaucheries and political murders. Among his victims was
his mother and his wives. After the fruitless Pisonian Conspiracy, Nero was declared the
enemy of the state. Soon after, he committed suicide.
68 – 69 AD The demise of Nero brought Roman Empire into a civil war, the first time since the death of
 Mark Antony (30 BC). The social, military, and political upheavals of this period had
Empire-wide repercussions. Among which is the Revolt of the Batavi (69-70 AD) and the
YEAR OF THE FOUR EMPERORS
ongoing First Jewish-Roman War (66-73 AD). Four emperors ruled in in this crisis: Galba,
Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian.
68 – 69 Galba Following the fall of Nero, Galba was named by the Senate as emperor. He broke the
promise he made to his legions that had supported him against Nero. Thus, the legions of
Germania Inferior declare Aulus Vitellus as emperor. Crowned at old age and without
direct successor, he named Piso as an heir. This decision enraged his long-time ally and
supporters Otho whom had hoped to be Galba' heir. Angered Otho bribed the Praetorian
Guards and had Galba and Piso murdered in Roman Forum.
69 Otho Otho rewarded the officials and the troops that had helped him to overthrow Galba. Otho
was aware of the rebelling troops Germania Inferior. But, he thought the legions enmity
was directed at Galba. Otho was wrong and Aulus Vitellus and his legions proceed to
march into Rome. The two armies fought in the Battle of Bedriacum. Suffered a defeat,
Otho decided to commit suicide.
69 Vitellius With the news of Otho's suicide, the Senate recognized Vitellius as emperor. Vitellius was
greedy, and his popularity began to wane. Meanwhile, the legions stationed in Egypt, Judea,
and Syria declared Vespasian as emperor. In the Second Battle of Bedriacum, Vitellius
troops was defeated. The defeated Vitellius then tried to escape Rome. But, he was captured
by troops loyal to Vespasian. Vitellius was brutally murdered before being thrown into the
Tiber River.
69-79 Vespasian Vespasian claimed the imperial power without threat following the murder of Vitellius. His
reign saw Roman Empire regain its political stability and the end of the Year of Four
Emperors. He was the first emperor from the short-lived Flavian Dynasty. His reforms and
consolidation of the empire generated political stability. He also invested a vast Roman
building program. Among which are the Temple of Peace (Templum Pacis) and the
Colosseum.
Flavian 79 – 81 Titus As a military commander, Titus led the Roman troops during the First Roman-Jewish War
(66-73 AD). He captured Jerusalem and burned down the Second Temple. With such track
records, he was assumed to rule with cruelty. But, Titus ruled otherwise and was considered
to be kind-hearted. His reign saw the eruption of Mount Vesuvius (79 AD) that buried
Pompeii, Herculaneum. He died of natural causes and later deified by his brother and
 successor, Domitian.
81 – 96 Domitian Domitian saw the Senate as obsolete and desired the Roman Empire to be governed as a
divine monarchy. He aimed to restore the glory of Roman Empire that as it had been under
Augustus. Thus, he embarked on ambitious economic, military, and political programs. He
believed to be the moral authority of the Romans and ruled them on every aspect of daily
life. Domitian fought against the Chatti (83 AD) and the Dacian (86-88 AD). His absolute
rule ended with his assassination in 96 AD.
A series of emperors that presided over the most majestic days of the Roman Empire. The
five good emperors were Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, Antoninus Pius, and Marcus Aurelius.
THE FIVE GOOD EMPERORS
This period was characterized by succession by adoption and appointment of heirs.
This practice gave emperors the chance to select potential and appropriate heir.
Nerva- 96 – 98 Nerva Nerva was appointed as emperor to keep the Empire from falling into chaos. His ascension
Antonine marked the beginning of the Nerva-Antonine Dynasty. He was also regarded as the first of
the Five Good Emperors. To secure his succession, Nerva adopted and named Trajan in 97
AD. Nerva' reign was short but he brought partial peace to the legions and the Senate. His
reign also saw the foundation of a golden era which Trajan would bring to full fruition.
98 – 117 Trajan Trajan was the first emperor of non-Italian origin as he was born in Spain. Trajan was
remembered to bring the empire to achieve its largest territorial extent. He fought the
revolting Jews in the Kitos War (115-117 AD) and the Dacians in 101-102 AD and 105-106
AD. To commemorate his victory against the Dacians, he constructed the Trajan Column.
Trajan died in Selindus, during his route from Antioch to Rome. Before his demise, Trajan
had adopted and named Hadrian as his successor.
117 – 138 Hadrian As an admirer of Greek civilization, he was the first Roman emperor to be depicted with a
beard. His admiration of Greek culture sought him to make Athens the cultural capital of
the Empire. He was famed to construct the Hadrian Wall that marked the northern limit of
Roman Britannia. He was also remembered for his love affair with the Antinous (110-130
AD) whom he deified after the young man’s death. During his reign, tensions in Judaea
erupted and led to the Bar Kokhba revolt in 132-136 AD.
138 – 161 Antoninus The reign of Antoninus Pius lasted for 23 years and second only in length to Augustus. He
Pius was liked and well-respected by the Senate and commoners. His reign was often regarded
as the most peaceful time in the history of the Principate. He gained his last name, Pius,
from the Roman Senate because of his loyalty to Hadrian. Following the successful
 campaign in southern Scotland, Antoninus constructed the Antonine Wall.
161 – 180 Marcus After the death Antoninus Pius, Marcus Aurelius and Lucius Verus reigned as co-emperors.
Aurelius But, Lucius Verus was struck by the Antonine Plague that killed him in 169 AD. The reign
of the philosopher-emperor marked the end of the Five Good Emperors. He fought the
Parthian Empire (161-166 AD) and the Marcomannic Wars (168-180 AD). Also, he was
best known for his Meditations, a series of personal notes on Stoic philosophy. Unlike the
previous emperors, Marcus Aurelius appointed his son Commodus as an heir.
180 – 192 Commodus As the youngest consul in Roman history, Lucius co-ruled the Empire with his father from
177 to 180 AD. With his father demise, he became the sole ruler and changed his name
from Lucius to Commodus. A failed assassination attempt in 182 AD made him a brutal
and insane emperor. Commodus has developed a god-like personality and imagined himself
as Hercules. His misrule ended the 84 years of stability and prosperity. Commodus met his
demise at the hands of Narcissus who strangled him in his bath.
Following the demise of Commodus, five men claimed the title of Roman emperor. The
193 AD five were Pertinax, Didius Julianus, Pescennius Niger, Clodius Albinus, and Septimius
YEAR OF THE FIVE EMPERORS Severus. This year marked the end of Nerva-Antonine dynasty and a four-year period of
civil war (193-197 AD). The civil war ended with the victory of Septimius Severus.
192 – 193 Pertinax Pertinax achievements during Roman-Parthian War (161-166) promoted him to higher
political ranking. With no familial candidates, Pertinax was chosen as emperor. Pertinax
made many attempts to institute economic reforms in the Empire. Among which is in the
Alimenta and on the Praetorian Guard. Antagonism emerged and he was nearly averted a
conspiracy against him. In March 193 AD, 300 Praetorian Guards stormed his palace
demanding half of their pay. In an attempt to reason with the mob, he was murdered.
193 Didius After murdering Pertinax, the Praetorian Guard auctioned the seat of emperor. Julianus won
Julianus the bid after offered them 25.000 sescertes. His purchase of the title was unpopular among
the Senate and commoners. Soon after, three commanders voiced their intentions to secure
the throne from him. They are Pescennius Niger, Clodius Albinus, and Septimius Severus.
Severus marched to Italy and gathered support along the way. Julianus was then deposed
and killed by a soldier in the palace.
Severan 193 – 211 Septimius Following his ascension, Severus fought his rival claimants, Pescennius Niger and Clodius
Severus Albinus. Severus defeated Niger at the Battle of Issus (194 AD) and Clodius at the Battle of
Lugnudum (197 AD). The ascension of Severus to sole rule of the empire marks the
 beginning of the Severan dynasty. He also made successful campaign against Parthian
Empire and sacked Ctesiphon. He named his two sons, Caracalla and Geta, as co-emperors
and they succeeded him after his demise.
211 – 217 Caracalla Initially co-ruled with his brother Geta, Caracalla then conspired to murder him. Caracalla
was known for Baths of Caracalla in Rome and the Antonine Constitution. This constitution
granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire. However, Caracalla was
regarded as the most bloodthirsty tyrant in Roman history. He waged a less successful
campaign against the Parthian Empire (216-217 AD). He was assassinated by his praetorian
prefect, Macrinus.
217 – 218 Macrinus Macrinus was the first man to rule the Empire without having served in the Senate. He
made unfavorable peace with Parthian Empire. He also gave pay cuts to his troops that
immediately generate unrest. At the same time, Caracalla' aunt Julia Maesa proclaimed
Elagabalus as Caracalla' son. The claim was supported by Legio III Gallica and declared
Elagabalus emperor in 218 AD. Macrinus was overthrown at the Battle of Antioch (218
AD). Tried to reach Rome, Marcinus was captured and executed in Cappadocia.
218 – 222 Elagabalus Elagabalus was from a prominent Arab family and served as the head priest of Elagabal, a
Syrian sun god. Thus, he attempted to impose the worship of Elagabal to the Roman world,
replacing Jupiter. His short-lived marriage to Aquilia Severa was a breach to Roman law.
He later named his cousin Severus Alexander as an heir, but he started to see him as a rival.
Elagabalus then ordered the Praetorian Guard to assassinate Severus, which was refused.
Instead, the Praetorian Guards mutinied and killed Elagabalus.
222 – 235 Severus Alexander reign was peaceful and prosperous until the rise of the Sassanids (224 AD). With
Alexander threats from the Sassanian Empire to the east, Alexander faced another problem. In 234
AD, Alemanni tribe crossed the Rhine and invaded the northern part of the Empire. Instead,
Alexander decided to buy peace from the invading Germans. This decision was
dishonourable and his legions planned to have Alexander removed. Alexander was
assassinated by Legio XXII Primigenia in 235. His death marked the end of the Severan
dynasty.
CRISIS OF THE THIRD CENTURY A period in which the Roman Empire was nearly collapsed. The crisis began with the
assassination of Severus Alexander in 235 AD. The Empire faced the Barbarian invasions
and migrations into its territory. Civil wars, plagues, peasant rebellions, and political
instability also weakened the Empire. Barbarian foederati also gained influence and the
 Empire would heavily rely on them. The crisis would last until 284 AD.
238 AD A political crisis in the Empire as a result of the rebellion of Gordian I against Maximinus.
YEAR OF THE SIX EMPERORS Six men claimed the title of emperors. They were Maximinus, Gordian I, Gordian II,
Pupienus, Balbinus and Gordian III.
235 – 238 Maximinus Maximinus was a giant (2.6 tall) and the first soldier to become a Roman emperor. In his
Thrax early days, Maximinus immediately faced two conspiracies against him. Maximinus spent
most of his reign fighting invading Barbarians in the northern frontier. Though fruitful,
these northern campaigns were costly and disliked by the Senate. The Senate then
supported for Gordian I and declared Maximinus enemy of the state. Maximinus was later
murdered during the Siege of Aquileia (238 AD).
238 Gordian Gordian I was serving as governor of Africa when the Senate recognized him as emperor.
Emperors Due to his old age, he appointed his son, Gordian II, as co-emperor. Together they ruled for
20 days. Capelianus, the governor of Numidia, held a grudge against him. So, Capelianus
led an army to fight them and defeated them at the Battle of Carthage (238 AD). Gordian II
was killed in the battle, and on hearing this news, Gordian I hanged himself. Both emperors
were later deified by the Senate.
238 Pupienus and The Senate voted them as co-emperors in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus. These senators
Balbinus were not popular, especially for the Preatorian Guard and the commoners. Thus, Gordian III
was nominated as emperor, though only with nominal rule. The co-emperors could not trust
each other and feared assassination from the others. During one of their quarrels, the
Praetorian Guard decided to intervene. The Guard dragged them to the street and eventually
killed them. On the same day, Gordian III was proclaimed sole emperor.
238 – 244 Gordian III Gordian III was thirteen years old when assuming the title of emperor. Thus, the
government was handed to his mother and later his father-in-law, Timesitheus. In 242 AD,
the Sassanian invaded Mesopotamia and were not driven out until the Battle of Resaena
(243 AD). However, Timesitheus died during that Persian campaign. Timesitheus was then
replaced by Phillip the Arab as the praetorian prefect. Gordian III was either died at the
Battle of Masiche against the Sassanian or murdered by his troops.
244 – 249 Phillip the Following his succession, Phillip negotiated peace with the Sassanian Empire. In 247 AD,
Arab Phillip held the Ludi Saecularis to celebrate the 1000th anniversary of the city of Rome.
Philip’s reign saw the true beginning of the crisis of the 3rd century. His reign was marked
by a series of barbarian invasions and internal civil war. Initially sent to put down rebellion
 in Moesia, Decius instead was proclaimed emperor. Decius marched to Rome and defeated
Phillip at the Battle of Verona (249 AD).
249 – 251 Decius He co-ruled the Empire with his eldest son, Herennius Etruscus. Decius focused his
political program to restore the strength of the State. He also focused on restoring public
piety by issuing an edict in 250 AD. The edict required Roman inhabitants to offer sacrifice
to Roman gods. Thus, the first persecution against Christians was organized throughout the
Empire. Among the martyrs were Pope Fabian, Babylas of Antioch and Alexander of
Jerusalem. Decius was killed at the Battle of Abrittus (251 AD) against the invading Goths.
251 – 253 Treboniannus Gallus made peace with the Goths to stabilize the frontier. The peace terms allowed the
Gallus Goths to leave the Empire and keep their captives and plunder. He adopted Decius' son,
Hostilian as co-emperor. After Hostilian demise, Gallus appointed his son Volusianus as
co-emperor. The Goths returned in 293 AD, but the governor of Moesia, Aemilian, repelled
them. His legions then proclaimed Aemilian as emperor on marched to Rome. Hearing that
Aemilian had crossed to Italy, Gallus' troops mutinied and murdered him.
253 Aemilian After a victorious campaign against the Goths (293 AD), Aemilian rebelled against Gallus.
He succeeded him after Gallus was murdered. However, another general, Valerian, that
came as reinforcement for Gallus, declared himself emperor. Valerian marched to Italy with
larger army. Fear of the defeat, Aemilian' troops mutinied and killed him near Spoletium.
Aemilian' attempt to seize power allowed the defeated Goths to invade Greece.
253 – 260 Valerian The first act Valerian did as emperor was to name his son, Gallienus as co-emperor. He
later renewed Decius' persecution against Christians. Among the martyrs were Bishop
Cyprian of Carthage and Bishop Xystus (Sixtus II) of Rome. Valerian divided the empire
between him and his son, with Valerian ruling the east and his son the west. He fought the
Sassanian Empire at the Battle of Edessa (260 AD), led by Shapur I (240-270 AD).
However, Valerian was captured during the battle and died in captivity.
253 – 268 Gallienus Following his father' capture, the whole empire was passed to Gallienus. He defeated the
invading Alemanni at the Battle of Mediolanum in 259 AD. According to Historia Augusta,
there were thirty usurpers during Gallienus reign. Among which Gallienus crushed were
Ingenuus (260 AD), Regalianus (260 AD), and the Macriani (261 AD). However, the
usurpers Postumus took over Gaul and established the breakaway Gallic Empire. Gallienus
was murdered when he besieged another usurper, Aureolus, near Mediolanum.
268 – 270 Claudius II He suppressed the Aureolus rebellion and drove the Alemanni out of Italy (268 AD). A year
 Gothicus later, he decisively defeated the Goths, hence his name Gothicus, at the Battle of Naissus.
His reign saw the rise of the Palmyrene Empire under Queen Zenobia, in Syria Palaestina,
Arabia Patraea and Egypt. Gothicus died when he was campaigning against the Vandals,
another invading Germanic tribe. His demise was possibly because of the Cyprian Plague
that had ravaged the Empire.
270 – 275 Aurelian Aurelian successfully reunited the disintegrating Roman Empire. In 273 AD, Aurelian put
an end to the rebelling Palmyrene Empire. Aurelian then conquered the Gallic Empire in
274 AD. For this feat, he adopted the title restitutor orbis (restorer of the world). He made
several reforms in his reign including food distribution reform. He also reformed the
Roman pantheon by strengthening Sol Invictus as the main divinity. He was murdered by
his officers when campaigning against the Sassanian Empire.
275 – 276 Tacitus Before his ascension, Goths and Heruli mercenaries were stationed at the Eastern provinces.
They were prepared for Persian campaign under Aurelian. However, the campaign was
cancelled after Aurelian’ demise. The angered mercenaries then plundered the Eastern
provinces. He defeated the Barbarians and received the title, Gothicus Maximus. Tacitus
died while on journey to deal with Frankish and Allamanic invasions of Gaul. It remains
unclear whether he was murdered or died of illness.
276 Florian After Tacitus died, Florian proclaimed himself emperor, with the recognition of the Senate.
However, he had to deal with the revolt of Probus, who rose up shortly after Florian
ascended the throne. Probus was backed by the provinces of Egypt, Syria, Palestine, and
Phoenicia. Probus successfully managed to demoralized Florian' troops by luring them
Cilicia. The demoralized Florian' troops then mutinied and killed Florian. His reign only
lasted 3 months.
276 – 282 Probus His reign was spent in continual warfare against Barbarians in the Northern frontier. In 278,
Probus campaigned successfully in Gaul against the Alamanni and the Lugii. 400,000
barbarians were killed, and the entire nation of the Lugii were extirpated. His reign was
further complicated by insurrections in Britain and Gaul. While preparing for Eastern
campaign, his Praetorian Prefect, Carus revolted. In support of the usurper, Probus' troops
mutinied and murdered him.
282 – 283 Carus Carus successfully campaigned against the Quadi and Sarmatians on the Danube. For that
feat, he received the title Germaninus Maximus. He then named his sons Carinus and
Numerian as co-emperors. He and Numerian then embarked on a campaign against the
 Sassanian Empire. The campaign was successful, and they were granted the title Persici
Maximus. However, after marched beyond the Tigris Carus mysteriously died. It was
reported that he had been struck by lightning.
283 – 285 Carinus and Carinus became emperor in the West, his brother Numerian becoming emperor in the East.
Numerian After campaigning on the Rhine, Carinus returned to Rome. In Rome, he organized the
Ludi Romani to honor Carus’ victories in Persia. Numerian, however, died in his return
from campaigning in Persia. The marching troops proclaimed Diocletian as emperors.
Carinus set out to meet Diocletian. Both armies clashed at the Battle of the Margus River
where Carinus died, likely betrayed by his men.
The vast territory of the Roman Empire was problematic on its own. Rebellions or wars that
occurred on the one end of the Empire cannot be immediately addressed. Often legions
arrived late to distant provinces. Therefore, Diocletian decided to divide the emperorship
into two, a system known as Diarchy. In this system, two Augustus ruled the Empire, one in
TETRARCHY the East and the other in the West. Another problem faced by the Empire was the
succession which had caused multiple civil wars in the past. Diocletian’ solution to this
prolonged problem was to expand the Diarchy into Tetrarchy, in which each Augustus is
accompanied by a subordinate Caesar. The Caesars would then replace the Augusti should
they abdicate or die.
284 – 305 Diocletian Diocletian' tetrarchy restored efficient and stability to the Empire. Diocletian ruled over the
Eastern Empire and he appointed Galerius as his Caesar. Following a peace with the
Sassanian Empire, both Empires were once again plunged into a war in 296 AD. The war
would not be concluded until 298 AD following the Battle of Satala. Diocletian also
notorious for his Diocletianic Persection (303 AD). The persecution was the last and the
most severe to the Christians within the Empire. Diocletian abdicated in 305 AD and retired
to his palace in Spalatum (now Split, Croatia).
286 – 305 Maximian Once a Caesar under Diocletian, Maximian was promoted as Augustus of the West in 286
AD. Maximian the appointed Constantius Chlorus as his Caesar. His Western realm was
bothered by Carausian revolt and Bagaudae uprisings. The Bagaudae uprising was fully
defeated in 289 AD, while the Carausian revolt was put to end in 296 AD. Maximian
abdicated in 305 AD, following Diocletian. However, he reclaimed the throne two years
later to support his son, Maxentius. He was then persuaded to abdicate by Diocletian in 308
AD. Maximian committed suicide in 310 on Constantine' order.
 305 – 311 Galerius Galerius was once the Caesar of the East under Diocletian. As the leading Augustus, he
gave the title Caesar to Maximinus (East) and Valerius Severus (West). Maxentius, son of
Maximian, revolted in Rome. Galerius then ordered Valerius to suppress the revolt.
However, Valerius was killed. In the conference of Carnuntum (308 AD), he declared
Licinius as Augustus of the West. In 311 AD, Galerius fell into a painful illness. Fearing the
disease was of the doing of the Christian god, he issued the Edict of Serdica. The edict
effectively ended the Diocletianic Persecution.
305 – 306 Constantius Constantius Chlorus was once the Caesar of the West under Maximian. As a Caesar, he was
Chlorus assigned to rule Gaul and ordered to subdue the Carausian revolt. He also campaigned
along the Rhine, defeating the Alemanni and the Franks. As Augustus, he launched a
campaign against the Picts in Britannia. However, he suddenly died at Eboracum in 306
AD. His legions then declared his son, Constantine as Augustus. This decision, however,
was disliked by Galerius, the Augustus of the East.
306 – 307 Valerius Valerius Severus was once the Caesar of the West under Constantius Chlorus. The sudden
Severus death of Constantius, made the late Augustus' armies to declare his son, Constantine, as the
new Augustus. However, the decision was revoked by Galerius, and had Valerius to
succeed as Augustus of the West. When Maxentius, son of Maximian, revolted in Rome,
Valerius was ordered to suppress the revolt. However, Valerius failed to besiege Rome after
his armies deserted him. Valerius took refuge in Ravenna and then surrendered to
Maxentius. Shortly afterwards, he was executed.
306 – 312 Maxentius Following the abdication of his father, Maxentius was passed over the title of Caesar and
Augustus by Valerius Severus. After murdering Valerius Severus, Maxentius assumed the
title Augustus. After his father, Maximian, committed suicide on Constantine' order,
Maxentius sought a revenge.

310 - 313 Maximinus II

Daza
308 – 324 Licinius
Constantinian 324 – 337 Constantine
the Great