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Determination of geomechanical properties and collapse potential of a caliche

by in situ and laboratory tests

Article  in  Environmental Earth Sciences · February 2009

DOI: 10.1007/s00254-008-1239-7

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Environ Geol (2009) 56:1449–1459
DOI 10.1007/s00254-008-1239-7
ORIGINAL ARTICLE
Determination of geomechanical properties and collapse potential
of a caliche by in situ and laboratory tests
K. Zorlu Æ K. E. Kasapoglu
Received: 2 August 2007 / Accepted: 4 February 2008 / Published online: 19 February 2008
Ó Springer-Verlag 2008
Abstract Working in complex grounds have always been
difficult for engineering geologists because of the heterog-
enous nature of such geo-materials, which results in different
behaviors under stresses. The caliches outcropping in the
Adana basin and its close vicinity are selected as the study
material because of their highly complex nature and also
understanding their mechanical behaviour and collapse
potential is too difficult, although their aerial extent is large
in the region. For this reason, investigation of the collapse
potential and mechanical behaviour of the caliches by
applying new approaches besides the conventional in situ
and laboratory tests is the purpose of the study. The study
includes five main stages such as measurements of caliche
profiles, in situ tests (plate loading), sampling, shooting
photographs for photoanalyses and laboratory studies. Four
different levels such as hard pan; silty, sandy layer; gravelly,
blocky layer and clayey level are described for the caliches
employed. The hard pan level is a weak rock with an average
uniaxial compressive strength of 11.89 MPa while the others
have typical soil characteristics. A series of plate loading
tests are applied on the blocky, gravelly level of the caliche to
determine the modulus of elasticity. The modulus of elas-
ticity and the allowable bearing capacity are determined
between 28.6–65.3 and 1.5–2.0 MPa, respectively. To
determine the grain size distribution curve, in addition to
K. Zorlu (&)
Department of Geological Engineering,
Applied Geology Division, Mersin University,
Ciftlikkoy, 33342 Mersin, Turkey
e-mail: kivancgeo@mersin.edu.tr
K. E. Kasapoglu
Department of Geological Engineering,
Applied Geology Division, Hacettepe University,
Beytepe, 06800 Ankara, Turkey
sieve analyses, a photoanalysis technique is also applied and
a combination procedure between the results from both sieve
analyses and photoanalyses is introduced and the grain size
curves for the blocky, gravelly level of the caliche are
obtained. According to the results of collapse potential index
tests performed on the samples collected from 20 locations of
the study area, the soft pan level of the caliche has slight to
moderate degree of collapse indices. In the final stage, var-
ious simple and statistically meaningful empirical equations
are proposed for the indirect determination of the collapse
index by employing simple paramateres.
Keywords Caliche
Adana (Turkey)
Plate loading test

Collapsible soil
Photoanalysis
Introduction
Construction of economical and safe engineering structures
requires correct determination of mechanical and physical
properties of geo-materials forming the foundation.
However, determination of physical and mechanical
properties of some complex geo-materials having highly
heteregenous nature resulting in difficulties during collec-
tion of representative samples is still open to discussion in
the international literature. Block-in-matrix rocks, flysch,
soft rocks–hard soils existing in the boundary of rock–soil
transition can be accepted as the interesting examples of
such type of problematic geo-materials. Even the geome-
chanical properties of some rocks or soils accepted as
relatively homogenous may show wide variety. When
considering extremely heterogenous and complex material
properties, determination of geomechanical properties of
some geomaterials presents a great difficulty. Different
layers of caliches exhibit high variations when considering
123
1450
their physical strength and deformability characteristics.
Moreover, it is almost impossible to obtain representative
test specimens of some layers of caliches. Hence, it is
evident that the caliche is one of the most complex geo-
materials. Caliches are product of weathering or calcareous
soil, developed on the surface of limestone or other rock
types. They result from the dissolution of carbonate min-
erals and rapid reprecipitation of low-Mg calcite (Gong
et al. 2005). Caliches that develop in non-carbonate rocks
or in alluvial gravels mostly occur in arid to semi-arid areas
(Milnes 1992; Lal et al. 2000). The caliches developed on
limestones, however, usually occur in areas with higher
precipitation. In these areas, the supply of calcium car-
bonate is sufficient and therefore a smaller evaporation–
precipitation deficit is required. The typical condition for
caliche development on limestone is a semi-arid climate
but it can also occur in sub-humid areas if the climate is hot
enough (Goudie 1973; Esteban and Klappa 1983).
According to Goudie and Pye (1983), caliche is a term
for terresterial materials composed predominantly but not
exclusively of calcium carbonate with occurences in state
ranging from powdery to nodular to high indurated and
involve the cementation of accumulation in and/or
replacement of greater or lesser quantities of soil, rock or
weathered material primarily in the vadose zone. In addi-
tion to this description, according to Scholle et al. (1983),
caliche is a vertically zoned, subhorizontal to horizontal
carbonate deposit. The term caliche profile refers to the
complete vertical succession of morphologically distinct
layers or horizons. Boundaries between horizons tend to
show gradual transitions rather than abrupt changes. The
main features of each horizon are described as: active soil,
hard pan, platy caliche, nodular caliche, chalky caliche,
transitional horizon and host material (bed rock). The host
material may be of any composition, texture, age and ori-
gin. The only significant factor of the host material is its
influence on the development of caliche profiles. Caliche
facies are dynamic system involving complex process
controlled by many factors including climatic variations,
organic activity (active soil), and characteristics of the host
substrate. Moreover, both facies influence their own evo-
lution. The soils with collapsed internal structure are
defined with some features such as open structure, high
void ratio, low dry density, high porosity, geologically
young or recently altered deposit, high sensitivity and low
interparticle bond strength (Rogers 1995).
Collapsible soils are characterised by considerable vol-
ume decreases under constant stress if they are saturated.
Such type materials exhibit high strength when they are dry.
However, if they are saturated, they can lose their strength
because of their low unit weight and highly porous structure.
Collapse occurs if the intergranular stress is higher than
intergranular bonding strength provided by bridging. This
123
Environ Geol (2009) 56:1449–1459
collapse mechanism is triggered by increase in stress or
denundation or both. Increase in overburden thickness
sourced from sedimentation, dynamic loadings created by
earthquakes and surcharges of engineering structures are
some causes of increases in stress.
Despite its complexity and problematic nature, a study
performed on the characterization of mechanical behaviour
of caliche is not encountered in the international literature.
However, there are limited number of studies on the geo-
logical evolution of the caliches in the literature (Harrison
1977; Goudie and Pye 1983). Considering this deficiency,
investigation of geomechanical properties and the collapse
potential of the caliches outcropping in Adana (south of
Turkey) and its vicinity is the main purpose of the study. The
study includes five main stages: measurements of caliche
profiles, in situ tests (plate loading), sampling, photoanaly-
ses, and laboratory studies. Although some methods used for
determination of geomechanical properties and collapse
mechanism of caliches are traditional tests and field survey
procedures, applications of photoanalysis and plate loading
tests on caliches introduced in this study are new approaches,
examples of which are not encountered. In fact, the data
obtained from both photoanalysis and plate loading tests
provide important contribution for characterization of
mechanical properties of different levels and collapse
mechanism of caliches.
General properties of the study area
The study area is located between Adana and Ceyhan set-
tlement centers in the Eastern Mediterranean Region. Adana
is one of the most developed cities of Turkey, as it is the most
important trade and industry center of the Mediterranean
Region of Turkey. The caliches of Quaternary crop out
commonly with an aerial extent of approximately 400 km2 in
the Adana basin. The caliches exhibited a flat topography and
hence, many settlement centers in the region are located here.
The study area, the Organized Industrial Site of Adana City,
has a smooth and flat topography and is covered by the cal-
iches and alluvium completely (Fig. 1). The Handere
formation is overlaid by the caliche and the alluvial deposits.
Sandstone, siltstone, marl, mudstone and gravelly sandstone
of Pliocene (Yetis 1978) form the Handere formation.
Caliches in Adana basin are formed by inputs of
carbonate from above, capillarity and disintegration pro-
cess, respectively, depending on climate changes in
Pleistocene. Caliche formation mechanism began with
sedimentologic and pedogenic processes in the study area,
since the rocks of Handere formation do not include con-
siderable amount of CaCO3 (Senol 1989). The main source
of CaCO3 of pedogenic caliches is wind dust (Machette
1985). The dust rich in CaCO3 accumulate on the soil
Environ Geol (2009) 56:1449–1459
Fig. 1 Geological and location map of study area and its close
vicinity (rearranged from Nurlu 1998)
surface and they are soluted by the surface water. The
surface water rich in CaCO3 infiltrates into the soil. This
type of caliche development is described as per descensum
model by Goudie and Pye (1983). The caliche in the study
area is a typical example for descensum model.
Mediterranean climate prevails in the region which is
classified as arid and semi-arid climate in which summers
are hot and dry while winters are mild and humid. The
average annual total precipitation is 625 mm (DMI 2003).
Field studies
During the field studies, first the locations having typical
caliche profiles are determined, then measured column
1451
sections of the caliches are prepared, plate loading tests,
and sampling procedures are applied, and some photo-
graphs are shot.
Preparation of column sections of the caliche
The study area is covered completely by the caliches,
however only hard pan level of the caliche is observed at
the surface. Because of this difficulty, the foundation
excavations and natural slopes are considered in mea-
surements of the typical caliche profiles. A total of 22
locations are selected for such measurements. Depending
on the geological evolution, not only the levels of the
caliches are different from each other, but also the
lateral transitions of these show considerable variations.
Unfortunately, these variations in the caliches have not
been explained exactly in the literature. Engineering
structures such as tunnels, foundations and slopes exca-
vated in geo-materials result in some changes of stress
concentration. If the strength parameters are greater than
the criticial stresses created by stress concentration, the
engineering structure remains stable, otherwise, some
failures may develop. Consequently, for correct design of
an engineering structure, the parameters governing the
strength and deformation of a geomaterial should be
determined as accurately as possible. For this reason, in
this study, the strength and deformation parameters of
different caliche levels are considered seperately. During
the profile measurements, the levels observed in the
excavations, considering the lithological properties, are
classified, and a general profile description is carried out
(Fig. 2). Finally, the thicknesses of these levels are
measured at 22 different locations. The basement level in
the profile is formed by the Handere formation. This
formation crops out in the northern part of the study
area, however this formation covers too small an area to
map. The clayey level with a thickness of about 1 m
overlies the Handere formation and it is observed only in
the deep excavations at the northern and southeastern
parts of the study area. On the clayey level, the silty
sandy level with calcite nodules having a considerable
variation in thickness and horizontal extent. The thick-
ness and lateral extent of the gravelly, blocky level
overlying the silty sandy level with calcite nodules show
a high variety, and the gravelly, blocky level has some
lateral transitions with the silty, sandy level with calcite
nodules. This level is formed by blocks having various
volumes of fine-sized material. While the hard pan level
forming the uppermost level of the caliches is not
observed at some places of the study area, the thickness
of the hard pan reaches up to 6 m at other places which
is measured using a steel tape (Fig. 3).
123
1452
Fig. 2 Generalized caliche profile for Adana region and close
vicinity
Plate loading tests
Although some representative samples from some levels of
the caliches such as hard pan and silty sandy levels for
laboratory tests are collected, this is impossible for the
gravelly, blocky level, and representative and undisturbed
samples are collected only from the fine parts (matrix) of
this level. However, determination of the strength and
deformability characteristics of the gravelly, blocky level
has a crucial importance. Considering its importance and
sampling difficulties, a total of nine plate-loading tests at
Fig. 3 Caliche profile and its levels described in this study for the
study area
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Environ Geol (2009) 56:1449–1459
Fig. 4 A view of plate-loading testing
different locations are applied. Three circular loading
plates having different diameters such as 300, 600 and
762 mm, a hydraulic jack having 10 tonnes of loading
capacity and various dial gauges constitute the plate
loading testing set. During the tests, to transform the load
provided by the hydraulic jack to the loading plates, an
excavator with a weight of 8 tonnes is used (Fig. 4). All
plate load tests are applied in accordance with the proce-
dure suggested by BSI (1990) and the modulus of
deformation is calculated with the following equation:
Dr0
E ¼ 0:75d ð1Þ
Ds
where; E is the modulus of deformation (MPa), d is the
plate diameter (mm), Dr0 is the change of loading (kPa)
(from the load–settlement graph), Ds is the change of set-
tlement (mm) (from the load–settlement graph)
The modulus of deformations are determined using the
load–settlement graphs (Table 1) and the allowable bearing
capacities for 25 mm settlement are assessed statistically.
While the modulus of deformation values change between
11.3 and 16.9 MPa, the allowable bearing capacity values
for 25 mm settlement are obtained as 1.5–2.03 MPa.
Sampling
The sampling studies for laboratory tests are conducted on
hard pan and the clayey levels of the caliche profile. Also,
some disturbed samples from the gravelly, blocky and
sandy, silty levels are collected for classification tests. A
total of 12 block samples from the hard pan having weak
rock characteristics are taken for determination of some
physical and mechanical properties such as the uniaxial
compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, unit weight
tests and apparent porosity, etc. A total of 20 undisturbed
samples from the silty, sandy levels are extracted using
Environ Geol (2009) 56:1449–1459 1453

Table 1 The modulus of

Lok r02 (kPa) r01 (kPa) s2 (mm) s1 (mm) Dr0 (kPa) Ds (mm) E (MPa) Allowable
deformations and allowable
bearing
bearing capacities for 25 mm
capacity value (kPa)
settlement values for gravelly,
blocky level PL1 1600 1000 17 8.5 600 8.5 40.3 2030
PL2 2000 1200 22 15 800 7 65.3 1620
r02, r01 stress values from load–
settlement graphs; s2, s1 PL3 1800 1400 22 14.5 400 7.5 30.5 1610
settlement values from PL4 1800 1200 23 15 600 8 42.9 1830
load–settlement graph; Dro PL5 1800 1200 23 13.5 600 9.5 36.1 1980
difference between stress values
PL6 1800 1200 24 14 600 10 34.2 1900
from load–settlement graphs; Ds
difference between settlement PL7 2200 1200 21 14 1000 11 51.9 1770
values from load–settlement PL8 1400 800 23 11 600 12 28.6 1500
graphs; E modulus of PL9 2200 1600 20 8 600 12 28.6 1580
deformation

35 9 198 mm mould for oedometer tests to describe the
collapse potential.
Photograph shootings
It is impossible to extract undisturbed and representative
samples from the gravelly, blocky level to determine
mechanical and deformability characteristics of this level
in the laboratory. Sampling is only performed on the fine
and medium grain size parts (matrix) of the level.
However, these samples represent only the gravel, sand,
silt and clay parts of this level and hence, the blocks
cannot be shown on the grain size distribution curve. To
overcome this difficulty, a photoanalysis technique is
applied because a considerable colour contrast between
the blocks and the matrix is observed (Fig. 5). In other
words, the colour of the blocks approaches to white
while that of the matrix is dark. In the gray scale, the
pixel values of the blocks are higher than 200 and those
of the matrix are lower than 70. To profit from this
contrast, some photographs are taken using 400 ASA
black and white photograph film. However, only 2-D
assessments can be carried out. The third dimension
should be considered when using a photoanalysis. Sim-
ilar problems were described by Sonmez et al. (2006).
According to Sonmez et al. (2006), if the dimensions of
the blocks in 3D are approximately equal, one source of
uncertainty in estimates of volumetric block portion is
lessened. To examine the possible uncertainties in 2D
estimates of the block proportion as compared to actual
3D block proportion the longest and the shortest axes of
andesite blocks in the Ankara Agglomerate are measured
in different directions on photographs of outcrops by
Sonmez et al. (2006). During the field studies, the lon-
gest and shortest axes of 214 blocks are measured and
assessed statistically as applied by Sonmez et al. (2006).
The average ratio of the longest direction to the shortest
direction is obtained as 1.34. When considering this
result, it can be accepted as equi-dimensional both in 2D
and 3D.

Fig. 5 An example for the

photographs employed during
photoanalyses: a original black
and white photograph, b colour
contrast between the block and
matrix

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1454 Environ Geol (2009) 56:1449–1459

Table 2 Laboratory test results of the softpan layers Table 4 Results of the oedometer tests applied on the specimens
collected from the softpan level
Parameter Level Number of Min Max Average Standard
samples deviation Location Fine grain (%) mv (m2/kN) e0 Cp (%)

Gs SS 20 2.32 2.54 2.46 0.0584 L1 27 0.000169 0.354 1.77

G 20 2.31 2.44 2.36 0.375 L2 66 0.000557 0.417 2.58
cn (kN/m3) SS 20 16.16 19.48 17.46 1.0565 L3 53 0.000371 0.427 2.53
G 20 17.11 19.60 18.41 0.865 L4 65 0.000507 0.529 2.73
W (%) SS 20 9.00 20.00 12.70 2.91 L5 12 0.000199 0.345 1.62
G 20 8.50 20.00 12.30 2.83 L6 47 0.000419 0.411 2.22
3 a
cç (kN/m ) G 20 18.16 26.63 23.94 1.92 L7 64 0.000491 0.476 2.68
a
Gravels are taken from the gravelly, blocky level L8 18 0.000317 0.348 1.82
L9 55 0.000492 0.489 3.13
Laboratory studies L10 82 0.000877 0.720 3.79
L11 77 0.000671 0.599 3.38
During the laboratory tests, specific gravity, grain size L12 52 0.000378 0.400 2.82
distribution and Atterberg limits tests using the disturbed L13 39 0.000346 0.453 2.32
samples, unit weight (c) determinations using undisturbed L14 28 0.000319 0.312 1.67
samples (Tables 2, 3), oedometer tests for determining the L15 54 0.000495 0.604 2.68
collapse index (Cp) are applied. Also, uniaxial compressive L16 45 0.000414 0.439 2.32
strength (rc), modulus of elasticity (E), unit weight and L17 42 0.000374 0.381 2.27
apparent porosity tests on the samples taken from the hard L18 48 0.000513 0.478 2.47
pan level of the caliche are conducted in the laboratory. L19 52 0.000627 0.537 2.78
During the laboratory tests, the procedures suggested by L20 46 0.000357 0.410 2.37
ASTM (1994) for soils and ISRM (1981) for rocks are mv the coefficient of volume compressibility (between100 and
followed (Table 4). 200 kPa loading level); e0: initial void ratio; Cp: collapse index
Laboratory studies are given under two separate head-
ings such as determination of physical and mechanical
properties and determination of collapse index.
are determined in 2D and the third dimension is accepted as
Determination of physical and mechanical properties one unit because, the average ratio of the longest direction
to the shortest direction is obtained as 1.34, as pointed out
The result obtained from the physical and mechanical tests previously. A conversion is applied to transform the aerial
are given in Tables 2 and 3, considering the levels of the percent to the weight percent, since the grain size curve is
caliche. During application of these tests, the standard drawn by considering the weight percent of the different
procedures suggested by ASTM (1992) and ISRM (1981) grain size materials. When applying this transformation,
are followed. However, it is impossible to obtain a full the following simple physical equations are employed:
grain size distribution for the gravelly, blocky level by m mB
using the laboratory results alone because this level c ¼ ) cB ¼ ð2aÞ
v B%
includes large size blocks. The blocks and matrix are dis-
mM
tinguished by photoanalysis. The aerial ratio of the blocks cm ¼ ð2bÞ
M

Table 3 Grain size distribution

Clay (%) Silt (%) Sand (%) Gravel (%) Cobble (%)
analyses results of softpan
layers Silty, sandy level 1–18 (9) 12–60 (39) 11–65 (41) 1–30 (11) –
Bold characters and characters 5.44 14.11 16.12 6.83
in parenthesis show standard Gravelly, blocky level 1–9 (4) 8–42 (17) 8–44 (17) 15–80 (62) –
deviation and average, 2.19 10.59 8.82 19.01
respectively
Gravelly, blocky levela 1–9 (3) 4–42 (14) 4–40 (14) 14–57 (43) 5–52 (24)
a
Grain size from photoanalysis
2.24 10.38 9.27 11.91 14.68
method

123
Environ Geol (2009) 56:1449–1459 1455

where, mB is the weigth of blocks, mM is the weight of because the samples are non-swelling in nature depending
matrix, B% is the aerial percent of blocks, and M% is the on increase in water content, and the constant load
aerial percent of matrix. employed during the tests is 200 kPa. However, the term
By using this formula, the unit weights of both matrix collapse potential is a general concept. Therefore, instead
and blocks, and the aerial percentage of the blocks (%B) of collapse potential, use of the term of collapse index
and matrix (%M), the weights of both and total in the reflecting a special condition is preferred in the present
photographed area are calculated, seperately (Eq. 2a, b). study. In this study, after the denundation under 200 kPa
loading level, the tests are terminated as soon as the col-
mB
BA % ¼ ð3Þ lapse occurred. Theoretically, the change in void ratio after
mBþM
the denundation can be determined by combining the void
where BA is the percentage of the blocks, mB is the weight ratio at the beginning (original void ratio) and the void
of blocks and mB+M is the weight of blocks and matrix. ratio after the test. The compressibility curve and the e-
The block percentages in the aerial extent are converted LogP graph obtained from the tests applied for determi-
to weight percentages (BA%) by dividing by the total nation of collapse index in the present study are given in
weight (Eq. 3). The whole grain size distributions of the Fig. 6 and the collapse index values obtained from the
blocky, gravelly level of the caliche examined are drawn single oedometer tests are tabulated in Table 5.
by combining of the results of both grain size distribution Additionally, the results obtained from the tests applied
analyses and photoanalyses. on the hard pan level are shown on Table 6. The average
unit weight of the samples from the hard pan is determined
Determination of collapse index as 20.68 kN/m3 while the average uniaxial compressive
strength of those is 11.89 MPa. This result revealed that the
For the determination of collapse index (Cp) of solids, two hard pan level is one of the weak rocks. The apparent void
types of laboratory tests are employed. One of them is ratio is relatively high when compared with the most of the
double oedometer collapse test and the other single oe- rock types. The results of unit weight and apparent void
dometer collapse test (Lutenegger and Saber 1988). In the ratio tests supported each other. The static deformation
double oedometer collapse test, under different stress lev- parameters such as modulus of elasticity and Poisson’s
els, the deformation differences of partially and fully ratio, are also determined (Table 5).
saturated samples are determined. However, the purpose of
the present study is to determine the volume decrease
depending on saturation under constant stress. In addition,
owing to highly heterogenous nature of the geo-material
studied, preparation of two samples having similar void
ratio for the double oedometer collapse tests is almost
impossible. For these reasons, in this study, the single oe-
dometer collapse test is preferred. In this procedure, the
tests are conducted on one undisturbed sample having
natural water content. During the single oedometer testing
program, the procedure suggested by ASTM D5333 (1992)
is followed. At the end of the tests, the collapse index of
the samples is determined by the following equation:
Dec
Cp ¼ ð4Þ
ð1 þ e 1 Þ
where; Cp is the collapse index; Dec, is the change of void
ratio depending on saturation and e1 is the original void
ratio.
Equation 4 may be used to determine the collapse
potential, Ic, of soil at particular vertical stress or the
collapse index, Cp, at an applied vertical stress of 200 kPa.
Cp for smaller applied vertical stress may be estimated
assuming that the soil does not swell after inundation at
smaller applied vertical stress (ASTM D5333 1992). In Fig. 6 An example for oedometer test results a compessibility curve
other words, the parameter Cp reflects special conditions, and b e-logP graphs for location 9

123
1456 Environ Geol (2009) 56:1449–1459

Table 5 Laboratory test results of the hard pan level

Parameter Number of Min Max Average Standard Level
sample deviation

cn (kN/m3) 12 18.84 22.45 20.68 1.26 HP

AVR (%) 12 13.98 24.97 19.28 3.35 HP
rc (MPa) 12 6.99 19.48 11.89 2.91 HP
E (GPa) 3 5.9 14.2 8.2 5.24 HP
m 3 0.13 0.34 0.22 0.09 HP
AVR apparent void ratio; c unit weight; rc uniaxial compression
strength; m void ratio; E modulus of elasticity

Development of some empirical relationships

for collapse ındex

Time and economy are two important components of all

engineering projects. Sometimes, due to the difficulties
encountered during sample collection and preparation,
some projects can be prepared employing limited number
of tests. To overcome these limitations, some empirical
relationships for indirect determination of the collapse
index are investigated in this study. During the investiga-
tions, simple regression analyses are considered by using
both single and combined independent variables. In the first
stage of the study, simple regression analyses using single
independent variable are performed. The simple regression
analyses provide a means of summarising the relationship
between two variables. During the simple regression
analyses, linear (y = ax + b), power (y = axb), logarith-
mic (y = a ln x + b), and exponential (y = aebx) functions
are employed. All statistical analyses including F-tests are
performed using a computer package Statgraph (STSC Inc.
1991). In this stage, collapse index (Cp) as independent
variable, the ratio of natural unit weight (c) to specific
gravity (Gs), initial (original) void ratio (e0), coefficient of
compressibility (mv) and percent of fine grains (i) as
dependent variables are taken into consideration. Equations
are obtained from simple regression analyses are given
below and their graphs are given in Fig. 7.
Cp ¼ 1:3891e0:0116ðiÞ ðr ¼ 0:93Þ ð5aÞ Fig. 7 Relationships between collapse index and a percent of fine
grains, b initial void ratio, c ‘‘unit weight/specific gravity’’ ratio,
Cp ¼ 2:3136 ln ðeo Þ þ 4:3635 ðr ¼ 0:89Þ ð5bÞ d coefficient of compressibility


c caliches. In other words, it is too difficult to predict the
Cp ¼ 7:6457  2:9871 ðr ¼ 0:63Þ ð5cÞ
Gs collapse index of caliches by using a unique parameter. For
Cp ¼ 3028:2mv þ 1:15 ðr ¼ 0:89Þ ð5dÞ this reason, a series of regression analyses are performed
by considering two or more independent variables and
where, Cp is the collapse index, i is the percent of fine some combined parameters. As it can be seen from Fig. 8,
grains, e0 is the initial void ratio, c is the natural unit the relationships between Cp, and e0 or i are not linear.
weight, Gs is the specific gravity, mv is the coefficient of Owing to this non-linearity, the linear multiple regression
compressibility. analyses are not employed.
The collapsing is controlled by various parameters In the second stage of the statistical analyses, some
representing various material characteristics of the combined parameters obtained from combining some

123
Environ Geol (2009) 56:1449–1459 1457

developing empirical relationships having combined inde-

pendent variables among the simple relationships obtained
previously, the relationships having the highest coefficient of
correlations are employed. Finally, two different empirical
equations employing the combined parameters are derived.
One of these empirical equations is derived by using the BP1
including the ratio of the natural unit weight to specific
gravity, and the percent of fine grains. The independent
variable of the second one is BP2 containing the initial void
ratio and the percent of fine grains. When developing the
empirical equations, the graphs of the combined parameters
are given in Fig. 8 and the stages of the equations are shown
as following:

Cp
" ~#
 


c
0:0116ðiÞ
¼1:718ln 1:3891e  7:6457 2:9871
Gs
0:5928 ðr ¼0:92Þ ð6aÞ
 

 
c
BP1 ¼ 1:3891e0:0116ðiÞ  7:6457  2:9871
Gs
ð6bÞ
Cp ¼ 1:718 ln ðBP1 Þ  0:5928 ð6cÞ
Cp ¼ 0:9077
Fig. 8 Relationships between collapse index (Cp) and combined h  i0:5524
parameters a BP1 and b BP2  1:3891e0:0116ðiÞ  ð2:3136 ln ðeo Þ þ 4:3635Þ

parameters by using the equations developed previously are ðr ¼ 0:95Þ ð7aÞ

considered as independent variables. The main limitation of  
simple regression equations is consideration of only one BP2 ¼ 1:3891e0:0116ðiÞ  ð2:3136 ln ðeo Þ þ 4:3635Þ
independent variable. It is possible to overcome the use of ð7bÞ
multiple regression analyses if the relations between inde-
pendent and dependent variables are linear. However, all Cp ¼ 0:9081ðBP2 Þ0:5522 ð7cÞ
simple regression relationships obtained in this study are not where Cp is the collapse index, i is the percent of fine
linear. For this reason, the combined parameters are pre- grains, c is the natural unit weight, Gs is the specific
ferred instead of linear multiple regression. In fact, the gravity, BP1 is the combined parameter 1 and BP2 is the
collapsing is not governed by unique physical or compress- combined parameter 2.
ibility parameter. For these reasons, use of some combined On close inspection of Fig. 8, it can be seen that the
parameters is indispensable. Similar methodology was used prediction performances of the relationships are very high.
previously by some researchers (e.g., Gokceoglu et al. 2003) In addition, the prediction performance indices such as
for the same reasons. As mentioned previously, some com- variance account for (VAF) and root mean square error
bined parameters are developed by using the simple (RMSE) are calculated for each empirical equations (Zorlu
regression equations. When the combined parameters are 2003; Zorlu and Kasapoğlu 2004).
used, new equations having higher coefficient of correlations  
and statistically more meaningful are obtained. During the varðy  y0Þ
VAF ¼ 1   100 ð8Þ
analyses stages, initial void ratio and the ratio of natural unit varðyÞ
weight to specific gravity are not utilised together, because vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
u

there is an analytical relationship among the initial void ratio, u 1 X N
RMSE ¼ t  ðy  y 0 Þ2 ð9Þ
natural unit weight and specific gravity. According to this N i¼1
relationship, the initial void ratio will be equal to zero if the
ratio of the natural unit weight to the specitic gravity is one. where y is the measured values while y0 is the predicted
However, this condition is impossible in nature. When values from Eqs. 6a and 7a.

123
1458
Fig. 9 Chart for predicting
collapse index
The VAF and RMSE values for the first empirical
equation (BP1) are obtained as 84.4% and 0.21, respec-
tively while those for the second one (BP2) are determined
as 89.5% and 0.1. For an excellent prediction, VAF should
be equal to 100% and RMSE should be equal to zero,
theoretically. Considering this rule, it is obvious that the
second prediction equations have a better performance than
the first. However, it can be concluded that both can be
used for practical purposes. Also, a chart based on Eqs. 6a
and 7a for predicting the collapse index is drawn (Fig. 9).
Results and conclusions
Depending on the well documented data obtained from in
situ tests and observations, and laboratory tests applied
during the study, the following results and conclusions can
be drawn: four different levels such as hard pan; silty,
sandy layer; gravelly, blocky layer and clayey level are
described for the caliches employed. Each layer has dif-
ferent physical and mechanical characteristics. The hard
pan is a weak rock with an average uniaxial compressive
strength of 11.89 MPa while the others have typical soil
characteristics. Collection of representative samples from
both silty, sandy layer and clayey layer is possible while
that from blocky, gravelly layer is impossible. To cope
with this difficulty, a series of plate loading tests are
applied on the blocky, gravelly level of the caliche to find
the modulus of elasticity and allowable bearing capacity
values for 25 mm settlement. The variations of modulus of
elasticity and allowable bearing capacity are determined
between 28.6–65.3 MPa and 1.5–2.0 MPa, respectively.
When applying the grain size distribution analyses, another
difficulty arises because collecting of the representative
samples is impossible. For this reason, in addition to sieve
123
Environ Geol (2009) 56:1449–1459
analyses, a photoanalysis technique is also applied and a
combination procedure between the results from both sieve
analyses and photoanalyses is introduced. By using this
combination procedure, full grain size curves for the
blocky, gravelly level of the caliche are obtained.
The most important problem of the caliche levels is
perhaps its collapsible behaviour. This behaviour is also
investigated by laboratory tests during the study. The
results show that a collapse potential is possible. However,
according to the classification of collapse index (ASTM
D5333 1992), the clayey sandy, silty level of the caliche
has slight and moderate degree of collapse because the
collapse indices varied between 1.67 and 3.79. Application
of the double oedometer tests to determine the collapse
potential is impossible on the clayey level due to its
complexity. For this reason, by employing single oedom-
eter tests, the collapse index is determined. The results
reveal that single oedometer test exhibits sufficient accu-
racy for determination of the collapse index.
Finally, considering difficulties encountered during the
oedometer tests, some empirical equations are developed to
predict the collapse of the clayey level, depending on
percent of fine portion, specific gravity and unit weight. All
these parameters can be determined easily by conventional
laboratory tests. The prediction performances of the
empirical equations constructed here are extremely high.
However, it should not be forgotten that the empirical
equations developed represent only one type of collapsible
soil. For this reason, these equations should be checked
before they are used for another type.
The study area is planned as the Organized Industrial
Site of Adana city. However, an important part of the site is
under construction. The weakest unit among the caliche
levels is the blocky, gravelly level.Therefore, when con-
structing building foundations, the allowable bearing
Environ Geol (2009) 56:1449–1459
capacity should not be exceeded. In addition, collapse
index should be considered because the collapse behaviour
may affect the buildings.
In conclusion, one type of caliche is studied here and for
reasons mentioned above more studies on characterization
of caliches having complex and heterogenous nature are
necessary to understand their mechanical behaviour.
Acknowledgments This research is supported by The Scientific and
Technological Research of Turkey, TUBITAK (Project No:101Y123).
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