EBS 286 Network Computing Edited

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
COURSE TITLE:
EBS 286 Network Computing edited
© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
CODE PUBLICATIONS, 2019

First publication in 2021 by UCC Press
© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE

COAST (CoDE UCC)
First Publications, 2021
All right reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a

retrieval system or transmitted by any form or means, electronic, mechanical,
photocopying or otherwise without the prior permission of the copyright holder.
Cover page illustrated by Enoch Mbroh

ABOUT THIS BOOK
This Course Book “Network Computing” has been exclusively written by

experts in the discipline to up-date your general knowledge of Education in
order to equip you with the basic tool you will require for your professional
training as a teacher.
This two-credit course book of twenty-four (24) sessions has been structured to
reflect the weekly three-hour lecture for this course in the University. Thus,
each session is equivalent to a one-hour lecture on campus. As a distance
learner, however, you are expected to spend a minimum of three hours and a
maximum of five hours on each session.
To help you do this effectively, a Study Guide has been particularly designed
to show you how this book can be used. In this study guide, your weekly
schedules are clearly spelt out as well as dates for quizzes, assignments and
examinations.
Also included in this book is a list of all symbols and their meanings. They are
meant to draw your attention to vital issues of concern and activities you are
expected to perform.
Blank sheets have been also inserted for your comments on topics that you
may find difficult. Remember to bring these to the attention of your course
tutor during your face-to-face meetings.
We wish you a happy and successful study.
Dr. Emmanuel Arthur-Nyarko

Dr. Justices K. Armah
CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education i

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
It has become a tradition in academic circles to acknowledge the assistance one

received from colleagues in the writing of an academic document. Those who
contributed in diverse ways toward the production of this particular course
book merit more than mere acknowledgement for two main reasons. First, they
worked beyond their normal limits in writing, editing and providing constant
support and encouragement without which the likelihood of giving up the task
was very high. Second, the time span for the writing and editing of this
particular course book was so short that their exceptional commitment and
dedication were the major factors that contributed to its accomplishment.
It is in the foregoing context that the names of Dr. Emmanuel Arthur-

Nyarko and Dr. Justices K. Armah of the University of Cape Coast, who
wrote and edited the content of this course book for CoDEUCC, will ever
remain in the annals of the College. This special remembrance also applies to
those who assisted me in the final editing of the document.
I wish to thank the Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Johnson Nyarko Boampong, the

Pro-Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Dora Edu-Buandoh and all the staff of the
University’s Administration without whose diverse support this course book
would not have been completed.
Finally, I am greatly indebted to the entire staff of CoDEUCC, especially

Mrs. Christina Hesse and the Production Team for formatting the scripts.
Any limitations in this course book, however, are exclusively mine. But the
good comments must be shared among those named above.
Prof. Isaac Galyuon

(Provost)
ii CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education

THIS MODULE FORMS PART OF CoDEUCC PACKAGE FOR THE
BACHELOR IN JUNIOR HIGH SCHOOL EDUCATION PROGRAMME
FOR FURTHER DETAILS YOU MAY CONTACT
THE PROVOST
(CoDEUCC)
UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST
CAPE COAST
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COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION OF THE

UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST (CoDEUCC)
All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced,

Stored in a retrieval system or transmitted by any form or means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying or otherwise without the prior permission of the
copyright holder.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Content Page
About this Book ... ... ... ... ... ... i

Acknowledgement ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ii
Table of Contents ... ... ... ... ... ... ... iii
Symbols and their Meanings ... ... … ... ...
UNIT 1: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

CONCEPTS … … … 1
Session 1: Fundamental Reasons for Networking … … 3

1.1 Definition of Computer Network … … 3
1.2 Reasons for Setting up a Network … … 4
1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Computer
Network … … … … … 5
1.4 Impact of networking on today’s society … 7
1.5 The role of human network on data networking
human networks … … … … 7
Session 2: Network Topologies … … … … 9
2.1 Definition of Network Topology … … 9
Session 3: Classification Based On Size … … … 17
3.1 Personal Area Network (PAN) … … 17
3.2 Local Area Network (LAN) … … … 18
3.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN) … … 19
3.4 Campus Area Network (CAN) … … 20
Session 4: Classification of Networks Based On Topology … 23
Session 5: Classification Based On Functional Relationship
5.1 Client – Server Network Model … … 27
5.2 Peer-to-Peer Network Model … … … 29
Session 6: Classification Based On Media Type … … 35
6.1 Classification based on Media Type … … 35
6.2 Types of Networks based on Media Type
Wired network … …. … … 36
CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS
UNIT 2: NETWORK COMPONENTS AND DEVICES … 39
Session 1: Common Network Device and Tools … … 41

1.1 Hubs … … … … … 41
1.2 Switches … … … … … 42
1.3 Bridges … … … … … 43
Session 2: Network Devices: Firewalls, Access Points and DHCP
Servers … … … … 49
Session 3: Encryption Devices … … … … 57
3.1 Software Encryption … … … … 57
3.2 Hardware Encryption … … … … 58
Session 4: Specialize Network Devices … … … … 61
4.1 Internet Bandwidth shaping … … … 61
4.2 Multilayer and Content Switches … … 62
4.3 Load balancer … … … … … 63
4.4 Proxy servers … … … … … 64
4.5 Types of proxy servers … … … 64
4.6 How does the Proxy server work? … … 65
4.7 Roles of Proxy servers … … … 65
4.8 Virtual Private Network (VPN) Concentrator
Session 5: Virtual Network Components … … … 69
5.1 What is Virtualization? … … … 69
5.2 Virtual Desktop … … … … 70
5.3 Virtual servers … … … … … 71
Session 6: More on Virtual Network Components … … 75
6.1 Virtual switches … … … … 75
UNIT 3: OSI AND TCP/ IP MODELS AND NETWORK

PROTOCOLS … … … … … 81
Session 1: The Networking Models: Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) … … … … … … 83
1.1 The Open Systems Interconnection Model (OSI)
Session 2: The TCP/IP Four-Layer Model … … … 91
2.1 Background to TCP/IP Model … … 91
Session 3: OSI and Network Components … … … 95
Session 4: Network Protocols 1 – Network Access, Internet and Host-
To-Host Layer Protocols … … … … 99
4.1 What is Network Protocol? … … … 99
4.2 Understanding TCP/IP Protocol Suite … 100
iv CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education

TABLE OF CONTENTS
4.3 Connectionless and Connection-Oriented

Protocols … … … … … 101
4.4 Host-To-Host, Internet and Network Access
Protocols … … … … … 101
4.5 The Internet Layer Protocols … … … 103
4.6 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP) … 104
4.7 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
4.8 Token Ring … … … … … 106
4.9 Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI) … 106
Session 5: Protocols 2 - Process/Application Layer Protocols 109
Session 6: IP Addressing and Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCPP) … … … … … 117
UNIT 4: NETWORK MEDIA AND TRANSMISSION

TECHNOLOGIES … … … … … 129
Session 1: General Media Considerations … … … 131

Session 2: Types of Network Media: Guided and Unguided 137
Session 3: Types of Network Media – The Twisted Pair Cable 141
Session 4: Network Media – Coaxial Cable … … … 155
Session 5: Network Media - Fibre-Optic Cables … … 163
Session 6: Unguided Media or Wireless Media … … 173
References … … … … … … … … 191
Glossary … … … … … … … … 192
CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education v

SYMBOLS AND THEIR MEANINGS
INTRODUCTION
OVERVIEW
UNIT OBJECTIVES
SESSION OBJECTIVES
DO AN ACTIVITY
NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT
TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)
REFER TO
READ OR LOOK AT
SUMMARY
SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTION(S)
ASSIGNMENT
vi CoDEUCC/ Bachelor of Education (JHS)

DATA COMMUNICATION AND
NETWORKING CONCEPTS UNIT 1
UNIT 1: DATA COMMUNICATION AND

NETWORKING CONCEPTS
Unit Outline
Session 1: Fundamental reasons for networking
Session 2: Network Topologies
Session 3: Types of Networks: Classification based on Size
Session 4: Types of Networks: Classification based on Topology
Session 5: Types of Networks: Classification based on Functional Relationship
Session 6: Types of Networks: Classification based on Media Type
Welcome, this unit is the opening unit to the entire module on Network
Computing. Because of this, we dedicate this unit to treating some fundamental
concepts in computer networking. We will look at what networking is all about
and the discuss computer networking in general. We also look at the reasons
why we setup computer networks in various environments. In computer
networks, either a wire or wireless is used and they are arranged in a particular
format. We shall look at these concepts and this will take to how computer
networks can be classified. Although this unit focuses on the basic concepts in
networking, its information set the tone for further understanding in computer
networking. Let’s then sit back, read and enjoy the unit.
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Define computer networking
2. State the reasons why we setup computer network
3. Describe network topologies
4. Explain types of computer networks based on:
a. Size
b. Topology
c. Functional relationship
d. Protocol and media type
This is a blank sheet for short notes on:
CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 1

UNIT 1 NETWORKING CONCEPTS
• Issues that are not clear; and

• Difficult topics, if any
2 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education

SESSION 1
SESSION 1: FUNDAMENTAL REASONS FOR

NETWORKING
In today’s interconnecting society, it has become very crucial

for individuals to consider networking to thrive in their
career. Knowing this, one does not need to underestimate the
power of connections. In our traditional societies networking is all about
knowing people within our community. However, today’s networking goes
beyond physical connection with the people in our community to linking with
professionals and experts within or outside our community. Connecting with
professionals can improve your communication, collaboration, creativity, and
problem-solving skills. You need to connect to the internet or intranet to reap
these benefits that online networking affords.
In this unit we shall look what a computer networking is, reasons of having
computer networks in our homes and schools as well as the pros and cons of
computer networks in our society.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to:
1. Define computer network
2. State the reasons setting up a computer network
3. State the advantages and disadvantages of networking computers
4. Explain the impact of networking on today’s society
5. The role of human network on data networking
Now read on …
1.1 Definition of Computer Network

A computer network is an interconnection of various computers to share
software, hardware, resources, and data through a communication medium
between them.
A Computer Networking can also be defined as a set of autonomous computers

that permits distributed processing of the information and data and increased
Communication of resources.
CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education

3
UNIT 1 FUNDAMENTAL REASONS FOR
SESSION 1 NETWORKING
A computer network consists of two or more computing devices such as

servers, mainframes, network devices, peripherals, or other devices that
are connected to allow for sharing of components, resources and information.
An example of a network is the Internet, which connects millions of people all
over the world.
A computer network can also be defined as two or more computers that are
linked in order to share resources (such as printers and storage devices, and
other drives), exchange files, or allow electronic communications. The
computers on a network may be linked through cables, telephone lines, radio
waves, satellites, or infrared light beams.
Computer networking refers to connected computing devices (such as laptops,

desktops, servers, smartphones, and tablets) and an ever-expanding array of
IoT devices (such as cameras, door locks, doorbells, refrigerators, audio/visual
systems, thermostats, and various sensors) that communicate with one another.
1.2 Reasons for Setting up a Network

The reason for setting up computer network is to allow for
• Information sharing
• Resource or hardware sharing: such as the computer peripherals (such
as printers), storage devices, and applications
• collaboration: thus, to have multiple people working on the process
collectively
• Reduction of cost storing information
• file sharing, which enables users to share data files through a network
• application sharing, which enables users to share applications through a
network
• client-server model, which enables data to be stored on servers, where
end-user devices -- or clients -- can access that data. This also facilitate
centralized Management system. Where software, maintenance,
backing up data can be done at one location – the server.
• voice over IP (VoIP), which enables users to send voice data through
internet protocols
• communication, which can include video, text and voice
• e-commerce, which enables users to sell and buy products over the
internet; and
• gaming, which enables multiple users to play together from various
locations.
SESSION 1
1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Computer Network

Advantages of networks
• Information storing and sharing. Network allows content creaters to create
and manipulate information. you can access files and multimedia, such as
images and music, which you store remotely on other machines or
network-attached storage devices.
• Share data and information it allows One of the biggest advantages of a
network is sharing data and information between each of the devices on it.
For instance network allow access to database and help with collaboration
on more complex work. Network allows users to share a common
application.
• It provides both a place to store and share information with other network
users.
• Communication - A network gives all users the ability to quickly
communicate with each other using chat, instant messaging, e-mail, and
videoconferencing. For instance, in the schools setting network allows
school administrators, teachers and students to connect on a campus
network through video conferencing
• Share hardware - Hardware devices such as printers, storage devices and
servers connected to a network can be shared with all users. For example, a
school network might have high-speed high-quality printers strategically
located around a campus for instructor or student use. Resource sharing -
using network-connected peripheral devices like printers, scanners and
copiers, or sharing software between multiple users, saves money.
• Transferring money - Being connected to a secure network allows a person
or business to digitally transfer money between banks and users. For
example, a network could allow a company to not only manage employees'
payroll, but also transfer their pay to the employee's bank account.
• Flexible Access. School networks allow students to access their
information from connected devices throughout the school. Students can
begin an assignment in their classroom, save part of it on a public access
area of the network, then go to the media center after school to finish their
work. Students can also work cooperatively through the network.
• Workgroup Computing. Collaborative software allows many users to work
on a document or project concurrently. For example, educators located at
various schools within a county could simultaneously contribute their ideas

5
about new curriculum standards to the same document, spreadsheets, or

website.
• you can centralise network administration, meaning less IT support is
required
Disadvantages of networking computers

Although there are many advantages to a network (mentioned above), there are
some disadvantages. Below are the disadvantages of a network.
• Virus and malware - Networks make sharing information between
network users easy. Unfortunately, this also means that viruses and
malware have an easier time spreading between computers on a network.
• Vulnerabilities - When a network is created, it introduces new methods of
accessing the computers remotely, especially if they're connected to the
Internet. With these potential new methods of accessing the computer, it
can introduce new vulnerabilities to computers, users, and data on a
network.
• Complexity - Networks are complex, and setting up and managing a
network for a business or corporation requires someone with a lot of
experience or certification.
• Expensive to Install. Large campus networks can carry hefty price tags.
Cabling, network cards, routers, bridges, firewalls, wireless access points,
and software can get expensive, and the installation would certainly require
the services of technicians. But, with the ease of setup of home networks, a
simple network with internet access can be setup for a small campus in an
afternoon.
• Requires Administrative Time. Proper maintenance of a network requires
considerable time and expertise. Many schools have installed a network,
only to find that they did not budget for the necessary administrative
support.
• Servers Fail. Although a network server is no more susceptible to failure
than any other computer, when the files server "goes down" the entire
network may come to a halt. Good network design practices say that
critical network services (provided by servers) should be redundant on the
network whenever possible.
• Security and Compliance. Network security is expensive. It is also very
important. A school network would possibly be subject to more stringent
security requirements than a similarlysized corporate network, because of
its likelihood of storing personal and confidential information of network

SESSION 1
users, the danger of which can be compounded if any network users are
minors. A great deal of attention must be paid to network services to ensure
all network content is appropriate for the network community it serves.
1.4 Impact of networking on today’s society

Computer networks allow for employees within an organization to share files
and exchange ideas more efficiently. Also, computer networks make it easier
to back up all the company’s data on an offsite server. Computer networking
supports business operations and contributes immensely to globalization. With
computer networks we are able to understand traffic conditions, weather
forecast, bank online and access world news.
Students in remote locations can access the same resources as those on

campus. Thus the course materials and support are distributed over the internet.
We are able to form online interest group on social media platform, play online
games with family and friends in different geographical locations, access
entertainment online through channels such as Netflix, DSTv etc, communicate
with our family through instant messaging and video conference tools.
It worth to note that computer networks does not produce effects by itself.
1.5 The role of human network on data networking human

networks
Data networks and the Internet support the human network by supplying
reliable communication between people. On a single device, people can use
multiple applications and services such as email, the web, and instant
messaging to send messages or retrieve information. Applications such as
email clients, web browsers, and instant messaging clients allow people to use
computers and networks to send messages and find information.
In this session, we looked at the fundamental reasons for

setting up a computer network. We also looked at what a
computer network is and the advantages and disadvantages of using computers
networks. Let’s go on to solve the self-assessment questions to consolidate
what we have learnt.

7
Self-Assessment Questions
Exercise 1.1
1. What is computer network

2. State four (4) reasons setting up a computer network
3. State four (4) advantages and disadvantages of networking computers
4. Explain the impact of networking on today’s society
5. The role of human network on data networking

SESSION 2
SESSION 2: NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
Network topology may be used to show physical or logical

arrangement of devices inside a computer network. A
network topology diagram allows a network engineer to visualize how the
devices are connected in the network. Network topology diagrams thus helps a
network engineer to maintain and troubleshoot the network. As an upcoming
network administrator or engineer, you should know some of the common
network topologies. In this session you will about physically network
topologies such as bus topology, star topology, ring topology, mesh topology,
hybrid topology, tree topology.
Objectives
1. Describe the five types of network topology outlined in this session
2. State the advantages and disadvantages of computer networks topology.
Now read on …
2.1 Definition of Network Topology

A Network Topology is the arrangement of computer systems. It can also be
defined as the connection of network devices to each other. Topologies may
define both physical and logical aspect of the network. Both logical and
physical topologies could be same or different in a same network. In this
section we discuss the physical topology of a network
2.1.1 Star topology

The star topology is a type of topology where all the host are connected to a
central device known as a hub device or switch using a point-to-point
connection. Thus, there is a central point to which all host are connected to.
The central device or hub may be a hub, repeater, switch, or router. The host
on the network can be a printer, desktop computer or laptop computer, server
etc. every single host on the star topology has its own dedicated connection to
the hub. The hub ensures data flow. It can also act as a repeater. Thus, the
hub/switcher is a device on the network that is receives and sends data to other
hosts on the network wherever that might be.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
UNIT 1
SESSION 2
Advantages
1. The performance is fast with few nodes and low network traffic.
2. The hub can be upgraded easily.
3. It is easy to troubleshoot, to setup and modify.
4. Only the failed node will get affected, and the rest can work smoothly
Disadvantages
1. If the hub fails then the whole network is stopped because all the nodes
depend on the hub.
2. It requires more cable length.
2.1.2 Bus Topology

With bus topology all the devices/host are connected to a single
communication cable called bus. If a host wants to talk to any host, they have
to get on the bus. With this kind of topology there may be problem with if
multiple hosts are sending data at the same time. It therefore uses what is
called Carrier-sense multiple access with collision detection (CSMA/CD).
CSMA/CD is a media access control (MAC) or network protocol for carrier
transmission. It senses or listens whether the communication cable/ shared
channel for transmission is busy or not and defers transmissions until the
channel is free. Thus, the collision detection technology detects collisions by

SESSION 2
sensing transmissions from other stations. On detection of a collision, the

station stops transmitting, sends a jam signal, and then waits for a random time
interval before retransmission. The data is sent in only one direction and as
soon as it reaches the extreme end, the terminator removes the data from the
line.
Not too soon after bus came was a new type of topology known as the ring.
Advantages
1. It is cost effective.
2. Installation of device is easy, each drop cable just need to be connected
to the backbone cable
3. It requires less cable compared to other network topology.
4. Used in small networks
Disadvantages
1. If backbone breaks, then whole network fails.
2. It is difficult to isolate problems due to single cable.
3. If network traffic is heavy or nodes are more the performance of the
network decreases.
4. Cable has a limited length.
5. Is not scalable as there is a limit on the number of host you can connect
with a backbone

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
UNIT 1
SESSION 2
2.1.3 Ring Topology

In ring topology, each node connects to exactly two other nodes, creating a
circular network structure for signal transmission. It has two dedicated point on
the sides that allows any of the host on the sides to communicate or send
message to a host which is not adjacent to it. Data travels through all
intermediate hosts. In other words, data travels from one node to another in
circular form. This structure forms a ring hence the name ring topology. Each
device/host on the network serves as a repeater. To connect a host in the
existing structure, the administrator may need only one more extra cable
Advantages
1. Easy to install.
2. Managing is easier as to add or remove a device from the topology only
two links are required to be changed
3. every device has access to the token and the opportunity to transmit
4. Performs better than a bus topology under heavy network load
5. Does not require network server to manage the connectivity between
the computers

SESSION 2
Disadvantages
1 Failure of one host or bad port results in failure for the entire network.
2 Moves, adds and changes of devices can affect the network
3 Network adapter cards and MAU’s are much more expensive than
Ethernet cards and hubs
4 Much slower than an Ethernet network under normal load
2.1.4 Mesh Topology

In mesh topology each device is connected to every other device on the
network through a dedicated point-to-point link. Simply put, in mesh topology
every host machine is connected to multiple devices on the network. A
dedicated point-to-point link means that the link only carries data for the two
connected devices only.
There are two types of mesh topology.
• Full mesh: All host has point to point connection with all other host in
the network. If we have n devices in the network then each device must
be connected with (n-1) devices of the network. The number of
connections/links required in mesh topology is calculated using the
formula: n(n-1)/2.
• Partially Mesh: Not all hosts have point-to-point connection to every
other host. Hosts connect to each other in some arbitrarily fashion. This
topology exists where we need to provide reliability to some hosts out
of all

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
UNIT 1
SESSION 2
Advantages
1. No data traffic issues as there is a dedicated link between two devices
which means the link is only available for those two devices.
2. Mesh topology is reliable and robust as failure of one link doesn’t
affect other links and the communication between other devices on the
network.
3. Mesh topology is secure because there is a point to point link thus
unauthorized access is not possible.
4. Fault detection is easy.
Disadvantages
1. Number of wires required to connect each system is tedious and
headache.
2. Since each device needs to be connected with other devices, number of
I/O ports required must be huge.
3. Scalability issues because a device cannot be connected with large
number of devices with a dedicated point to point link.
1.2.5 Tree topology

Also known as Hierarchical Topology, this is the most common form of
network topology in use presently. The topology is sometimes called a
combination of Bus and Star topology. This is because it imitates as extended
Star topology and inherits properties of Bus topology.
This topology divides the network into multiple levels/layers of network.
Mainly in LANs, a network is bifurcated into three types of network devices.
The lowermost is access-layer where computers are attached. The middle layer
is known as distribution layer, which works as mediator between upper layer
and lower layer. The highest layer is known as core layer, and is central point
of the network, i.e., root of the tree from which all nodes forks.

SESSION 2
Advantages
1. This topology is the combination of bus and star topology.
2. This topology provides a hierarchical as well as central data
arrangement of the nodes.
3. As the leaf nodes can add one or more nodes in the hierarchical chain,
this topology provides high scalability.
4. The other nodes in a network are not affected, if one of their nodes get
damaged or not working.
5. Tree topology provides easy maintenance and easy fault identification
can be done.
6. A callable topology. Leaf nodes can hold more nodes.
7. Supported by several hardware and software vendors.
8. Point-to-point wiring for individual segments.
Disadvantages
1. This network is very difficult to configure as compared to the other
network topologies.
2. Due to the presence of large number of nodes, the network performance
of tree topology becomes a bit slowly.
3. If the computer in first level is erroneous, next level computer will also
go under problems.

NETWORK TOPOLOGIES
UNIT 1
SESSION 2
4. Requires large number of cables compared to star and ring topology.

5. As the data needs to travel from the central cable this creates dense
network traffic.
6. The Backbone appears as the failure point of the entire segment of the
network.
7. Treatment of the topology is pretty complex.
8. The establishment cost increases as well.
9. If the bulk of nodes are added in this network, then the maintenance
will become complicated.
In this session we understood that computer can be

connected to each other differently. One of the ways is the
physical connection of computers. We understood that every single host or
device such as printers and laptops can be connected to every other device on
the network making it a mesh, also can connect to a single communication
channel creating a bus-like structure, similarly, devices connected on the other
sides by peer devices create a linear structure and subsequently a ring.
However, when devices are connected to gether by a central device such as
hub or switch, it creates a star and lastly devices connected together using
other ways such as star and bus results in tree or hybrid topology.
Exercise 1.2
1. Describe the five types of network topology outlined in this
session
2. State the four (4) advantages and disadvantages of computer networks
topology.

UNIT 1
NETWORKING CONCEPTS
SESSION 3
SESSION 3: CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SIZE
Also known as classification based on span, computer

networks can span between your mobile device and another
Bluetooth connected device such as mobile phones, speakers, and headphones.
The size or span can also be as wide as the internet covering the entire world.
In this session, we will discuss types of networks by size, and we shall look at
networks that spans just within a room among Bluetooth connected devices.
Next, we shall look at networks that span across building and different floors
within a story building or skyscrapers. As we shall then learn about the type of
networks suitable for connecting cities, provinces and lastly networks covering
whole world.
Objectives
1. Classify the types of computer networks based on size
2. State the four advantages and disadvantages of the types of computer
networks
Now read on …
3.1 Personal Area Network (PAN)

A Personal Area Network (PAN) is the smallest network which is very
personal to a user. It can be defined as:
“The interconnection of personal technology devices to communicate over a
short distance, which is less than 33 feet or 10 meters or within the range of an
individual person, typically using some form of wireless technology”
(Shrivastava & Ngarambe, 2006).
Electronic Explained (2018) also defined PAN a formation of “two or more

computers or cell phones interconnect to one another wirelessly over a short
range, typically less than about 30 feet” (Electronics Explained, 2018)
The purpose of this type of network is to transmit data within the vicinity of
the person (Finlay, 2016). It can also be used to transmit data between servers
for further up link to the internet. Typically, these systems are wireless and
involve the transmission of data between personal technologies such as
smartphones, printers, personal computers, tablets, and the smart

UNIT 1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SIZE
SESSION 3
environments. Another form wireless technology is the Bluetooth. PAN may

include Bluetooth or infrared connected devices. The idea behind Bluetooth
technology is to embed a low-cost transceiver chip in each device, making it
possible for wireless devices to be totally synchronized without the user having
to initiate any operation. The chips would communicate over a previously
unused radio frequency at up to 2 Mbps. The overall goal of Bluetooth is to
enable ubiquitous connectivity between personal devices without the use of a
network cable Mckeown (2003a).
Bluetooth technology also known as Piconet (Bluetooth enabled PAN) can

connect up 8 wireless or Bluetooth enabled devices in a master slave fashion.
initially designed to have characteristics of low complexity, low data rate, and
low energy consumption. WSN facilitates large-scale and fast deployment, as
well as low implementation cost. It supports short-range wireless
communications and is typically adopted in industry and smart homes.
3.2 Local Area Network (LAN)

A local area network (LAN) is a series of devices linked together in one
physical location, such as a building, office, or home. A LAN can be small or
large, and is exclusive to organizations such as church, offices and educational
institutions with thousands of users and devices. The computers in a LAN
connect to each other via TCP/IP ethernet or Wi-Fi. Regardless of size, a
LAN's single defining characteristic is that it connects devices that are in a
single, limited area together. LAN may comprise of network cables, switches,

UNIT 1
NETWORKING CONCEPTS
SESSION 3
routers, access points etc. that enable a host device to connect to servers in
house, web servers, and other LANs via wide area network. “LANs have
become the most popular form of computer networks. The primary topologies
used in LANs are star, ring, and bus.” (Ivanova & Jurczyk, 2003)
• The benefits of LANs include the ability to use single Internet
connection
• Ability to share files with one other people on the network
• The capacity to print to shared printers, be accessed and even
controlled by one another. they are inexpensive
• widely available
3.3 Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

MANs are larger than LANs and generally are not owned by a single
organization; instead their communications links and equipment are generally
owned by either a consortium of users or by a single network provider who
sells the service to the users. MANs typically cover transmission ranges
between 5 and 10 km in diameter and may cover an area the size of a city, or
even a group of small buildings. MANs often act as a high-speed network that
allows sharing of regional resources and provide a shared connection to other
networks. MANs can also mean the interconnection of several LANs by
bridging them with backbone lines.

SESSION 3
Multiple locations such as university campus, offices, government buildings,

residential etc within a metropolis can be connected using Wireless
technology. This form of MAN is called Wireless Metropolitan Area Network
(WMANs), For optical wires communications, infrared light can be used to
transmit data.
3.4 Campus Area Network (CAN)

CAN is a type of computer network which connects different departments of a
university, school or an organization through switch or router. It is also known
as corporate area network because it also connects departments of a large
corporate organization. CAN covers area of 1km to 5km. Several Local area
networks can be connected through a switch or a router that connects through
the single network area. The Campus area network is bigger than LAN but
smaller than MAN. Many network systems we find in university campuses and
corporate institution buildings all fall under CAN
Let us take UCC campus for example, to maintain the information between all
the departments, the whole campus is connected through the Internet, Library,
hostels, departments, administration, and all connected to the Wi-Fi to
maintain the connection amongst each other. The connections is only
maintained on campus, no other unauthorized user can retrieve the information
out of the campus. Any confidential or student information, faculty are
maintained confidentially in the campus area network.

UNIT 1
NETWORKING CONCEPTS
SESSION 3
1.5 Wide Area Network (WAN)

WAN is a type of network which covers a wide area and may span across
regions or states or provinces and even a whole country. Generally,
telecommunication networks are Wide Area Network. These networks are
made up of MANs and LANs. Since they are equipped with very high-speed
backbone to connect MANs and LANs, the equipment used for WANs can be
very expensive and sometimes require multiple Network administrator to
manage. WAN may use advanced technologies such as Asynchronous Transfer
Mode (ATM), Frame Relay, and Synchronous Optical Network (SONET).
This type of network provides the transmission of large data such images and
videos over large geographical area.
Advantages of using WAN

• WAN covers very large geographical areas meaning that you have
access to the network if your business has office in different locations
• Data can be shared among all devices in the respective network
irrespective of the location. There is no need to do different back of the
company’ data
• Users and all connected devices can get access to updated files from
servers in different locations
• Information can be disseminated to individuals and nodes at a fast rate
• Lan offers guaranteed uptime

SESSION 3
.
Disadvantages
• WAN faces more security issues compared to LAN and WAN due to
the many devices/technologies connected together
• Data transferred are prone to attack. Devices for instance, computers
attached to WANs, requires enabled firewall and antivirus installation
to avoid intrusion by hackers and other malicious attack
• It is very complex and expensive to install WAN due to geographical
coverage.
• It becomes difficult for WAN to work in areas where there is no
electricity
• Very high cost of maintenance. Particularly data centres
Summary
In this session we discussed types of networks based on size. This include
personal area networks, local area networks, campus area networks,
metropolitan area networks and wide area networks. These classification
describes how wide a network spans. Let’s answer the self-assessment
questions.
Exercise 1.3
1. Explain with examples the following types of networks

a. Local area Network
b. Metropolitan Area Network
c. Campus Area Network
d. Personal Area Network
e. Wide Area Network
2. State four advantages and disadvantages of the types of computer
networks

SESSION 4
SESSION 4: CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORKS

BASED ON TOPOLOGY
Dear students, we are still looking at network classifications.

Networks can be classified based on topology. Network
topology refers to the physical layout of cables and computing devices on a
network. A network classfied based on topology could be referred to as star
LAN, bus CAN and so on. Let’s read to find out more about these.
Objective
1. Classified computer networks based on topology.
Now read on …
In session two of this book we discussed about a physical network topology.

We learned that a physical network topology diagram shows the structure of
how devices are connected physically inside a network.
In this session we shall talk about network topology as a means of classifying

networks. A network classified based on topology is type of network that looks
at the physical arrangement of cables and nodes. In such classification, may
have networks such as:
Star network
A star network is a type of network that uses a central device, such as a hub or
switch, to interconnect computers in a network. This type of network could be
a local area network (LAN) in terms of size. In this regard, a network that
belongs these two classifications can be referred to as Star LAN network. It
basically means a star arrangement of cables and computer in a local area
network.
Bus Network
The second type of network based on the topology classification is the bus
topology. In bus topologies, it only one cable that connects all computing
devices on the network. This mostly happens in local area networks and they

UNIT 1 CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORKS
SESSION 4 BASED ON TOPOLOGY
are referred to as bus local area networks (Bus LANs). A bus LAN is a type of
local area network that is implemented based on bus topology.
Ring Network
As indicated already, the third type of network based on topology is ring
network. In ring networks, all network devices are network devices are
connected using one cable which forms a loop. Data moves in one direction
and there is collision of data in this kind of network. When a local area
network is implemented based on ring topology, it is referred to as Ring LAN.
Tree Network
This is a kind of network that is implemented based on the tree topology. This
can also be referred to as extended star topology. Tree networks are mostly
found in schools and on campuses. A local area network or campus area
network that is implemented based on tree topology is known as Tree LAN or
CAN.
Mesh Network
Mesh network is a kind of network that is implemented using the mesh
topology. In such networks, devices are connected among themselves in such a
way that two devices have a point-to-point connection with each other. One
advantage of such networks is that there is redundancy in terms of connection
which ensures that connections between nodes/devices are always up and
running. Nodes/computers have more than one route to their destination. This
kind of network can be implemented on WAN, CAN, and LAN. A network
that has the characteristics of a mesh and LAN is referred to as Mesh LAN. We
can also have Mesh WAN network.
Dear student, we have come to the end of this session. In

this session, we looked at classification of network based on
topology. This enabled to use to discuss networks such star LAN, Mesh CAN
and the likes. Let’s move on to the next session. Thank you.

SESSION 4
Exercise 1.4
1. Describe two types of network based on topology.

UNIT 1 CLASSIFICATION OF NETWORKS
SESSION 4 BASED ON TOPOLOGY


DATA COMMUNICATION AND UNIT 1
NETWORKING CONCEPTS SESSION 5
SESSION 5: CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FUNCTIONAL

RELATIONSHIP
We learned in the previous sessions that computer networks

can be classified by topology and by size or span. In this
session, we shall look at classification based on functional relationship.
Functional relationships exist among the elements of computer network and
this include active network, client-server and peer-to-peer architecture
network. Just sit back, read and enjoy the lesson.
Objectives
1. Explain what a server-based network is
2. Explain what a client-server communication is
3. Explain Peer-to-peer network
4. Distinguish between Server-based, Client – server communication and
Peer-to-peer net work
Now read on …
5.1 Client – Server Network Model

You might have heard something about servers before. As the name implies, a
server provides services for its dependents or clients. In network computing, a
Server is a computer or node that provides services for the clients on a
network. This creates a relationship known as a client-server relationship. Also
known as server-based network, the client/server networking model is, without
question, the most widely implemented model and the one you are most likely
to encounter when working in real-world environments. In client server
computing, the clients request resources, and the server provides that
resources. A server may serve multiple clients at the same time while a client is
in contact with only one server. Both the client and server usually
communicate via a computer network but sometimes they may reside in the
same system.

UNIT 1 CLASSIFICATION BASED ON FUNCTIONAL
SESSION 5 RELATIONSHIP
An illustration of the client-server system is given as follows −
Characteristics of Client-server Computing

The salient points for client server computing are as follows:
• The client server computing works with a system of request and
response. The client sends a request to the server and the server
responds with the desired information.
• The client and server should follow a common communication protocol
so they can easily interact with each other. All the communication
protocols are available at the application layer.
• A server can only accommodate a limited number of client requests at a
time. So it uses a system based to priority to respond to the requests.
• Denial of Service attacks hinder a server’s ability to respond to
authentic client requests by inundating it with false requests.
• An example of a client server computing system is a web server. It
returns the web pages to the clients that requested them.
Advantages of Client-server network model
The advantages of the client-server network model stem from the fact that it is
a centralized model.
1. It allows for centralized network management of all network services,
including user management, security, and backup procedures.

2. All the required data is concentrated in a single place i.e. the server. So
it is easy to protect the data and provide authorisation and
authentication.
3. The server need not be located physically close to the clients. Yet the
data can be accessed efficiently.
4. It is easy to replace, upgrade or relocate the nodes in the client server
model because all the nodes are independent and request data only from
the server.
5. All the nodes i.e. clients and server may not be built on similar
platforms yet they can easily facilitate the transfer of data.
6. centralized management, data storage, administration, and security
make it the network model of choice.
Disadvantages of Client-server Computing

The different disadvantages of client server computing are −
1. More skilled personnel is required to implement and manage the
network.
2. It is expensive to implement because a skilled personnel, dedicated
server hardware and software increase the cost of the client/server
model. .
3. If all the clients simultaneously request data from the server, it may get
overloaded. This may lead to congestion in the network.
4. If the server fails for any reason, then none of the requests of the clients
can be fulfilled. This leads of failure of the client server network.
5. The cost of setting and maintaining a client server model are quite high.
5.2 Peer-to-Peer Network Model

A peer-to-peer network is a decentralized network model offering no
centralized storage of data or centralized control over the sharing of files or
resources. All systems on a peer-to-peer networks can share the resources on
their local computer as well as use resources of other systems as and when they
want to do so. In other words, the nodes equally participates in data sharing
and divide all task between themselves. The nodes interact with each other as
required as share resources.

Characteristics of peer-to-peer network model

• The nodes on peer-to-peer network all store their data using individual
security but also share data with all the other nodes.
• The nodes in peer-to-peer networks use and share resources. Therefore,
as the nodes increase the resources also increases. Unlike the client
server networks model where the server gets overwhelmed if the nodes
increase.
• Since nodes in peer-to-peer networks act as both clients and servers, it
is difficult to provide adequate security for the nodes. Each node
provides its own security. This can lead to denial-of-service attacks.
• Most modern operating systems such as Windows and Mac OS contain
software to implement peer to peer networks.
A diagram to better understand peer to peer computing is as follows –
Advantages of Peer-to-Peer Computing

1. Each computer in the peer-to-peer network manages itself. So, the
network is quite easy to set up and maintain.
2. In the client server network, the server handles all the requests of the
clients. This provision is not required in peer-to-peer computing and the
cost of the server is saved.

3. It is easy to scale the peer-to-peer network and add more nodes. This
only increases the data sharing capacity of the system.
4. None of the nodes in the peer-to-peer network are dependent on the
others for their functioning.
Disadvantages of Peer-to-peer network model

1. The peer-to-peer model does not work well with large numbers of
computer systems. It can take up to a maximum of 10 connected
computers
2. As a peer-to-peer network grows, it becomes increasingly complicated
to navigate and access files and resources connected to each computer,
because they are distributed throughout the network.
3. The lack of centralized data storage makes it difficult to locate and
back up key files. It is difficult to back up the data as it is stored in
different computer systems. Administrators are required to move from
one computer to another to back up since there is no central server to
store all the data and resources
4. The type of network is ideal for small offices or homes where there is
limited computers to connect to the network and few files and resources
to share few computers.
5. It is difficult to provide overall security in the peer-to-peer network as
each system is independent and contains its own data.
Difference between Client-server Computing and Peer to Peer Computing

The major differences between client server computing and peer to peer
computing are as follows:
• In client server computing, a server is a central node that services many
client nodes. On the other hand, in a peer-to-peer system, the nodes
collectively use their resources and communicate with each other.
• In client server computing the server is the one that communicates with
the other nodes. In peer to peer to computing, all the nodes are equal
and share data with each other directly.
• Client Server computing is believed to be a subcategory of the peer-to-
peer computing.

Both Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer Networks are the telecommunication

networks where information is made to be transferred from source to
destination with minimal loss in transmission. In both type of networks there is
dedicated path which is being used for the transmission of information
however this path is dedicated in case of Client-Server Network while not
dedicated in Peer-to-Peer Network. The table below shows the differences
between Client-Server and Peer-to-Peer Network.
Summary of differences between client-server and peer-to-peer networks

Key Client-Server Network Peer-to-Peer Network
Definition In telecommunication Client-Server On other hand in case of
Network is a type of network where Peer-to-Peer network, the
a dedicated path is implemented in source and destination
which two network nodes establish nodes are not directly
a dedicated communications connected. Instead, the
channel (circuit) through that intermediary nodes
network before the nodes may (mainly switches) are
communicate. responsible for transferring
the message from one node
to the next.
Size The size of the network is limited Recommended to a
only by server size, network maximum of 10
hardware, and budget. It can have computers.
thousands of connected systems.
administration A skilled network administrator is Each computer is
often required to maintain and responsible for the
manage the network administration of his or her
system. An administrator
is not needed.
Security Security is managed from a Each computer is
central location but often requires a responsible for
skilled administrator to correctly maintaining security for
configure. local files and devices
connected to the system
Cost Requires dedicated equipment and Minimal start-up and
specialized hardware and implementation cost.
administration, increasing the
network’s cost.
Implementation Often requires complex setup Easy to configure and set
procedures and skilled staff to set up.


up.
Path and Node In Client-Server Network a On other hand in case of
dedicated path consists of mainly Peer-to-Peer no such
two nodes at each end i.e., sender dedicated path is
and receiver is implemented which implemented as the path
is entirely responsible for the used in this switching is
transmission of information. consist of several nodes
between the sender and
receiver and each node is
responsible for transferring
the message from one node
to the next.
Message As there are only two nodes in case On other hand in case of
storage of Client-Server Network hence Peer-to-Peer each node
centralized server is used to store acts as sender and receiver
the data in the path or at the node and stores the incoming
end. Message generated at the information before sending
sender side get transmitted to the to the next node. This
receiver directly through the makes each node in this
centralized sever where information switching capable to
stored or retransmitted in the path recover the information if
through the node. it gets lost due to any
reason.
Resend In case of Client-Server network as On other hand if
node did not save the information information get lost in
during the transmission, there is no Peer-to-Peer network then
option to resend it if gets lost due to the corresponding node
some reason until the sender or could resend the
centralized server send it again. information as it has
information stored.
Bandwidth Client-Server Network reserves the On other hand Peer-to-Peer
full bandwidth in advance as there does not reserve the entire
are only two nodes and dedicated bandwidth in advance it
path for transmission. consumes bandwidth node
per node as per the
requirement and releases
the bandwidth when gets
free.


Addressing Geographical addressing is used in On other hand Hierarchical
Client-Server Network based on the addressing is implemented
geo-location of both the nodes. in case of Peer-to-Peer as
there is hierarchical
connection between the
nodes used in this type of
switching.
Source: Harwood (2009)
To sum it up, we want to say that both client-server and

peer-to-peer networks are very useful depending on your
needs and the purpose for setting up the network. They all have their
advantages and disadvantages. Therefore, choose the one that fit your needs.
Good! Let’s move on to the last session of this unit.
Exercise 1.5
1. Citing three examples, distinguish between server-based network and

peer-to-peer networks
2. Discuss five (5) reasons why you will choose a server-based network
over a peer-to-peer network.

SESSION 6
SESSION 6: CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MEDIA TYPE
Hello students! We welcome you to this session. Since the

beginning this unit we have been discussing various means of
classifying computer networks. This session discusses the network
classification based on different network media. The different media types -
wired and wireless and the various networks that full under them are discussed.
Let’s read to know more about them.
Objectives
1. Classify computer network based on media type
2. Mention types of network based on media type
Now read on …
6.1 Classification based on Media Type

We can classify networks based on media type that is being used in the
network. Also known as transmission media, the media can be defined as a
communication channel that is used to carry the data from the transmitter to the
receiver through the electromagnetic signals. The main function of this is to
carry the data in the bits form through the network. In data communication, it
works like a path between the sender and the receiver. For instance, in a copper
cable network the bits are in the form of electrical signals whereas in a fiber
networks, the bits are available in the form of light pulses. The quality, as well
as characteristics of data transmission, can be determined from the
characteristics of medium and signal. The properties of different transmission
media are delay, bandwidth, maintenance, cost, and easy installation.
Transmission media is classified into two types, namely wired media, and
wireless media. We don’t to go into detail because communication channel has
been fully discussed in Unit four (4).

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MEDIA TYPE
UNIT 1
SESSION 6
Examples of the wired media, also called guided media include twisted pair
cable, coaxial cable and optical cable. A wired network connection is described
as a configuration that involves cables which establish a connection to the
Internet and other devices on the network. Data is transferred from one device
to another or over the Internet using Ethernet cables.
6.2 Types of Networks based on Media Type

Wired network
This is a type of network in which physical cables have been used to connect
nodes/computers on the network. Wired network almost always use a central
connection device such as switches or hubs. All kinds of wired networks come
under this type of network. Examples include fibre networks, twisted pair
network and so on.
Wireless Network
As the name suggests, wireless is a type of network that does not use physical
wires or cables to connect or link nodes/computers on the network. It transmits
and receives signals broadcast through the atmosphere. This type of network
make use of microwave, radio, and infrared to transmit signals. This kind of
network can be implemented as a local area networks, campus area networks,
and even metropolitan area networks through the Worldwide Interoperability
for Microwave Access (WiMax) technology.
Fibre optic network (simply, fibre network)

A network is termed as a fibre network when its main cable used for
connecting computers and other devices on the network is fibre optic cable.
Fibre transmits signals between the network devices using light. Read Unit
four to know more about fibre optic cables
Twisted pair network (Ethernet network)

Twisted pair networks are a type of network that are implemented using
twisted pair cables or coaxial cables. They are sometimes referred to as
Ethernet networks. This topic is treated in detail in unit four.

SESSION 6
We have come to the end of this session. In this session we

looked at network classification based on media types. In this,
we mentioned networks like wired networks, wireless networks and fibre
networks. The network media or channel has been treated in detail in unit four.
Don’t stop, read the other units.
Exercise 1.6
1. State two examples of networks based on media type
2. What are ethernet networks?

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON MEDIA TYPE
UNIT 1
SESSION 6


NETWORK COMPONENTS AND DEVICES
UNIT 2
UNIT 2: NETWORK COMPONENTS AND DEVICES
Unit Outline
Session 1: Common Network Devices and Tools
Session 2: Network Devices: Firewalls, Access Point and DHCP Servers
Session 3: Encryption Devices
Session 4: Specialize Network Devices
Session 5: Virtual Network Components
Session 6: More on Network Components
So far this we have examined reasons for setting up

network, classification of network by size, topologies, and
media access. In this unit we shall look at network
components and devices. All but the most basic of networks require devices to
provide connectivity and functionality. Understanding how these networking
devices operate and identifying the functions they perform are essential skills
for any network administrator and requirements for a Network+ candidate.
This chapter introduces commonly used networking devices, and, although it is
true that you are not likely to encounter all of the devices mentioned in this
chapter on the exam, you can be assured of working with at least some of
them.
Unit Objectives
After completing this Unit, you should be able to:
1. Mention network components and devices
2. Explain the functions of DHCP Servers
3. State the purposes of encryption
4. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of virtualisation
5. Explain the functions of proxy servers and firewalls

UNIT 2


UNIT 2
SESSION 1: COMMON NETWORK DEVICE AND TOOLS
Welcome to the first session of Unit Two. In this session, we

will be discussing some network devices commonly used in
networking. First, we will look at what networking devices are about. Next, we
shall look at different types of network devices and their functions. Although it
is true that you are not likely to encounter all the devices mentioned in this
session, you can be assured of working with a few of them.
Objectives
1. describe network hubs, switches, and bridges
2. State the difference between hubs and switches
Now read on …
What is network device

Network devices easily, safely, and correctly transfer data over one or other
networks. Also known as networking hardware, network devices communicate
and interact between hardware devices on a computer network. Example
include hub, switch, router, bridge, gateway and so on.
1.1 Hubs
A network hub serves as a central point for all devices in a LAN. It connects
multiple devices in a network. It is basically a multiple-port repeater because it
repeats an electrical signal that comes in one port out all other ports (except the
incoming port). A hub operates at layer 1 of the OSI model, meaning that, it is
not intelligent to filter or find the best path to direct data packets. instead, data
packets are sent to all connected devices leading to inefficiencies and wastage.
Inefficiencies because all devices on the LAN will receive data, and the data
will eventually reach the correct destination, but with a lot of unnecessary
network traffic. The image below shows a hub that has sent out the receiving
signal out all other ports, except the incoming port.
Modern LANs rarely use hubs; switches are used instead. Hubs have many
disadvantages, including:
• they operate in half-duplex.

UNIT 2 NETWORK COMPONENT AND DEVICES
SESSION 1
• they are prone to collisions.

• each port on a hub is in the same collision domain.
data is forwarded out all ports and can be captured with a network sniffer
1.2 Switches
A network switch is a device that connects devices together on a LAN just like
a hub. A switch is essentially a multiport network bridge and performs the
same basic functions as a bridge, but at much faster speeds and with many
additional features. Each port on a switch is in a separate collision domain and
can run in the full duplex mode, which means that hosts connected to a switch
port can transmit to the switch while the switch transmits to them.
An Ethernet switch usually works at the Data link layer of the OSI model
(Layer 2). It manages the flow of data across a network by inspecting the
incoming frame’s destination MAC address and forwarding the frame only to
the host for which the message was intended. Each switch has a dynamic table
(called the MAC address table) that maps MAC addresses to ports. With this
information, a switch can identify which system is sitting on which port and
where to send the received frame.
For instance, in the diagram below PC 1 is trying to communicate with PC 3

and sends a packet with the Host Pc 3’s destination MAC address. The packet
arrives at the switch, which looks at the destination MAC address. The switch
then searches that MAC address in its MAC address table. If the MAC address
is found, the switch then forwards the packet only out the port connected to the
frame’s destination. Hosts connected to other ports will not receive the frame.

UNIT 2
A 24-port switch with uplinks
1.3 Bridges
It can be interesting if you want to relate this bridge to road bridges that we
know. In reality, road bridges connect two roads separated by a river, a railway
line or any other of this kind. A network bridge is a network device that
divides a local area network (LAN) into segments. It can also be used to
connect multiple LAN into a single larger LAN. When bridges are used to
divide a LAN into segments each segment becomes a representation of the
separate collision domain, the number of collisions on the network is
minimized. In this case each collision has a separate bandwidth, so the bridge
also improves the network performance.
The bridge operates at the layer 2 of the OSI model (you will learn about the
OSI model in later in this course). It inspects inbound traffic and decides
whether to forward or filter it. Thus, each the bridge inspects the mac address
of each incoming ethernet frame and forwards it to the designated host on

SESSION 1
another segment of the network. The figure below shows the diagram of a
bridge in segmented LAN.
Above is a network of six computers. The network is divided into segments by

a bridge. Each segment is a separate collision domain with its own bandwidth.
Let’s say that Pc 2 wants to communicate with Pc 4. Pc 2 will send the frame
with the Pc 4 destination MAC address to the bridge. The bridge will inspect
the frame and forward it to the segment of the network Pc 4 is on. Network
bridges offer substantial improvements over network hubs, but they are not
widely used anymore in modern LANs. Switches are commonly used instead.
A 4-port Bridge
1.3.1 Differences between bridge and switch

Switches are basically multiport bridges. Although both types of devices
perform a similar function, segmenting a LAN into separate collision domains,
there are some differences between them:

UNIT 2

SESSION 1
Bridge Switch
most bridges have A switch can have hundreds of ports
only 2 or 4 ports
bridges are Switches are hardware-based and use chips (ASICs)
software based when making forwarding decisions, which makes
them much faster than bridges.
Bridges can have switches can have multiple spanning-tree instances
only one.
switches can have multiple broadcast domains (one per
VLAN).
2.3.2 Differences between hub and switch
Hub Switch
They operate in the physical layer of the They operate in the data link
OSI model. layer of the OSI model.
It is a non-intelligent network device that It is an intelligent network
sends message to all ports. device that sends message to
selected destination ports.
It primarily broadcasts messages. It is supports unicast, multicast
and broadcast.
Transmission mode is half duplex. Transmission mode is full
duplex.
Collisions may occur during setup of Collisions do not occur since
transmission when more than one computer the communication is full
place data simultaneously in the duplex.
corresponding ports.
They are passive devices; they don’t have They are active devices,
any software associated with it. equipped with network
software.
They generally have fewer ports of 4/12. The number of ports is higher –
24/48.
Network layer of the Hub, Bridge and Switch

UNIT 2
Device Hub Bridge Switch

Network Layer 1 (Physical) 2 (Data) 2 (Data) or 3
(Network)
Network Tools
(Please such through the internet for pictures of the following tools)
 A wire crimper is a tool that you use to attach media connectors to the ends of
cables.
 Wire strippers come in a variety of shapes and sizes. Some are specifically
designed to strip the outer sheathing from coaxial cable, and others are designed
to work with UTP cable.
 Punchdown tools are used to attach twisted-pair network cable to connectors
within a patch panel. Specifically, they connect twisted-pair wires to the IDC.
 Voltage event recorders are used to monitor the quality of power used on the
network or by network hardware.
 Temperature monitors keep track of the temperature in wiring closets and server
rooms.
 Toner probes are used to locate cables hidden in floors, ceilings, or walls and to
track cables from the patch panel to their destination.
 Protocol analyzers can be hardware- or software- based. Their primary function
is to analyze network protocols such as TCP, UDP, HTTP, FTP, and more.
 A TDR is a device used to send a signal through a particular medium to check the
cable’s continuity.
 An OTDR performs the same basic function as a wire media tester, but on optical
media.
 Packet sniffers are either a hardware device or software that eavesdrop on
transmissions that are traveling throughout the network.
 Throughput testers identify the rate of data delivery over a communication
channel.
 Port scanners are a software-based utility. They are a security tool designed to
search a network host for open ports on a TCP/IP-based network.

SESSION 1
In sum, we have learnt about the functions of networking

devices such as switches, hubs and bridges. The next
sessions of Unit 2, will continue to look at other network devices including
routers and servers. Continue to read.
Exercise 1.1
1. Describe how hubs and switches operate.

2. Explain how hubs and switches can be connected to create larger
networks.
3. Compare and contrast the functions of hubs and switches in
networking.

UNIT 2
SESSION 2
SESSION 2: NETWORK DEVICES: FIREWALLS, ACCESS

POINTS AND DHCP SERVERS
In the previous session, we discussed some types of network

devices. From our discussion, you can understand that a
network device is an individual component of the network that participates at
one or more of the protocol layers. We shall continue with the discussion
focusing on other network devices such as server, firewall, routers and access
point.
Objectives
1. Explain the role of dynamic host configuration protocol
(DHCP) servers in a network
2. Describe the functions of a firewall
3. Explain the functions of a router
4. Describe the role of access point in computer networks
Now read on …
1. ROUTERS
The word router comes from the word route, which means a path, way, track or
direction. There are so many routes and junctions within networks. The routes
are the different networks within a large network while the junctions can be
compared to the devices connecting the different networks. One of such
devices is the router. As the name depicts routers routes or direct incoming or
outgoing data it receives from one network to another in the fastest and most
efficient way. Thus, they are responsible for receiving, analyzing, and
forwarding data packets among the connected computer networks. When
routers receive data, they inspect the packet header (destination address),
verify from the routing table to establish how to reach the destination and then
forward the packet to the along the route or the next hop (possibly another
router on the routing table) on the route. Routers are networking devices
operating at layer 3 or a network layer of the OSI model.

UNIT 2 NETWORK DEVICES: FIREWALLS,
SESSION 2 ACCESS POINTS AND DHCP SERVERS
Wired and Wireless Router

There are two different types of routers; Wireless routers and wired routers.
Wireless routers: A wireless router connects directly to a modem by a cable.
This allows it to receive information from — and transmit information to —
the internet. The router then creates and communicates with Wi-Fi network
using built-in antennas. As a result, all the devices on the network have internet
access.
A wired router on the other hand connects directly to computers through

wired connections. They usually have a port that connects to the modem to
communicate with the internet. Another port — or ports — allows the wired
router to connect to computers and other devices to distribute information.
Examples include broadband routers, core routers, edge routers and brouters.
Wired router Wireless router

UNIT 2
SESSION 2
2. Access Point
An access point (AP) or wireless access (WAP) is a device that creates a
wireless local area network (WLAN) usually in an office or large building. An
access point connects to a wired router, switch, or hub via an Ethernet cable,
and projects a Wi-Fi signal to a designated area. Thus WAP allows wireless
capable devices to connect to a wired network. For example, if you want to
enable Wi-Fi access in your company's reception area but don’t have a router
within range, you can install an access point near the front desk and run an
Ethernet cable through the ceiling back to the server room.
3. Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol Servers

Without question, the easiest way to assign TCP/IP information to client
systems is to use a Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) server. On a
network running TCP/IP, each computer must have a unique IP address to be
recognized and be part of the network. Briefly, a protocol is a method of
communicating between computers.

Computers on a network using TCP/IP require specific network settings to be

able to connect to the network. First among these settings is the IP address. An
IP address consists of four octets, or four sets of 8 bits—for example,
192.168.2.1. Each computer on the network must have one of these numbers in
order to perform network functions through TCP/IP. The number must be
unique to the PC and must be within a certain range to allow the PC to connect
to other systems.
There was a time when these IP addresses were entered manually into the
network settings of each client workstation. Manually set, or static, IP
addresses were very difficult to maintain in large networks. Adding to the time
it takes to individually set the IP addresses is the fact that each address must be
unique. Duplicate IP addresses will prevent a successful connection to the
network, meaning that all network services will be unavailable to the
workstations with the duplicate addresses. When you’re setting static IP
addresses, it is essential to track assigned IP addresses carefully to prevent
duplicating addresses and to make future expansion and troubleshooting easier.
In larger networks, the assignment of manual addresses can be a nightmare,
especially when IP addressing schemes can be changed and computers can be
moved, retired, or replaced. That’s where DHCP comes in. DHCP assigns IP
addresses, eliminating the need to assign IP addresses individually and making
the job of network administrators considerably easier. When a DHCP server is
running on a network, the workstation boots up and requests an IP address
from the server. The server responds to the request and automatically assigns
an IP address to the computer for a given period, known as a lease. The
workstation acknowledges the receipt of the IP address, and the workstation
has all the information it needs to become part of the network. This
communication between the server and the workstation happens completely
automatically and is invisible to the computer user.
Because of their capability to efficiently distribute IP addresses to network

workstations, DHCP servers are widely used in client/server environments.
People working with networks will most certainly encounter DHCP servers.
The critical nature of DHCP services means that companies often choose to
run more than one DHCP server. Mechanisms built in to DHCP allow this to
happen.

UNIT 2
SESSION 2
Firewall
A firewall is a computer networking security device - software or hardware -
which restrict unauthorized access into your personal computers or
organizational network. It also restricts also filter traffic coming in from the
internet or going out of your LAN.
Function of firewall
• It is designed to protect your computer or network resources and data
by filtering and blocking unsolicited incoming traffic or unrecognized
sources from gaining unauthorized access to your private data on your
computer.
• It can also block malicious applications, software, and programs from
infecting your computer.
• Firewall controls access between other segments within the same or a
single network. Thus, within the same organization, firewall can also be
placed between two segments. For example the training unit and
administration unit.
To perform its role or function effectively firewalls are normally placed

between the organizations network and the internet. In other words, a firewall
acts as a barrier or filter between your computer or organisation network and
another network such as the internet. It act as a traffic controller that help to
protect your network and information by managing your network traffic. This
includes blocking unsolicited incoming network traffic and validating access
by assessing network traffic for anything malicious like hackers and malware
Most operating systems such as Microsoft windows have firewalls pre-
installed. It is the responsibility of the user to turn on the security settings to be
sure they are configured and run updates automatically. Organizations
implement software or internal firewalls through network operating (NOS).
Examples of network operating systems are Linux/Unix (flavors include
Redhat, Ubuntu, Fedora etc.), Windows servers (2003, 2008, 2012, 2016,
2019), and Mac OS servers. The software type of firewall is configured on the
server to allow or block certain types of network traffic. On our pc’s firewall
comes with the client operating system and can be configured to control access
into our pc’s. There are several other third-party firewalls that can be acquired
and installed in our pc’s or networks of all sizes. The hardware firewalls also
known as physical firewalls are often dedicated network devices that can be

implemented with very little configuration. They protect all systems behind the
firewall from outside sources. Hardware firewalls are readily available and
often are combined with other devices today. For example, many broadband
routers and wireless access points have firewall functionality built in. In such a
case, the router or AP might have a number of ports available to plug systems
into.
Cisco Firewall connected to switch
Types of firewalls
There are several firewalls that can be implemented depending on the size of
the organization
Packet-filtering firewalls
This is a software firewall that can block network traffic IP protocol, an IP
address, and a port number. This type of firewall is the most basic form of
protection and is meant for smaller networks.
Proxy service firewalls

This type of firewall serves as a gateway between your internal network and
the internet for specific applications by preventing direct connections from
outside the network. Also known as gateway firewall, this type of firewall
filters messages and applications at the application layer.

UNIT 2
SESSION 2
Stateful multi-layer inspection (SMLI) firewalls

Allows or blocks traffic based on state, port, and protocol. It monitors all
activity from the opening of a connection until it is closed. Filtering decisions
are made based on both administrator-defined rules as well as context. This
involves using data from prior connections and packets from the same
connection.
Unified threat management (UTM) firewalls

UTM firewall that combines the functions of the SMLI firewall with intrusion
prevention and antivirus. Additional services like cloud management may be
included under the UTM umbrella of services.
Threat focused Next-generation firewalls (NGFW)

Next-generation firewalls are more sophisticated than packet-filtering and
stateful inspection firewalls. Because they have more levels of security, going
beyond standard packet-filtering to inspect a packet in its entirety. That means
inspecting not just the packet header, but also a packet’s contents and source.
NGFW can block more sophisticated and evolving security threats like
advanced malware.
Network address translation (NAT) firewalls

A NAT firewall can assess internet traffic and block
unsolicited communications. In other words, it only accepts inbound web
traffic if a device on your private network solicited it.
Virtual firewalls
A virtual firewall is an appliance used in a cloud-based system, both private
and public. This type of firewall is used to assess and manage internet traffic
over both physical and virtual networks.
We have come to the end of this session. This session

focused on routers, firewalls and DHCP servers. We tried to
distinguish between a wireless router and a wired router. We also got to
understand the functions of a firewall. Continue to read to complete this unit.

Exercise 1.5
1. Explain how DHCP works

2. State three functions of a firewall
3. Explain functions of a Router
4. Describe the role of access point in computer network.

UNIT 2
SESSION 3
SESSION 3: ENCRYPTION DEVICES
Encryption is an incredibly important tool for keeping your

data safe. When your files are encrypted, they are completely
unreadable without the correct encryption key. This makes the document
unreadable to unauthorized persons would want to read the document. If
someone steals your encrypted files, they won’t be able to use them.
Objectives
1. Describe the two types of encryption
2. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of the hardware and software
encryptions
Now read on …
3.1 Software Encryption

Software encryptions uses software tools (such as Bitlocker – a Microsoft
utility software and IPassword manager) to encrypt data. Both use encryption
tools to protect information on your PC, smartphone, or tablet. Software
encryption typically relies on a password; give the right password, and your
files will be decrypted, otherwise they remain locked. With encryption
enabled, it is passed through a special algorithm that scrambles your data as it
is written to disk. The same software then unscrambles data as it is read from
the disk for an authenticated user.
Advantages of Software Encryption

1. Software encryption is typically quite cheap to implement, making it very
popular with developers.
2. Also, software-based encryption routines do not require any additional
hardware.

UNIT 2 ENCRYPTION DEVICES
SESSION 3
Disadvantages of Software Encryption

1. Software encryption is only as secure as the rest of your computer or
smartphone.
2. If a hacker can crack your password, the encryption is immediately
undone.
3. Software encryption tools also share the processing resources of your
computer, which can cause the entire machine to slow down as data is
encrypted/decrypted.
4. the process is relatively resource intensive, particularly for higher
levels of encryption. Thus, It takes more processing power and time.
5. It is does not perform well on large quantity of data.
3.2 Hardware Encryption

Hardware encryption means the encryption happens within the drive. For
instance, solid state drive (SSD) that has encryption built into the hardware.
This type of SSD is called a Self-Encrypting Drive (SED). Hardware
encryption has a separate processor dedicated to the task of authentication and
encryption. Hardware encryption such as The TouchID fingerprint scanner on
Apple iPhones is increasingly common on mobile devices. Hardware
encryption devices can be classified into hardware Trusted Platform Module
(TPM) and hardware security module (HSM).
The table below shows the characteristics of TPM and HSM

UNIT 2
SESSION 3
Hardware encryption technology relies on a special key to encrypt and decrypt

data, but this is randomly generated by the encryption processor. Often,
hardware encryption devices replace traditional passwords with biometric
logons (like fingerprints) or a PIN number that is entered on an attached
keypad.
Advantage of Hardware Encryption

1. Hardware encryption is safer than software encryption because the
encryption process is separate from the rest of the machine. This makes it
much harder to intercept or break.
2. The use of a dedicated processor also relieves the burden on the rest of
your device, making the encryption and decryption process much faster.
3. hardware encryption is that it is much quicker than software encryption.
4. Provide better performance compared to compared to software encryption
type.
Disadvantages of Hardware Encryption

1. Typically, hardware-based encrypted storage is much more expensive than
a software tool. For instance, BitLocker is included for free with all new
versions of Microsoft Windows, but an encrypted USB thumb drive is
quite expensive, especially when compared to an unencrypted alternative.
2. If the hardware decryption processor fails, it becomes extremely hard to
access your information.
This session mainly focused on encryption. Two types of

encryptions were mentioned; software and hardware
encryptions. We also looked at their advantages and disadvantages. Don’t
forget that encryption is basically meant to secure data and make unreadable to
unauthorized persons.
Exercise 1.5
1. State and describe the two types of encryptions
2. Give two (2) advantages and disadvantages each of the two types of
encryptions

UNIT 2 ENCRYPTION DEVICES
SESSION 3


UNIT 2
SESSION 4
SESSION 4: SPECIALIZE NETWORK DEVICES
Welcome to session four of Unit 2. There are some network

devices that are not common because they are not frequencly
used in local area networks. They could also be referred to as special-purpose
devices. These include bandwidth shaper, content switches, proxy servers and
virtual private network connectors. These are speciallised network devices.
Lets continue the reading to know more about these devices.
Objectives
1. Describe the functions of bandwidth shaper
2. Explain the functions of Multilayer and content switches
3. State the functions of Proxy server
4. Describe the functions of VPN Connector.
Now read on …
4.1 Internet Bandwidth shaping

The demand for bandwidth on networks has never been higher. To ensure that
internet connection continues to meet the needs of an organization, many
organizations and institutions use bandwidth shaping to their internet traffic.
Bandwidth shaping is also known as the traffic shaping. It allows network
administrators to assign priorities to data traveling to and from the internet.
Internet and intranet applications demand a large amount of bandwidth, it is
therefore the responsibility of the network administrator to ensure adequate
bandwidth is available for critical applications while few band with is
dedicated to peer-to - peer downloads. To do this, you need to monitor network
traffic to ensure that data is flowing as you need it to.
Bandwidth shaping also refers to as the mechanism used to control the use of
bandwidth on a network. With this mechanism, network administrators can
who uses bandwidth, the purpose for using the bandwith and what time of the
day the bandwidth can be used. This allows the administrator to set priorities
for data travelling to and from the internet or intranet.

UNIT 2 SPECIALIZE NETWORK DEVICES
SESSION 4
The figure below shows a bandwidth shaper. A bandwidth shaper normally

sits between the internet and LAN. It has two key functions – network
monitoring and bandwidth shaping. Network Monitoring includes identifying
where bandwidth usage is high and the time of day. In other words, you can
monitor your LAN connections for types of traffic using the network
bandwidth. The traffic shaping helps to set rules for how to use the internet
connection. This is possible after obtaining information from the network
monitor. Administrators can customize or shape bandwidth usage for the best
needs of the network.
4.2 Multilayer and Content Switches

It used to be that networking devices and the functions they performed were
pretty much separate. We had bridges, routers, hubs, and more, but they were
separate devices. Over time, the functions of some individual network devices
became integrated into a single device. This is true of multilayer switches.
A multilayer switch is one that can operate at both Layer 2 and Layer 3 of the
OSI model, which means that the multilayer device can operate as both a
switch and a router. Also called a Layer 3 switch, the multilayer switch is a
high-performance device that actually supports the same routing protocols that

UNIT 2
SESSION 4
routers do. It is a regular switch directing traffic within the LAN; in addition, it
can forward packets between subnets.
NOTE
Note that a multilayer switch operates as both a router and a switch.
A content switch is another specialized device. A content switch is not as

common on today’s networks, mostly due to cost. A content switch examines
the network data it receives, decides where the content is intended to go, and
forwards it. The content switch can identify the application that data is targeted
for by associating it with a port. For example, if data is using the SMTP port, it
could be forwarded to an SMTP server.
Content servers can help with load balancing because they can distribute
requests across servers and target data to only the servers that need it or
distribute data between application servers. For example, if multiple mail
servers are used, the content switch can distribute requests between the servers,
thereby sharing the load evenly. This is why the content switch is sometimes
called a load-balancing switch.
Note A content switch can distribute incoming data to specific application

servers and help distribute the load.
4.3 Load balancer

Network servers are the workhorses of the network. They are relied on to hold
and distribute data, maintain backups, secure network communications, and
more. The load of servers is often a lot for a single server to maintain. This is
where load balancing comes into play. Load balancing is a technique in which
the workload is distributed between several servers. This feature can take
networks to the next level; it increases network performance, reliability, and
availability.
Load balancing increases redundancy and therefore data availability. Also,

load balancing increases performance by distributing the workload

SESSION 4
4.4 Proxy servers

Typically proxy servers are a part of the firewall system. They perform a
unique role in the network environment—a role that is very separate from that
of a firewall. Proxy server is a bridge between the client and the internet. It can
also be defined” as a server that sits between a client computer and the
Internet, looking at the web page requests the client sends”. When a clients surf
the net, s/he connects directly to the website s/he visits. It is the proxy server
that communicate with the internet on the client’s behalf.
4.5 Types of proxy servers

There are several proxy servers. The primary difference between these types is
the degree of privacy they provide.
Transparent proxies
Transparent proxies has no added privacy or security. It allows webservers to
obtain clients actual IP address and they also can tell which client is connecting
via a proxy. Transparent proxies are normally used in for content filtering and
caching instead and not for security purposes. They are normally used on a
corporate or school network
Anonymous proxies
Anonymous proxies also known as distorting proxies pass fake client IP
address to webservers. In other words they promise not to disclose client IP to
websites or services used by the client. like transparent proxies, anonymous
proxies also don’t conceal the fact that you’re using a proxy. If some sites
choose to deny service to proxy users, you won’t be able to visit them while
using an anonymous proxy. These types of proxies are preferred if you seek to
gain a some control over your online privacy.
High anonymity proxies

high anonymity proxies are also known as elite proxies are a step up from your
regular anonymous proxy. The fundamentals are the same, except high
anonymity proxies also disguise your use of the proxy itself. A website won’t
be able to detect that you’re using a proxy if you use one of these.
High anonymity proxies achieve this added protection by periodically altering
your new IP address and also withholding any clues that they are serving as
proxies on your behalf. They’re the most secure type of proxy.

UNIT 2
SESSION 4
4.6 How does the Proxy server work?

By now you need to understand that a device on the internet is either a client or
server, client devices sends request for data from server(s) and servers respond
to client request. This is done through the web browsers. When a request is
sent by the client, the server field the request and respond back to the client
with the requested data. Without the proxy, the client communicates with the
web servers directly. When this happens the client computer or IP address will
be exposed to the public. To avoid this, a proxy server is introduced to sit
between the clients or the client network and the internet. The proxy server
therefore handles all traffic on behalf and the client’s network.
If a client computer wants to access a web page, the request is sent to the proxy
server rather than directly to the Internet. The proxy server first determines
whether the request is intended for the Internet or for a web server locally. If
the request is intended for the Internet, the proxy server sends the request as if
it originated the request. When the Internet web server returns the information,
the proxy server returns the information to the client. Although a delay might
be induced by the extra step of going through the proxy server, the process is
largely transparent to the client that originated the request. Because each
request a client sends to the Internet is channeled through the proxy server, the
proxy server can provide certain functionality over and above just forwarding
requests.
4.7 Roles of Proxy servers

Caching
One of the biggest features of proxy server is its ability to cache data. Caching
is the temporary storage of frequently access data which makes it easier and
faster to access it again in the future. See the figure below illustrates how
caching proxy server works. When a caching proxy server answers a request
for a web page, the server makes a copy of all or part of that page in its cache.
Then, when the page is requested again, the proxy server answers the request
from the cache rather than going back to the Internet. For example, if a client
on a network requests the web page www.ucc.edu.gh the proxy server can
cache the contents of that web page. When a second client computer on the
network attempts to access the same site, that client can grab it from the proxy
server cache, and accessing the Internet is unnecessary. This greatly increases
the response time to the client and can significantly reduce the bandwidth

SESSION 4
needed to fulfill client requests. Caching is important since it allows computers

to quickly access information from the internet. However, it has a potential
drawback in that, the data cashed are normally not up to date it is therefore
important for the proxy server to constantly update it’s cached data.
Note that the proxy server is just another computer with an IP that sit between
your network and the internet. It’s primary function is to forward all
communication to the internet at large.
Content filter
Another import role of the proxy server is its ability to allow the network
administrator to filter client request. This administrative function is meant to
allow network administrators regulate the incoming request with a firewall.
Thus the administrators can block or disallow access to undesired websites.
They can also act as content filters by blocking undesired outgoing traffic that
company workers or students may want to visit. The act of determining
outgoing or incoming traffic is done through what is called access control list
(ACL). The ACL is a list of allowed or nonallowed websites.
Firewalls: the proxy server serves as the best place to host the network
firewall. We shall discuss firewalls later in this unit. But note that fire is a
security technology designed to protect the network from hacking and
malwares. It is designed to intercept either approve or block incoming traffic
before it reaches the network.

UNIT 2
SESSION 4
Despites their ability to hide client’s information proxy server protection is not
likely to be as strong as that of VPN which hides your IP address while also
shielding your traffic from would-be snoopers with encryption.
4.8 Virtual Private Network (VPN) Concentrator

A VPN concentrator is a type of networking device that provides secure
creation of VPN connections and delivery of messages between VPN nodes. It
is a type of router device, built specifically for creating and managing VPN
communication infrastructures.”.
Functions of VPN Concentrators

A VPN concentrator is typically used for creating site-to-site VPN
architectures. Other functions include
• It authenticates remote users who are attempting to access the central
server(s)
• It negotiates and defines the tunnel permutations and parameters
• It can encrypt and decrypt the information and the data that is
transmitted across in it
• It can manage the security keys that are associated with the VPN
network that you are using
• It can optimize the flow of Data Packet traffic across the various tunnel
connections that have been established
• Ensure end-to-end delivery of data
• Assign tunnel/IP addresses to users
Hello Students, all too soon, we have come to the end of this
session. We want state that proxy servers are very important
in private networks. They do caching and filtering thereby preventing
unauthorized access to a network. Don’t forget to a proxy server in your
network. Let’s move to the last but one session of this unit.
Exercise 2.4
1. State four specialized network devices
2. Describe the functions of the devices listed in question 1

SESSION 4


UNIT 2
SESSION 5
SESSION 5: VIRTUAL NETWORK COMPONENTS
A virtual network is a networking system that emulates a

physical network by combining the hardware and software
network resources to form a single administrative unit. Virtual network
components include virtual switch (vSwitch) which emulates virtually all the
traditional Ethernet switches, performing functions such as forwarding frames
and virtual local area network (VLAN) segmentation. When implemented
correctly, virtual networks can enhance network scalability, streamline digital
security and minimize an organization’s costs. Discover the basics of a virtual
network and the terminology associated with it in this session.
Objectives
1. Define virtualization
2. Mention the benefits virtual Desktop in computer networks
3. Explain the benefits of virtual servers
Now read on …
5.1 What is Virtualization?

Before we dive into what a virtual desktop is we need to understand what
virtualization relies on computer operating system to create abstraction layer
over computer hardware such as memory, hard disk, processes and so on, to be
divided into several virtual computers called virtual machines. I short
virtualization is the process creating a virtual computer using a computer
software to simulate the physical hardware function. The technology
(virtualization) is cost saving because it can be implemented using the open-
source technologies such as virtual box. Example of virtualization softwares
are Hyper V, VM ware, Microsoft Azure, VM ware workstation, Oracle VM
ESXi, Citrix Hypervisor, SQL Server on Virtual Machines, etc. Another
example of virtual desktop technology is Microsoft Remote Desktop Services
(RDS), which allows multiple users to share a single Windows Server
operating system instance. RDS does not rely on virtualization software;
instead, the OS is installed directly on a server, and a remote display protocol
presents components of the OS to the endpoint device.

UNIT 2 VIRTUAL NETWORK COMPONENTS
SESSION 5
An operating system installed directly on one PC and accessed on another

endpoint device over a network is also considered a virtual desktop.
5.2 Virtual Desktop

By their nature personal computers can run multiple operating systems. This
allows the computer to run an operating system one at a time. With
virtualization personal computers can run multiple instances of operating
systems at the same time. Thus, a computer can run Windows 8, Ubuntu,
Redhat at the same time allowing user and developers to test applications, copy
and paste files on the different operating system without closing them the
operating systems.
A virtual desktop is a computer operating system that does not run directly on
the endpoint hardware from which a user accesses it. Virtual desktops are
accessible through client software called virtual machine (virtual machines are
installed on servers, pcs or in the cloud to create multiple desktops) that is
installed directly on a PC which presents the desktop to the user and allows
them to interact with it using a keyboard, mouse, touch screen and peripherals.
Virtual desktops can also be installed on a physical machine hosted on premise
or in the cloud. Within the cloud and a networked environment each virtual
desktop must be connected to the internet or intranet and configuration
permissions. Virtual machines hosted in the cloud allows end users to access
their unique desktop environment, including operating system and
applications, remotely over a network, through client software or a web
browser on the endpoint device of their choice. The technology that allows us
to run desktop operating systems on VMs on on-premises servers is known as
virtual desktop infrastructure (VDI). Offerings that do the same, but in the
cloud, are known as desktop as a service (DaaS).
Type of virtual VDI.

There are two ways to approach VDI - persistent desktops and nonpersistent
desktops.
A persistent desktop,
A persistent desktop maintains user settings and data so that each time a user
logs in, all of their applications, customizations, shortcuts and files appear.
Because persistent desktops require more storage, backup and other

UNIT 2
SESSION 5
infrastructure and administrative resources, many VDI deployments use

nonpersistent desktops or a mix of both.
Nonpersistent Desktops
Also called stateless desktops, non-persistent desktops do not retain personal
information. Each time a user logs in, he gets a fresh, generic virtual desktop
from a golden image that all users share. At the end of each session, the
desktop reverts to its original state. The primary benefit of the nonpersistent
desktop approach is that it requires less storage
Benefits of virtual desktops

1. Because OS are isolated on same computer virtual desktops can be
ideal for application testing. Developers often use virtualization to run
multiple desktops on the same endpoint,.
2. In addition, a virtual desktop can help solve application compatibility
challenges. For instance legacy OS like windows 7 can be implement
using VDI to run on window 10. This will allow applications that are
designed for windows seven to be still used
3. VDI is cost effective because it reduces the cost of buying high-
performance PCs. The costs of deploying, maintaining and licensing
virtual desktops may outweigh this benefit.
4. Regardless of device, users have the same experience of their desktop
and work environment each time they log in, a consistency that
promotes productivity.
5.3 Virtual servers

A virtual server mimics the functionality of a physical dedicated server. Just
like virtual desktop multiple virtual servers can be implemented on a single
physical server each with different server operating system (such as Ubuntu,
Microsoft Windows server 2016, Redhat) and provisioning. A virtual machine
server uses virtual infrastructure, virtualization software and abstracts the
physical server’s computer resources to create virtual environments.

SESSION 5
Benefits of virtual Servers

The benefits include:
1. Virtual service allows for faster provisioning of applications and resources,
2. improved disaster recovery and business continuity and minimized or
eliminated downtime.
3. Virtualization also increases IT productivity, agility, efficiency, and
responsiveness.
4. Additional benefits of virtual servers include reduced operating costs and
capital, and simplified data center management.
5. Virtual server hosting is less expensive than data center maintenance, and
server software installation provisioning may further reduce web hosting
costs. Virtual servers provide more efficient resource control and are cost-
effective through server virtualization. The ability to run multiple operating
systems and applications on a single physical machine reduces the cost as it
consumes less space, hardware, and energy.
6. Server virtualization improves the manageability of the system as a virtual
server environment can be centrally managed with fewer machines,
hardware, and administrators. Also, Server virtualization is more efficient.
You have more space by using the virtualization of your servers.
7. With virtual servers, it is easy to decouple and migrate an operating system
and its applications encapsulate in a virtual machine from one physical
machine to another. This ensures the high availability and reliability of the
services.
8. A virtual server environment enhances cybersecurity and minimize IT
overhead. It is more secure than a physical server infrastructure. As the
operating system and its applications are enclosed in a virtual machine, the
security attacks and malicious behaviours will also be contained inside the
virtual machine.
9. Virtual servers are useful in testing and debugging applications in different
operating systems and versions. With the help of multiple virtual machines,
you can test and debug applications in different operating systems without
having to manually install and run them in several physical machines.
10. Scalability: A reliable VDI solution helps scale key applications and
services to increasingly mobile users and remote teams. Whether staffing
up temporarily, as in the case of seasonal workers or contractors, or making
a permanent shift to a more distributed remote workforce, organizations
can expand the VDI environment quickly, enabling users to be functional

UNIT 2
SESSION 5
within minutes with immediate access to enterprise virtual desktop

workloads and their respective apps.
In this session, we discussed virtualization and its

importance. This may not be the first time you are hearing
the word virtualization. Virtualization is a way of reducing cost and also using
different operating systems on one machine. You can try your hands on how to
use virtual machines. Let’s move to the last session to complete the unit.
Exercise 1.5
1. Define virtualization
2. State and explain five benefits of virtual Desktop in computer networks
3. State and explain five benefits of virtual servers in computer networks

SESSION 5


UNIT 2
SESSION 6
SESSION 6: MORE ON VIRTUAL NETWORK

COMPONENTS
Earlier in this module we discussed some of the physical

devices used on a computer network. In this session, we shall
learn more about the network components in virtual environment.
Objectives
1. State at least three components of a virtual switch.
2. Explain the functions of virtual network devices
3. State the differences between physical switch and virtual switch
Now read on …
6.1 Virtual switches

In our previous discussions we learned that a physical network switch connect
devices and enable communication on a computer network. The port of the
network device for example a printer is usually linked to an associated port at
the switch. The switch therefore guide the flow of traffic forwarding packets of
data to a designated device, enabling a variety networking functions in return.
Like physical switches, virtual switches enable network components, like

virtual machines (for example, virtual desktop and virtual servers), to
communicate with each other and the outside world, where a virtual machine
acts as a kind of operating system that imitates dedicated hardware.
Additionally, just as the physical network port (or NIC of a physical device) of
a device is connected to a port at the switch, a virtual machine and its
associated virtualized network adapter are connected to a switch through
virtual wires and not physical wired Ethernet cable. This requires creating
virtual switches with a hypervisor, which hosts multiple virtual machines on a
single piece of computer hardware. They are also like physical switches in
being isolated, which thwarts virtual machines from sharing resources with
each other.

UNIT 2 MORE ON VIRTUAL NETWORK
SESSION 6 COMPONENTS
Difference between physical switch and virtual Switches

Virtual switches provide greater flexibility in configuration compared to
physical switches. For example, if several ports are needed on a virtual switch,
its properties can be edited and modified on demand. Physical switches, by
contrast, require either the addition of switches or line cards to a chassis-based
switch. Moreover, virtual switches don’t just help with network traffic flows.
They are also intelligent. Whenever a virtual switch receives a data packet, it
reviews the data packet prior to forwarding it to the designated device.
Benefits of using virtual switches

1. Virtual switches boost security by leveraging isolation, control and
content inspection methods between virtual machines, which helps
deter inter-switch link attacks.
2. Network administrators can control virtual switches with a hypervisor.
3. Additionally, virtual switches can help with the migration of virtual
machines across physical hosts by eliminating the need to reconfigure
each virtual machine.
4. They can also enhance operational efficiency, improve
communications, and scale system bandwidth capacity.
Virtual Private Branch Exchange (Virtual PBX)

Virtual PBX is an advanced phone system which in essence is inexpensive and
easy to operate that transmit inbound phone calls over the internet using Voice
over Internet Protocol (VOIP) normally called voice over IP. Thus Virtual
PBX performs the same functions as the traditional PBX by using cloud-based
software and VoIP. VoIP uses IP addresses to identify extensions, replacing
physical phone lines and extension numbers. In this way, the local network,
connected to the Internet, also functions as your phone network. This type of
phone system is “virtual” for a reason; while it works with existing phones and
existing lines for businesses, it uses an internet connection to keep your
telecommunications line connected. You can forward calls, set up conference
calls, create greetings and more.
Offices that use virtual telecommunications can keep their communications

professional without compromising reliability. For example, when a customer
dials your local company number, they will be greeted by an auto-attendant.
The customized greeting will typically state your business name and include
commonly dialed extensions and departments, routing callers to the correct

UNIT 2
SESSION 6
extension. Greetings can even be customized to match your hours of

operations. If a customer calls after business hours, an after-hours message will
play with the option for the customer to leave a voicemail.
Virtual PBX systems are connected through the internet hence users can
receive calls on any phone in any location. Simply forward phone calls to an
offsite phone (home office, cell, friend’s house) and you can make sure each
and every call is answered in a timely manner. Organizations that use virtual
PBX reduce phone hold times, increase office efficiency. Customers can also
reach to the right staff without speaking to different employees in the
organization. This leads to customer satisfaction and retention. The commonly
used
Benefits of Virtual PBX

Both traditional and virtual PBXs provide forwarding, conferencing, customer
greetings, voicemail, and other features that have become standard practice for
business phone systems. However, virtual PBXs have some additional features
and benefits includes the following
Less hardware: Since a virtual PBX runs on the same network with Internet
access and data, there is no dedicated hardware or infrastructure needed.
Easier setup: Since it's cloud-based, a virtual PBX can be up and running more
quickly than a system requiring hardware installation.
Scalability: With its fast, hardware-free setup, a virtual PBX is especially well-
suited to businesses anticipating growth or needing connectivity in a variety of
locations.
Lower cost: Over the long term, a virtual PBX will cost less than a traditional,
locally hosted PBX.
Less IT management: Your virtual PBX provider typically takes care of
troubleshooting, performance monitoring, and software updates.
Forwarding flexibility: Since a virtual PBX uses IP addresses to route calls,
forwarding can be managed more easily. All that's required to receive a
forwarded call is a phone headset and an Internet connection.
Web-based management interface: For account and network management,
service providers typically include a web-based interface that offers analytics
tools and generates reports.

System is always up to date: Hardware systems can become obsolete without

ongoing upgrades. A good virtual PBX provider will always be working to
incorporate the latest technology and deliver an up-to-date product.
Easier integration: Because it's based on IP addresses, a virtual PBX is ready
by design to connect with outside apps like customer relationship software and
interactive voice response tools.
Phone flexibility: With an IP-based system, end users can use an IP phone,
landline phone, or soft phone (a headset attached to a computer).
Network as a Service (NaaS)

Is a cloud model that allows us to access to network infrastructure directly and
securely without owning, building or maintaining on-premise or their own
infrastructure. NaaS makes it possible to deploy custom routing protocols.
NaaS uses virtualized network infrastructure to provide network services to
the customer. It is the responsibility of NaaS provider to maintain and manage
the network resources. Having a provider working for a customer decreases the
workload of the customer. Moreover, NaaS offers network as a utility. NaaS
is also based on pay-per-use model.
How NaaS is delivered

To use NaaS model, the customer is required to logon to the web portal, where
he can get online API. Here, the customer can customize the route.
In turn, customer has to pay for the capacity used. It is also possible to turn off
the capacity at any time.
From the preceding paragraphs, we can say that NaaS can replace physical
network devices such as load balancers, firewall appliances, and Multiprotocol
Label Switching (MPLS) connections. Users can scale up and down as demand
changes, rapidly deploy services, and eliminate hardware costs.
Benefits of NaaS
NaaS simplifies how hardware and software technologies are managed and
consumed. It enables greater speed, agility, and scale. SD-WAN can be
deployed as a value-added service with NaaS to enhance performance,
security, redundancy, and application experience.
With the importance of NaaS, there is no doubt that it will continue to evolve
to include additional capabilities for scale as well as depth and breadth of
services.

UNIT 2
SESSION 6
IT simplicity and automation

Businesses benefit when they align their costs with actual usage. They don't
need to pay for surplus capacity that goes unused, and they can dynamically
add capacity as demands increase. Businesses that own their own infrastructure
must implement upgrades, bug fixes, and security patches in a timely manner.
Often, IT staff may have to travel to various locations to implement changes.
NaaS enables the continuous delivery of new fixes, features and capabilities. It
automates multiple processes such as onboarding new users and provides
orchestration and optimization for maximum performance. This can help to
eliminate the time and money spent on these processes. Enterprises rely on
vendors to provide full-lifecycle management.
Access from anywhere

Today's workers may require access to the network from anywhere—home or
office—on any devices and without relying on VPNs. NaaS can provide
enterprises with global coverage, low-latency connectivity enabled by a
worldwide POP backbone, and negligible packet loss when connecting to SaaS
applications, platform-as-a-service (PaaS)/infrastructure-as-a-service (IaaS)
platforms, or branch offices.
Enhanced security
NaaS results in tighter integration between the network and the network
security. Some vendors may "piece together" network security. By contrast,
NaaS solutions need to provide on-premise and cloud-based security to meet
today’s business needs, thereby accelerating transition to a secure access
service edge (SASE) architecture where and when it's needed.
Visibility and insights
NaaS provides proactive network monitoring, security policy enforcement,
advanced firewall and packet inspection capabilities, and modeling of the
performance of applications and the underlying infrastructure over time.
Customers may also have an option to co-manage the NaaS.
Improved application experience
In a multicloud world, it's critical to have connectivity that supports the same
user experience as if the application was hosted in-house. NaaS provides AI-
driven capabilities to help ensure SLAs and SLOs for capacity are met or
exceeded. NaaS provides the ability to route application traffic to help ensure
outstanding user experience and to proactively address issues that occur.

Flexibility
NaaS services are delivered through a cloud model to offer greater flexibility
and customization than conventional infrastructure. Changes are implemented
through software, not hardware. This is typically provided through a self-
service model. IT teams can, for example, reconfigure their corporate networks
on demand and add new branch locations in a fraction of the time. NaaS often
provides term-based subscription with usage billing and multiple payment
options to support various consumption requirements.
Scalability
NaaS is inherently more scalable than traditional, hardware-based networks.
NaaS customers simply purchase more capacity instead of purchasing,
deploying, configuring, and securing additional hardware. This means they can
scale up or down quickly as needs change.
Dear students, in this session we learned about virtual PBX

and its functions compared to traditional PBX. We also
looked at an infrastructure called Network as a Service (NaaS). I hope you did
enjoy reading the session. That brings us to the end of Unit 2.
Exercise 1.5
1. State and explain five benefits virtual PBX

2. In what way do you think NaaS will be beneficial to an organisation?

OSI AND TCP/ IP MODELS AND NETWORK
PROTOCOLS UNIT 3
UNIT 3: OSI AND TCP/ IP MODELS AND NETWORK

PROTOCOLS
Unit Outline
Session 1: The networking models: Open System Interconnection (OSI)
Session 2: The TCP/IP Four-layer model
Session 3: OSI and Network Component
Session 4: Networking Protocols 1 – Network Access, Internet and Host-To-
Host Layer Protocols
Session 5: Networking Protocols 2 – Process/Application Layer Protocols
Session 6: IP Address and Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)
Hello student, welcome to Unit 3 of the module for

Network Computing. This unit is meant to teach you about
two importance models of computer networking and what
network protocols are all about. These models are the open systems
interconnection (OSI) model which was developed by the International
Organization for Standardization and the TCP/IP and the United States’
Department of Defense Model (DoD). We will also try to juxtapose the OSI
model and networking components or devices to know where network devices
are found on the OSI model. The unit will also explain network protocols into
detail and then end the unit with notes on the automatic distribution of internet
protocol (IP) address through dynamic host configuration protocol (DHCP). I
hope you will enjoy reading the unit.
Unit Objectives
By the end of this unit, you should be able to:
1. Explain the functions of the OSI model and define the
communications subnetwork
2. Explain the TCP/IP four-layered model
3. Explain the OSI model in relation to network components
4. Explain the connection-oriented protocols and the functions of
protocols on the OSI model
5. Explain other networking protocols of the OSI model
6. Understand IP addresses and how Dynamic Host Configuration
Protocol (DHCP) works

UNIT 3 PROTOCOLS


UNIT 3
PROTOCOLS SESSION 1
SESSION 1: THE NETWORKING MODELS:

OPEN SYSTEMS INTERCONNECTION (OSI)
Hello lovely student, you are welcome to the first session of

Unit three. This session looks at networking models,
specifically the Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model, simply referred to
as the OSI model. This model is a very important in networking. Among the
functions of the model is that it explains the functions of the network. It also
explains the communication between two nodes or computers on a network.
Do you want know more about this model? Then, go on to read all that is in
this session.
Objectives
a) define the OSI model.
b) Identify the seven layers of the OSI Mode
c) explain the functions of the model
d) explain the characteristics and functions of the layers in the
model.
Read on now…
3.1 The Open Systems Interconnection Model (OSI)

You might have heard about the OSI model. What is this model about? Before
I start with the explanation, permit me to say that there a possibility of
confusing this abbreviation (OSI) with abbreviations like ISO and IOS. These
abbreviations are not the same, though they have the same number of letters
but different arrangements. While ISO refers to International Organisation for
Standardisation, IOS means Internetwork Operating System.
Open Systems Interconnect (OSI) reference model is one of the most important
networking concepts that networking students must understand in order to
appreciate how networks function. This conceptual model was created by the
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) in 1978 and revised in
1984. It describes a network architecture that enables data to be passed
between computer systems. It is structured into seven (7) layers and provides a
CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education) 83

THE NETWORKING ODELS: OPEN
UNIT 3
SESSION 1 SYSTEMS INTERCONNNECTION (OSI)
standard for different computer systems to be able to communicate with each

other. It must be noted that it is a conceptual or theoretical model. This means
it not a physical to tangible structure but is believed that it exist. The layers are
structured as follows:
Functions of the OSI Model

The functions of the OSI model include:
1. it enables different vendors devices or communication systems to
interoperate or work together.
2. It divides network functions into smaller unit so that they could be
understood
3. It helps to break down network problems and isolate the source of the
trouble. If the problem can be narrowed down to one specific layer of the
model, a lot of unnecessary work can be avoided. This is to say that it aids
in troubleshooting network problems.
The OSI Seven-Layer Model

The OSI reference model, as displayed in Figure 1, is built from bottom to top,
in the following order: physical, data link, network, transport, session,
presentation, and application. The physical layer is classified as Layer 1, and
the top layer of the model, the application layer, is Layer 7.
Computer A Computer B
7 Application 7 Application
6 Presentation 6 Presentation
5 Session 5 Session
4 Transport 4 Transport
3 Network 3 Network
2 Data Link 2 Data Link
1 Physical 1 Physical
Figure 3.1. OSI reference model

UNIT 3
PROTOCOLS SESSION 1
What are the Functions of each of the Seven layers?

Each layer of the OSI model has a specific function. The following sections describe
the function of each layer, starting with the physical layer and working up the model.
Physical Layer (Layer 1)

1. The physical layer of the OSI model identifies the network’s physical
characteristics, including the following specifications:
a. Hardware: The type of media used on the network, such as type of
cable, type of connector, and pinout format for cables.
b. Topology: The physical layer identifies the topology to be used in
the network. Common topologies include ring, mesh, star, and bus.
2. The physical layer defines the voltage used on a given medium and the
frequency at which the signals that carry the data operate. These
characteristics dictate the speed and bandwidth of a given medium, as well
as the maximum distance over which a certain media type can be used.
3. In this layer, data is converted into a bit stream or binary, which is a string
of 1s and 0s. The physical layer of both devices must also agree on a signal
convention so that the 1s can be distinguished from the 0s on both devices.
Data Link Layer (Layer 2)

1. This layer responsible for getting data to the physical layer so that it can be
transmitted over the network.
2. The data link layer is also responsible for error detection, error correction,
and hardware addressing. The protocol data unit associated with this unit is
termed frame which describes the logical grouping of data.
3. The data link layer has two distinct sublayers:

a. Media Access Control (MAC) layer: The MAC address is defined
at this layer. The MAC address is the physical or hardware address
burned into each network interface card (NIC). The MAC sublayer
also controls access to network media. The MAC layer
specification is included in the IEEE 802.1 standard.
b. Logical Link Control (LLC) layer: The LLC layer is responsible
for the error and flow-control mechanisms of the data link layer.
The LLC layer is specified in the IEEE 802.2 standard.

UNIT 3
Network Layer (Layer 3)

1. Routing: The primary responsibility of the network layer is routing—
providing mechanisms by which data can be passed from one network
system to another. The network layer does not specify how the data is
passed, but rather provides the mechanisms to do so. Functionality at the
network layer is provided through routing protocols, which are software
components.
2. Path Selection: The network layer is also responsible for route selection,
or path selection. This refers to determining the best path for the data to
take throughout the network. In contrast to the data link layer, which uses
MAC addresses to communicate on the LAN, network layer protocols use
software configured addresses and special routing protocols to
communicate on the network.
3. The network layer breaks up segments from the transport layer into smaller
units, called packets, on the sender’s device, and reassembling these
packets on the receiving device.
Transport Layer (Layer 4)

1. The basic function of the transport layer is to provide mechanisms to
transport data between network devices. Primarily it does this in three
ways:
2. It does error checking, i.e. Protocols at the transport layer ensure that data
is correctly sent or received.
3. It also does service addressing, i.e. the transport layer ensures that data is
passed to the right service at the upper layers of the OSI model.
4. Data Segmentation: It is the responsibility of this layer to break blocks of

data from the session layer into chunks called segments before sending it to
layer 3. This process is called segmentation.
5. Delivery of data: It is responsible for delivery of data from one end of
network to the other.

UNIT 3
PROTOCOLS SESSION 1
6. Data flow-control: This layer is also responsible for data flow control,
which refers to how the receiving device can accept data transmissions.
7. Protocols that operate at the transport layer can either be connectionless,

such as User Datagram Protocol (UDP), or connection-oriented, such as
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Session Layer (Layer 5)

1. This layer is responsible for opening and closing communication between
the two devices. The time between when the communication is opened and
closed is known as the session.
2. The session layer is responsible for managing and controlling the
synchronization of data between applications on two devices. It does this
by establishing, maintaining, and breaking sessions.
Presentation Layer (Layer 6)

1. Data Formatting: This layer converts the data intended for or received
from the application layer into another format. Such conversion is
necessary because of how data is formatted so that it can be transported
across the network. It is responsible for data formatting. Some common
data formats handled by the presentation layer include the following:
• Graphics files: JPEG, TIFF, GIF, and so on are graphics file formats
that require the data to be formatted in a certain way.
• .Text and data: The presentation layer can translate data into different
formats, such as American Standard Code for Information Interchange
(ASCII) and Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code
(EBCDIC).
• Sound/video: MPEG, MP3, and MIDI files all have their own data
formats to and from which data must be converted.
2. Data preparation: This layer is primarily responsible for preparing data so
that it can be used by the application layer; in other words, layer 6 makes
the data presentable for applications to consume.
3. Data encryption and decryption: This layer is responsible for encryption,
which is the scrambling of data so that it can’t be read by anyone other than
the intended recipient.
4. Data Compression: The presentation layer is also responsible for
compressing data it receives from the application layer before delivering

UNIT 3
it to layer 5 to improve the speed and efficiency of communication by

minimizing the amount of data that will be transferred.
5. Data encoding and decoding: The layer 6 is responsible for translating
incoming data into a syntax that the application layer of the receiving
device can understand.
Application Layer (Layer 7)

1. This is the only layer that directly interacts with data from the user.
Software applications like web browsers and email clients rely on the
application layer to initiate communications. In other words, the
application layer takes requests and data from the users and pass them to
the lower layers of the OSI model. Some of the most basic application-
layer services include file and print capabilities.
2. The application layer defines the processes that enable applications to use
network services. For example, if an application needs to open a file from a
network drive, the functionality is provided by components that reside at
the application layer.
Note: Application layer protocols include HTTP as well as SMTP (Simple
Mail Transfer Protocol is one of the protocols that enables email
communications).
Dear student, all too soon we have come to the end of this
session. This session basically treated the OSI Model which
is a well-known model in computer networks. We got to know that the OSI
model is conceptual model not a physical one but it is very important for so
many reasons. Some of these reasons were enumerated in this session. We
have you have learnt a lot from this session. The next session takes us to
looking at the TCP/IP Four-layer model. Continue to read on…

UNIT 3
PROTOCOLS SESSION 1
Exercise 3.1
1. What does OSI mean?
A. Open System Interface
B. Open Systems Interconnection
C. Open Shortest Interior
D. Open Source Interconnection
2. Which organization created the OSI model?
A. Ghana Standard Authority
B. International Organisation for Standardisation
C. Department of Defense
D. International Standard Board
3. Which is the fourth layer in the OSI model
A. Presentation layer
B. Session layer
C. Physical layer
D. Transport layer

UNIT 3


OSI AND TCP/ IP MODELS AND NETWORK UNIT 3
PROTOCOLS SESSION 2
SESSION 2: THE TCP/IP FOUR-LAYER MODEL
Hello students, welcome to session two of Unit Three. We

hope you did enjoy the just ended session on OSI. If I may
ask, how many layers are in the OSI conceptual model? Good! You’ve got it
right if you said seven. In this session we’re going to look at the TCP/IP model
and compare it to the OSI model. Do you know that the TCP/IP model came
before OSI? Yes, TCP/IP model is a four-layered model whiles OSI is 7. And
the more you understand this models, the better you will understand
networking. Don’t waste time, let’s read to learn more about this equally
important model in network.
Objectives
1. Explain what the TCP/IP model is about
2. Compare the layers of the OSI and TCP/IP models.
Now read on…
2.1 Background to TCP/IP Model

We just finished reading about the OSI 7-layered conceptual model and we
saw how importance the model is in networking. The TCP/IP model, also
referred to as the Department of Defense (DoD) Model, is a four-Layer model
developed around 1974 for the USA’s Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency (DARPA) internetwork project. The TCP/IP model performs the same
functions. This has eventually grown into the modern day Internet.
TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol, Internet Protocol. This is the
main protocol that runs the internet. The Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
handles reliable delivery of messages, and The Internet Protocol (IP) manages
the routing (route) of network transmission from the sender to the receiver.
TCP/IP defines how electronic devices such as computers are connected to the
Internet and how data is transmitted between them.
As indicated earlier, the TCP/IP model functions the same manner as the OSI
with only four layers. Figure 3.2 shows how these four layers line up with the
seven layers of the OSI model.

UNIT 3 THE TCP/IP FOUR-LAYER MODEL
SESSION 2
Figure 3.2. TCP/IP Model
What is Transmission Control Protocol?

As already indicated, TCP stands for Transmission Control Protocol, a
communications standard that enables application programs and computing
devices to exchange messages over a network. It is designed to send packets
across the internet and ensure the successful delivery of data and messages
over networks. In addition, it is one of the basic standards that define the rules
of the internet and is included within the standards defined by the Internet
Engineering Task Force (IETF). It is one of the most commonly used protocols
within digital network communications and ensures end-to-end data delivery.
What is IP?
The Internet Protocol (IP) is the method for sending data from one device to
another across a network and for that matter the internet. IP is the main
protocol within the internet layer of the TCP/IP. Every device on a network has
a unique address called an IP address that identifies it and enables it to
communicate with and exchange data with other devices connected to the
network or internet. It will be looked at into detail in the later part of this
module.

PROTOCOLS SESSION 2
The 4 Layers of the TCP/IP Model

The TCP/IP model describes how devices transmit data between them and enables
communication over networks and large distances. The model represents how data
is exchanged and organized over networks. It is split into four layers, unlike OSI
which has seven layers. These layers set the standards for data exchange and
represent how data is handled and packaged when being delivered between
applications, devices, and servers.
The DoD model is basically a condensed version of the OSI model—it's

composed of four, instead of seven, layers:
4. Process/Application layer
3. Host-to-Host layer
2. Internet layer
1. Network Access layer
Figure 3.2 compares the DoD model and the OSI reference model. As you can
see, the two are similar in concept, but each has a different number of layers
with different names.
Functions of the Layers

To explain how the DoD/TCP/IP model works, it must be stated that the two
work the same way. However, the Network Access layer of the TCP/IP model
maps to two of the layers on the OSI, that is, Data Link and Physical layers.
There are a few functions of that layer.
Network Access Layer

1. The Network Access layer monitors the data exchange between the host
and the network.
2. It also oversees MAC addressing and defines protocols for the physical
transmission of data.
Internet Layer
1. The Internet layer exists for routing and providing a single network
interface to the upper layers. IP provides the single network interface for
the upper layers. This layer maps to the network layer on the OSI layer.

UNIT 3 THE TCP/IP FOUR-LAYER MODEL
SESSION 2
Host-to-Host Layer
1. This layer shields the upper layers from the process of sending data.
2. Also provides an end-to-end connection between two devices during
communication by performing sequencing, acknowledgments, checksums,
and flow control.
3. Applications using services at this layer can use two different protocols:
TCP and UDP.
4. It maps to the transport layer on the OSI model.
Process Application Layer

1. Defines protocols for node-to-node application communication and also
controls user interface specifications.
2. It consists of a set of services that provide ubiquitous access to all types of
networks. Applications utilize the services to communicate with other
devices and remote applications.
3. It maps to three layers on the OSI model, namely, Application, presentation
and session layer.
In this session, you have learnt about TCP/IP or DoD Model.

You have learnt compare the difference between the OSI
model and TCP/IP model. You also able to understand the functions of the
layers in the TCP/IP model. The next session looks at the OSI in relation to
network Components or devices.
Exercise 3.2
1. State three differences between the OSI model and TCP/IP model.
2. List two functions of the Process Application layer of the DoD/TCP/IP
model
3. Which layer on the OSI model does Network layer of DoD model maps to?

PROTOCOLS SESSION 3
SESSION 3: OSI AND NETWORK COMPONENTS
You are most welcome to session three of Unit 3. As noted

in session one, OSI model is a very important concept in
networking. You have learnt that the OSI conceptual model aids in
troubleshooting network problems. Network devices are central to the
functioning of a network. Devices like routers, switches, hubs, and cables
ensure delivery of data from one device (node) on a network to another. This
session explains the relationship between the OSI model and network
components. Knowing at which OSI level a device operates enables you to
better understand how it functions on the network and this helps you to
understand and define where to start troubleshooting from.
Objectives
1. Determine where each device works on the OSI model
2. Explain the functions of each device on the OSI model
Now read on…
Devices and their Relationship with the OSI Model

You will agree with me that we have dealt into detail the OSI conceptual model
and its function in networking. We realized that the Model has seven layers and
numerous protocols. All networks use devices in one way or the other. It is OSI
model that ensures the interoperation of network devices from different vendors.
There is therefore the need to understand where each one exits on the OSI model.
The Switch and OSI model

The switch is a central networking device that connects different devices on a
network. Devices connect to switches via twisted-pair cabling, one cable for
each device. The difference between hubs and switches is in how the devices
deal with the data they receive. Whereas a hub forwards the data it receives to
all the ports on the device, a switch forwards it to only the port that connects to
the destination device. It does this by learning the MAC address of the devices
attached to it and then by matching the destination MAC address in the data it
receives. In that respect, a switch operates at the Data Link layer (layer 2) or
Network (Layer 3) of the OSI model.

UNIT 3
OSI AND NETWORK COMPONENTS
SESSION 3
The Hub and OSI model

The hub is a Physical layer device. The hub, like the switch, is also a central
device that is used to connect devices on a network. Whiles a switch does
MAC address learning and forwards data to specific ports thereby breaking
down broadcast domain, a hub does not break down broadcast domain dew to
its inability to learn MAC address or physical address.
Bridges and OSI model

Bridges work in the same manner as switches. It is sometimes referred to as a
two-port switch that connects two physical network segments and manages the
flow of data between two segments. Additionally, it learns MAC addresses
connected to its ports and therefore operates at Data Link layer of the OSI
model.
Routers and OSI model

Routers normally create, add, or divide networks or network segments at the
network layer of the OSI reference model because they normally are IP-based
devices. It uses Internet Protocol addresses to forward packets from one part of
the network to another.
Network Interface Card

A network card, also called a network interface card (NIC), is a network device
that allows devices to collect a network. A device without a NIC cannot
connect to a network. Every NIC has a unique address known as the media
access control address (MAC address) or physical address. It also provides an
outlet (port) for connecting cables to wired networks. Some computers could
have at least one interface card to enable them to connect to a network. The
NIC operates at the Data Link layer of the OSI model.
Access Point(AP)
An access point (APs) is a transmitter and receiver (transceiver) device used to
create a wireless local area networks (WLAN). AP typically are a separate
network device with a built-in antenna, transmitter, and adapter. An AP uses
the wireless infrastructure network mode to provide a connection point
between WLANs and a wired Ethernet LAN. APs also typically have several
ports, giving you a way to expand the network to support additional clients.
APs operate at the Layer 2 of the OSI model.

PROTOCOLS SESSION 3
Summary of network devices and OSI Layers they operate
Device OSI Layer

Hub Physical (Layer 1)
Bridges Data link (Layer 2)
Switch Data link (Layer 2 or Network (Layer 3)
Router Network (Layer 3)
NIC Data link (Layer 2)
Access point (AP) Data link.
Hello student, in this session, we have learnt about network

components and where they operate on the OSI model. That
gives us a fair idea as to where to start troubleshooting problems on a network.
Exercise 3.3
1. At which layer does the network interface card operate?
A. Layer 5
B. Layer 2
C. Layer 1
D. Layer 3
2. The Switch and Router operate at the same layer.
True/False
3. What name is given to the unique number found on every NIC?
A. Self-Address
B. MAC Address
C. Man Address
D. IP Address

UNIT 3
OSI AND NETWORK COMPONENTS
SESSION 3


PROTOCOLS SESSION 4
SESSION 4: NETWORK PROTOCOLS 1 – NETWORK

ACCESS, INTERNET AND HOST-TO-HOST
LAYER PROTOCOLS
Dear Student, welcome to session four of Unit 3 of the

Network Computing module. Establishing communication
between network devices requires more than a length of cabling; a method or a
set of rules is needed to establish how systems would communicate. Can you
imagine what this set of rules is about? This session explains what a network
protocol is and give examples of some common network protocols and their
functions in a network. Interestingly, a letter ‘P’ ending networking
abbreviations almost always refers to the word “Protocol”. The Internet as well
as the OSI model is full of protocols. Understanding what protocols are and
how they operate in networks are very critical. You therefore need to read and
understand this concept. Sit back, read and enjoy it.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to
1. Explain network protocol
2. Identify some common network protocols
3. Determine the functions protocols on a network
Read on now…
4.1 What is Network Protocol?

A network protocol, simply called a protocol, refers to a set of rules that
governs or guide the exchange of information on a network. It is also referred
to as the language that network devices use on a network. It is therefore
imperative the any two devices communicating on a network must speak the
same language.
In the 1990s, you had a choice of network protocols you could install on your
computer, depending on the computing environment such as windows,
Macintosh, etc. In small networks where Windows operating systems like
Windows 3.1 or Windows 95 were used, the Windows-specific protocol like
NetBEUI prominent. A network with Novell NetWare 4.x servers typically ran
IPX/SPX. Both these protocols are obsolete now and are found only in

NETWORK PROTOCOLS 1 – NETWORK
UNIT 3 ACCESS, INTERNET AND HOST-TO-HOST
SESSION 4
LAYER PROTOCOLS
networks that haven’t been upgraded in more than a decade. In today’s

networks, we can focus on the TCP/IP protocol suite, the protocol of the
Internet and the default protocol that run in all networks and operating systems.
A protocol suite or stack is a group or a set of protocols that work together.

The most common types are Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol
(TCP/ IP), and Internetwork Packet Exchange/Sequence Packet Exchange
(IPX/SPX). However, the TCP/IP is the Internet suite and that is where our
discussion will focus on.
4.2 Understanding TCP/IP Protocol Suite

As already indicated, the TCP/IP is most common protocol Although you can
see by its name that TCP/IP consists of at least two protocols—TCP and IP—
this protocol suite is actually composed of more than a dozen protocols
operating at different layers of the communication process. The many
protocols in the suite can be well-understood when it is structured on the
DoD/TCP/IP model.
Figure 3.4. TCP/IP model and TCP/IP protocol stack

PROTOCOLS SESSION 4
As the name suggests, the TCP/IP stack comprise of two main protocols:
Transmission Control Protocol and the Internet Protocol. It is in these
protocols that the other protocols exist. For this reason, we will start our
discussion by first discussing these two protocols.
However, we can classify these protocols into connection-oriented and

connectionless protocols. We will use this classification to explain the
functions of protocols in relation to the TCP/IP model. Let’s look at it now.
4.3 Connectionless and Connection-Oriented Protocols

Before getting into the characteristics of the various network protocols and
protocol suites, it’s important to first identify the difference between
connection-oriented and connectionless protocols. However, this session will
only look at Connection-oriented Protocols.
4.3.1 Connection-Oriented Protocols

In a connection-oriented communication, devices use connection-oriented
protocols such as TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) to establish connection
before communication begins. This mechanism helps to guarantee data
delivery. The sending device re-sends any packet that the destination system
does not receive. Communication between the sending and receiving devices
continues until the transmission has been verified. Because of this, connection-
oriented protocols have a higher overhead (operation cost) and place greater
demands on bandwidth. Connection-oriented protocols are discussed as
follows.
4.4 Host-To-Host, Internet And Network Access Protocols

4.4. 1Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
TCP is a connection-oriented protocol that uses IP as its transport protocol.
Being connection-oriented means that TCP establishes a mutually
acknowledged session between two hosts before communication takes place.
TCP provides reliability to IP communications. Specifically, TCP adds features
such as flow control, sequencing, and error detection and correction. For this
reason, higher-level applications that need guaranteed delivery use TCP rather
than its lightweight and connectionless brother, User Datagram Protocol
(UDP).
P and the OSI model IP operates at the network l

SESSION 4
LAYER PROTOCOLS
How TCP Works

When TCP wants to open a connection with another host, it follows this
procedure:
1. It sends a message called a SYN to the target host(device).
2. The target host opens a connection for the request and sends back an
acknowledgment message called an ACK (or SYN ACK).
3. The host that originated the request sends back another
acknowledgment, saying that it has received the ACK message and that
the session is ready to be used to transfer data.
When the data session is completed, a similar process is used to close the
session. This three-step session establishment and acknowledgment process is
called the TCP three-way handshake.
They can do this because they wait for all the packets in a message to be
received before considering the transmission complete. On the sending end,
connection-oriented protocols also assume that a lack of acknowledgment is
sufficient reason to retransmit.
4.4.2 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

UDP is the brother of TCP. Like TCP, UDP is the transport protocol, but the
big difference is that UDP is a connectionless protocol and does not guarantee
delivery like TCP does. It a protocol that assumes that the data sent will reach
its destination intact. The checking of whether data is delivered is left to upper-
layer protocols. UDP operates at the transport layer of the OSI model.
Features
i. UDP no session is established between the sending and receiving
hosts
ii. It is fast, connectionless, and unreliable protocol
iii. UDP has much lower overhead than TCP.
iv. A TCP packet header has 14 fields, whereas a UDP packet header has
only four fields. Therefore, UDP is much more efficient than TCP.
v. UDP is much more economical in terms of bandwidth and processing
effort.
vi. It has been designed to send data packets over the network.

PROTOCOLS SESSION 4
vii. UDP does not provide reliability, flow control, and error recovery
mechanism.
4.5 The Internet Layer Protocols

There are following protocols at this layer:
i. Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)
ii. Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)
iii. Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)
iv. Internet Protocol (IP)
4.5.1 Internet Protocol (IP)

IP is the protocol used to transport data from one node (device) on a network to
another. IP is connectionless, which means that it doesn’t guarantee the
delivery of data; it simply makes its best effort to do so. To ensure that
transmissions sent via IP are completed, a higher-level protocol such as TCP is
required.
Features
i. IP is a set of rules that defines how computers communicate over a
network.
ii. IP software performs the routing function.
iii. IP is unreliable and connectionless datagram protocol.
4.5.2 Currently, there are two versions of IP

IP version 4 (IPv4)
Internet Protocol Version 4 Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4), or just IP, is an
Internetwork-layer protocol that provides source and destination addressing
and routing for the TCP/IP protocol suite. It is a 32-bit address spaces
separated by dots and divided into four sections.
Each grouping of numbers separated by a dot (period) is an 8-bit value that can
range from 0 to 255. Because an IP address has 32 bits, a total of 232 addresses
are possible, which is approximately 4 billion. That might seem like a lot of
addresses, but as you learn later, many are wasted, and available addresses to
assign to devices on the Internet are running out. Example of IP version 4 is
172.31.149.10. A session will be dedicated to treat this topic.

SESSION 4
LAYER PROTOCOLS
4.5.3 IP version 6 (IPv6)

Internet Protocol version 6 (IPv6) has many of the features of IPv4 but
addresses IPv4’s shortcomings, not the least of which is its inadequate 32-bit
address space. The advantage of a layered approach to networking is that IPv6
can run on computers alongside IPv4 without needing to change the Transport
layer or Network access layer.
IP version 6 is 128 bits (16 bytes) long written in hexadecimal format. Most
Application-layer protocols require no changes either, except those dealing
directly with IP addresses, such as DHCP and DNS.
4.6 Internet Control Message Protocol (ICMP)

i. It is a management protocol and messaging service provider for IP.
ii. ICMP is used to send error and control messages.
Some common ICMP events and messages are:

Destination Unreachable
If a router can’t send an IP datagram to any destination device, it uses ICMP to
send a message back to the sender.
Buffer Full
If a router’s memory buffer is full, it will use ICMP to send out this message
until congestion is decreased.
Ping
Ping stands for Packet Internet Groper. It uses ICMP echo request and replies
messages to check the physical and logical connectivity of machines over the
network.
Tracert
It stands for trace route. This command is used to see the exact path that the
data packet is taking on its way to the destination.

PROTOCOLS SESSION 4
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP)

It is a network protocol for mapping an IP address to a MAC address on a local
area network. In other words, you can use a known machine’s IP or network
address to get an unknown MAC address. E.g.
192.162.10.25 -> 7A-89-76-E0-B1-23
Where the MAC address is a unique address of a device.
4.7 Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP)

RARP packet format is the same as the ARP packet.
Its request consists of a MAC header, an IP header, and the ARP request
message.
RARP requests are broadcast, and RARP replies are unicast
4.8 The Network Access Layer

1. There are the following terms used in this layer:
2. Ethernet
3. Fast Ethernet
4. Token Ring
5. FDDI
Ethernet Standards
i. It is a computer network technology that is widely used by different
networks like LAN, MAN, CAN, and WAN.
ii. It is a fast and reliable network solution.
iii. Ethernet can operate at different speeds over different types of media,
and each variation is associated with an IEEE standard.
iv. There is also wireless Ethernet that can handle a large number of users.
v. Wireless Ethernet is less expensive than a wired Ethernet network.
vi. The original ethernet transmits 10Mbps
Fast Ethernet
This is an improved form of Ethernet
It can transfer data at a rate of 100 Mbps.
It uses a twisted pair and fiber optic cable for communication.

SESSION 4
LAYER PROTOCOLS
Summary of the Standards

10BaseT Ethernet
100BaseTX Ethernet
100BaseFX Ethernet
1000BaseT Ethernet
10GBaseT Ethernet
100BaseT4
1000BaseLX
1000BaseSX
1000BaseCX
4.8 Token Ring

i. It was developed in 1980 by IBM for Local Area Networks (LANs).
ii. In a token ring network, all hosts are connected in a ring topology.
iii. The token, an empty frame, is continuously circulated on the ring. If a host
doesn’t have anything to transmit, it passes the token along. If it does have
something to transmit, it catches the token and attaches the data and sends
it back to ring.
iv. It transmits a larger frame than Ethernet.
v. It is costly to use.
4.9 Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI)

i. It is developed by American Nation Standard Institute (ANSI).
ii. It is based on the token ring protocol.
iii. It transmits data on optical fibers.
iv. It supports the transmission rate up to 200 Mbps.
It uses two rings:

i. The first ring is used to carry data at 100 Mbps.
ii. The second ring is used for backup and recovery in case the first ring
fail. It also increases the data transmission rate up to 200 Mbps

PROTOCOLS SESSION 4
So dear reader, we have come to the end of this session. I think

a lot has been learnt. We started by defining protocol,
mentioning its functions and giving examples. We also explored the Host-to-
host layer protocols including TCP, UDP and ended by looking at internet
layer protocols and network access protocols. I hope you have enjoyed the
lesson. Thank you for your time.
Exercise 3.4
1. What is Network Protocol?
2. state two differences between TCP and UDP
3. List and explain two Network Access protocols
4. what is Ethernet?
5. List three (3) messages sent by the ICMP.

SESSION 4
LAYER PROTOCOLS


PROTOCOLS SESSION 5
SESSION 5: PROTOCOLS 2 - PROCESS/APPLICATION

LAYER PROTOCOLS
A warm welcome to session of five of Unit 3. We hope you

enjoyed the lesson in session 4. This session is a continuation of
session 4, therefore, we are continuing with protocols and have named the
session, Protocols 2. The session will specifically explore the DoD or TCP/IP
model’s fourth layer (Process/Application Layer) protocols. The layer is a
combination of the last three layers of the OSI model, namely, Session,
Presentation and Applications layers. Remember, session 4 explored both
connection-oriented and connectionless protocols of the first three layers.
Protocols to be explored include HTTP, FTP, TFTP and so on. Sit back, read
and enjoy the lesson.
Objectives
1. Identify the upper layers protocols
2. Determine the functions of the Process/Application layer protocols
3. State the characteristics of these protocols
Read on now…
The Application Layer Protocols

In session 4, we looked at the first three layers of the DoD model or the lower
layer protocols of the OSI model. Application layers consist of the upper layers
of the OSI model. The protocols found at these layers include:
1. Telnet
2. File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
3. Line Printer Daemon (LPD)
4. Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)
5. Secure Shell (SSH)
6. Domain Name Service (DNS)
7. Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
8. Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
9. Network File System (NFS)
10. XWindow
11. Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
12. Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

UNIT 3 PROTOCOLS 2 - PROCESS/APPLICATION
SESSION 5 LAYER PROTOCOLS
Telnet
Telnet stands for Telecommunication Network. It is also called as Remote
Access Protocol because it is used to access remote machines over the Internet.
A user on a remote client machine called the Telnet Client. A machine who
access to resources called the Telnet server. It uses TCP port no 23. It is less
secure, and all data exchange without using any form of encryption.
Secure Shell (SSH)

i. SSH was created by students at the Helsinki University of
Technology. Secure Shell (SSH) is a secure alternative to Telnet.
ii. SSH provides security by encrypting data as it travels between
systems. This makes it difficult for hackers using packet sniffers and
other traffic-detection systems. It also provides more robust
authentication systems than Telnet.
iii. Two versions of SSH are available: SSH1 and SSH2. Of the two,
SSH2 is considered more secure. The two versions are incompatible.
If you use an SSH client program, the server implementation of SSH
that you connect to must be the same version.
iv. SSH uses TCP port number 22.
File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

i. As its name suggests, FTP is the protocol responsible for the uploading
and downloading of files from a remote host running FTP server
software.
ii. FTP enables you to view the contents of folders on an FTP server and
rename and delete files and directories if you have the necessary
permissions.
iii. FTP uses TCP as a transport protocol to guarantee delivery of packets.
iv. FTP has security mechanisms used to authenticate users. However,
rather than create a user account for every user, you can configure FTP
server software to accept anonymous logons. When you do this, the
username is anonymous, and the password normally is the user’s email
address. Most FTP servers that offer files to the general public operate
in this way.
v. In addition to being popular as a mechanism for distributing files to the
general public over networks such as the Internet, FTP is also popular
with organizations that need to frequently exchange large files with

PROTOCOLS SESSION 5
other people or organizations. For example, the chapters in this book

were sent between the author and Que Publishing using FTP. Such a
system is necessary because the files exchanged were sometimes larger
than can be easily accommodated using email.
vi. It uses TCP port number 21 to maintain the connection. It also
uses TCP port number 20 for the actual transmission of the files on
the network.
vii. It is a simple and secure way to exchange files.
viii. It is an OSI application layer protocol
ix. All the common network operating systems offer FTP server capabilities;
although, whether you use them depends on whether you need FTP services.
x. FTP transmits data between sender and receiver in an unencrypted
format.
Secure File Transfer Protocol (SFTP)

i. Secure File Transfer Protocol (SFTP) provides solution to one of the big
problems associated with FTP. FTP is considered insecure even though
simple authentication methods are associated with FTP.
ii. The Secure File Transfer Protocol (SFTP), which, based on Secure Shell
(SSH) technology, provides robust authentication between sender and
receiver.
iii. It also provides encryption capabilities, which means that even if packets
are copied from the network, their contents remain hidden from prying
eyes.
iv. By using a packet sniffer, a hacker could easily copy packets from the
network and read the contents. In today’s high-security computing
environments, you need a more robust solution like SFTP.
Trivial File Transfer Protocol (TFTP)
i. A variation on FTP is TFTP, which is also a file transfer mechanism.
However, TFTP does not have the security capability or the level of
functionality that FTP has.
ii. TFTP is most often associated with simple downloads, such as those
associated with transferring firmware to a device such as a router and
booting diskless workstations.
iii. Another feature that TFTP does not offer is directory navigation.
Whereas in FTP commands can be executed to navigate and manage the
file system, TFTP offers no such capability.

iv. TFTP requires that you request not only exactly what you want but also
the particular location. Unlike FTP, which uses TCP as its transport
protocol to guarantee delivery, TFTP uses UDP.
v. It uses UDP port number 69 for TFTP server.
vi. It does not provide authentication and security while transferring the
files.
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

i. SMTP is a protocol that defines how mail messages are sent between
hosts. SMTP uses TCP connections to guarantee error-free delivery of
messages.
ii. SMTP, the acronym is associated with Sending Mail To People
iii. SMTP can be used to both send and receive mails. Post Office Protocol
version 3 (POP3) and Internet Message Access Protocol version 4
(IMAP4) can be used only to receive mail.
iv. It is a set of commands that authenticates and directs the transfer of
Email (Electronic Mail) over the internet.
v. SMTP uses TCP protocol. The default SMTP port number is 25 and a
secondary SMTP port number is 26.
vi. SMTP over SSL/TLS port number is 465
Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
vii. HTTP is the protocol that enables text, graphics, multimedia, and other
material to be downloaded from an HTTP server.
viii. HTTP defines what actions can be requested by clients and how servers
should answer those requests.
ix. In a practical implementation, HTTP clients (that is, web browsers) make
requests in an HTTP format to servers running HTTP server applications
(that is, web servers). Files created in a special language such as
Hypertext Markup Language (HTML) are returned to the client, and the
connection is closed.
x. It uses TCP port number 80.
xi. HTTP uses a uniform resource locator (URL) to determine what page
should be downloaded from the remote server. The URL contains the
type of request (for example, http://), the name of the server contacted
(for example, www.microsoft.com), and optionally the page requested
(for example, /support). The result is the syntax that Internet-savvy
people are familiar with: http://www.microsoft.com/support.

PROTOCOLS SESSION 5
Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure (HTTPS)

One of the weaknesses of using HTTP is that HTTP requests are sent in clear
text. For some applications, such as e-commerce, this method to exchange
information is unsuitable—a more secure method is needed. The solution is
HTTPS, which uses a system known as Secure Socket Layer (SSL), which
encrypts the information sent between the client and host.
For HTTPS to be used, both the client and server must support it. All popular
browsers now support HTTPS, as do web server products, such as Microsoft
Internet Information Services (IIS), Apache, and almost all other web server
applications that provide sensitive applications. When you access an
application that uses HTTPS, the URL starts with https rather than http—for
example, https://www.mybankonline.com.
It increases the speed of data transfer as compared to http.
Line Printer Daemon (LPD)

This protocol designed for printer sharing. It is basically created for Linux,
and Unix Systems.
Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

i. This protocol collects and manipulates valuable network information.
ii. It is a UDP based network protocol.
iii. There are three types of SNMP version that are SNMP v1, SNMP v2,
and SNMP v3.
iv. SNMP v3 provides security and remote configuration capabilities to the
previous versions.
SNMP consists of 3 sub-components that are:

i. SNMP Manager – It is a computer that monitor the network.
ii. SNMP Agent – It is a device that we want to monitor such as Router,
Switches, and Servers
iii. Management Information Base (MIB) – These components make
sure that the data exchange between the manager and agent remains
structured.
Domain Name Service (DNS)

i. It is an internet directory service.
ii. It is an application that maps host names into their corresponding IP
address.

iii. Mapping hostnames into their corresponding IP address is known as

name resolution or name translation.
iv. We need DNS because it is very difficult for users to remember the IP
address so, DNS provides a specific name for every IP address.
XWindow
i. XWindow was used to perform client/server operations like writing
client/server applications based on a Graphical User Interface (GUI).
ii. It allowed the client to run a program on one computer and have to
display it on window server of another computer.
Post Office Protocol Version 3/Internet Message Access Protocol Version 4

(POP3/IMAP4)
Both POP3 and IMAP4 are mechanisms for downloading, or pulling, email
from a server. They are necessary because although the mail is transported
around the network via SMTP, users cannot always immediately read it, so it
must be stored in a central location. From this location, it needs to be down-
loaded or retrieved, which is what POP3 and IMAP4 enable you to do.
POP3 and IMAP4 are popular, and many people now access email through
applications such as Microsoft Outlook, Netscape Communicator, and Eudora,
which are POP3 and IMAP4 clients.
Weaknesses of POP3
One of the problems with POP3 is that the password used to access a mailbox
is transmitted across the network in clear text. This means that if people want
to, they could determine your POP3 password with relative ease. This is an
area in which IMAP4 offers an advantage over POP3. It uses a more
sophisticated authentication system, which makes it more difficult for people
to determine a password.
Protocols are a very important aspect of networking. Without

them, most communications on networks cannot be made
possible. All too soon we have come to the end of this session. In this session
we learned about the process/application layer protocols. These include FTP,
TFTP, HTTP, SSH, SHTTP and so on. Through this session we have got to
know the functions of these protocols in networking. They might have looked
so strange before this session, but we believe that this session has clearly

PROTOCOLS SESSION 5
explained networking protocols to you. Let’s move to the next and the last
session of this unit.
Exercise 3.5
1. which protocols is responsible for downloading of mails from mail
servers?
2. State two functions of each of the following protocols:
a. TFTP
b. HTTP
c. Telnet
d. Secure Shell
e. POP3
f. SMTP



PROTOCOLS SESSION 6
SESSION 6: IP ADDRESSING AND DYNAMIC HOST

CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL (DHCPP)
You are welcome to the last session of Unit 3 of this course. I

supposed you understood what protocols are, various types of
protocols and their functions in a network. This session looks at another
fantastic protocol so far as networking is concerned. You might have heard
about IP addresses and how they distributed on a network. IP addresses are
unique numbers assigned to devices/hosts on a network to facilitate
communication. On the other hand, Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP) is the protocol responsible for automatic assignment of IP addressed
and other network information to devices or hosts on a network. Let’s then
read to know more about IP addressing, DHCP and its functions.
Objectives
By the end of the session, you should be able to:
1. Identify versions of IP addresses
2. Describe Classes of IP Address
3. Identify the difference between public and private networks
4. Explain the purpose of DHCP.
5. Explain the properties of DHCP
6. Describe the DHCP process
Please continue…
IP Addressing
As explained early on in this Unit, internet protocol (IP) addressing is one of
the concepts that possesses a lot of challenges to network administrators. To
communicate on a network, each devices must be assigned a unique address.
The address determines which network the device is connected to and the
number of nodes on that network. In other words, the IP address provides two
pieces of information. It’s a bit like a street name and house number in a
person’s home address. It tells the network address and the host address. Each
device on a logical network segment must have the same network address as
all the other devices on the segment. A logical network refers to portion of a
network that devices on the portion bear the same address. All the devices on
that network segment must then have different node addresses.

UNIT 3 IP ADDRESSING AND DYNAMIC HOST
SESSION 6 CONFIGURATION PROTOCOL (DHCPP)
There are two versions of IP addresses. IP version 4 and IP version 6. IP

version 4 is a 32-bit address space which version 6 is 128-bit. IP addressing is
different in IPv4 and IPv6. We will commence our discussion by looking at
IPv4.
Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4)

An IPv4 address is composed of four sets of 8 binary bits, which are called
octets. It is therefore a 32-bit address long. Each bit in each octet is assigned a
decimal value. The leftmost bit has a value of 128, followed by 64, 32, 16, 8, 4,
2, and 1, left to right. These are 8-bits representing one octet and their decimal
values.
128 64 32 16 8 4 2 1
255
255 255 255
. . .
Each bit in the octet can be either a 1 or a 0. If the value is 1, it is counted as its
decimal value, and if it is 0, it is ignored. If all the bits are 0, the value of the
octet is 0. If all the bits in the octet are 1, the value is 255, which is
128+64+32+16+8+4+2+1.
By using the set of 8 bits and manipulating the 1s and 0s, you can obtain any
value between 0 and 255 for each octet.
Table 3.1 shows some examples of decimal-to-binary value conversion

Table 3.6.1: Decimal-to-binary value conversion
Decimal value Binary value Decimal Calculation
10 00001010 8+2=10
192 11000000 128+64=192
205 11001101 128+64+8+4+1
223 11011111 128+64+16+8+4+2+1

PROTOCOLS SESSION 6
IP Address Classes
IP addresses are grouped into logical divisions called classes. The IPv4 address
space has five address classes (A through E), although only three (A, B, and C)
are used to assign addresses to clients. Class D is reserved for multicast
addressing, and Class E is reserved for future development.
Of the three classes available for address assignments, each uses a fixed-length
subnet mask to define the separation between the network and the node
address. To determine the class of an IP address, we use the first octet. If the
first octet ranges between 1- 126, it is in class A. if the first octet ranges
between 128 – 191, then it is in class B, if the first octet ranges between 192 –
223 then the IP is in class C. Examples of classes of IP addresses are displayed
in Table 3.6.
Table 3.6.2: Classes of IP, Network and Host addresses

Class First Example Number of Subnet mask Number of host
Octet Networks addresses
A 1 - 126 3.67.112.89 126 255.0.0.0 16,777,214
B 128 - 191 159.23.67.222 16,384 255.255.0.0 65,534
C 192 - 223 195.4.212.4 2,097,152 255.255.255.0 254
A Class A address uses only the first octet to represent the network portion, a
Class B address uses two octets, and a Class C address uses the first three
octets. The upshot of this system is that Class A has a small number of network
addresses, but each Class A address has a very large number of possible host
addresses. Class B has a larger number of networks, but each Class B address
has a smaller number of hosts. Class C has an even larger number of networks,
but each Class C address has an even smaller number of hosts. The exact
numbers are provided in Table 3.6.2. In IP addressing, another set of numbers,
called a subnet mask, is used to define which portion of the IP address refers to
the network address and which refers to the node address.
Notice in Table 3.6.2 that the network number 127 is not included in any
of the ranges. The 127.0.0.1 network ID is reserved for the local
loopback. The local loopback is a function of the protocol suite used in the
troubleshooting process.
Subnet Mask Assignment

Like an IP address, a subnet mask is most commonly expressed in 32-bit
dotted-decimal format. Unlike an IP address, though, a subnet mask performs
just one function—it defines which parts of the IP address refer to the network
address and which refer to the host/node address. Each class of IP address used
for address assignment has a default subnet mask associated with it. See Table
3.6.2 lists the default subnet masks.
IPv4 Public and Private Networks

IP addressing involves many considerations, not the least of which are public
and private networks. A public network is a network to which anyone can
connect. The best (and perhaps only pure) example of such a network is the
Internet. A private network is any network to which access is restricted. A
corporate network and a network in a school are examples of private networks.
The main difference between public and private networks, apart from the fact
that access to a private network is tightly controlled and access to a public
network is not, is that the addressing of devices on a public network must be
considered carefully.
As already discussed, in order for hosts on a network to communicate by using

TCP/IP, they must have unique addresses. This number defines the logical
network that each host or computer belongs to and the host’s address on that
network. On a private network with, say, three logical networks and 100 nodes
on each network, addressing is not a particularly difficult task. On a network
on the scale of the Internet, however, addressing is complex.
If you are connecting a system to the Internet, you need to get a valid
registered IP address. Most commonly, you obtain this address from your
Internet Service Provider(ISP). In Ghana, ISPs may include Vodaphone Ghana
Limited, MTN Ghana Limited and so on. Alternatively, if you wanted a large
number of addresses, for example, you could contact the organization
responsible for address assignment in your area. You can determine who the
regional numbers authority for your area is by visiting the IANA website.
IANA means Internet Assigned Numbers Authority.

PROTOCOLS SESSION 6
Because of the nature of their business, ISPs have large blocks of IP addresses
that they can assign to their clients. If you need a registered IP address, getting
one from an ISP will almost certainly be a simpler process than going through
a regional numbers authority. Some ISPs’ plans actually include blocks of
registered IP addresses, working on the principle that businesses will want
some kind of permanent presence on the Internet. Of course, if you discontinue
your service with the ISP, you can no longer use the IP address it provided.
Private Address Ranges

To provide flexibility in addressing and to prevent an incorrectly configured
network from polluting the Internet, certain address ranges are set aside for
private use. These address ranges are called private IP addresses because they
are designated for use only on private networks. These addresses are special
because Internet routers are configured to ignore any packets they see that use
these addresses. This means that if a private network “leaks” onto the Internet,
it won’t get any farther than the first router it encounters. So a private address
cannot be on the Internet, because it cannot be routed to public networks.
Three ranges are defined in Request For Comment (RFC) 1918—one each
from Classes A, B, and C. You can use whichever range you want, although
the Class A and B address ranges offer more addressing options than Class C.
Table 3.6.3 defines the address ranges for Class A, B, and C addresses.
Table 3.6.3: Private IP Address Ranges

Class Address Range Default Subnet
Mask
A 10.0.0.0 to 10.255.255.255 255.0.0.0
B 172.16.0.0 to 172.31.255.255 255.255.0.0
C 192.168.0.0 to 192.168.255.255 255.255.255.0
Internet Protocol Address version 6 IPv6 Addressing

Internet Protocol Version 4 (IPv4) has served as the Internet’s protocol for
almost 30 years. When IPv4 was in development 30 years ago, it would have
been impossible for its creators to imagine or predict the future demand for IP
devices and therefore IP addresses.

IPv4 uses a 32-bit addressing scheme. This gives IPv4 a total of 4,294,967,296
possible unique addresses that can be assigned to IP devices. However, the
number of IP-enabled devices increases daily at an incredible rate. It is also
important to note that not all of these addresses are being used by public
networks. Many of these addresses are reserved and are unavailable for public
use. This has led to the depletion of number of addresses that can be allocated
as public Internet addresses.
The IPv6 project began in the mid-1990s, well before the threat of IPv4
limitations was upon us. Now network hardware and software are equipped
and deploying IPv6 addressing. IPv6 offers a number of improvements. The
most notable is its ability to handle growth in public networks. IPv6 uses a
128-bit addressing scheme, allowing a huge number of possible addresses:
340,282,366,920,938,463,463,374,607,431,768,211,456
Identifying IPv6 Addresses

Because of the 128-bit structure of the IPv6 addressing scheme, it looks quite a
bit different. An IPv6 address is divided along 16-bit boundaries, and each 16-
bit block is converted into a four-digit hexadecimal number and separated by
colons. The resulting representation is called colon-hexadecimal.
Example: 2001:0:4137:9e50:2811:34ff:3f57:febc
An IPv6 address can be simplified by removing the leading 0s within each 16-
bit block. Not all the 0s can be removed, however, because each address block
must have at least a single digit. Removing the 0 suppression, the address
representation becomes
2001:0000:4137:9e50:2811:34ff:3f57:febc
Some of the IPv6 addresses you will work with have sequences of 0s. When
this occurs, the number is often abbreviated to make it easier to read. In the
preceding example you saw that a single 0 represented a number set in
hexadecimal form. To further simplify the representation of IPv6 addresses, a
contiguous sequence of 16-bit blocks set to 0 in colon hexadecimal format can
be compressed to ::, known as the double colon.

PROTOCOLS SESSION 6
For example, the link-local address of

2001:0000:0000:0000:3cde:37d1:3f57:fe93 can be compressed to
2001::3cde:37d1:3f57:fe93.
Of course, there are limits on how the IPv6 0s can be reduced. 0s within the
IPv6 address cannot be eliminated when they are not first in the number
sequence. For instance, 2001:4000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0000:0003 cannot be
compressed as 2001:4::3. This would actually appear as 2001:4000::3.
When you look at an IPv6 address that uses a double colon, how do you know
exactly what numbers are represented? The formula is to subtract the number
of blocks from 8 and then multiply that number by 16. For example, the
address 2001:4000::3 uses three blocks—2001, 4000, and 3. So the formula is
as follows:
(8 – 3) * 16 = 80
Therefore, the total number of bits represented by the double colon in this
example is 80.
Note:
(0s) - You can remove 0s only once in an IPv6 address. Using a
double colon more than once would make it impossible to determine
the number of 0 bits represented by each instance of ::.
Types of IPv6 Address

Another difference between IPv4 and IPv6 is in the address types. IPv4
addressing was discussed in detail earlier in this chapter. IPv6 addressing
offers several types of addresses:
1. Unicast IPv6 addresses: As you might deduce from the name, a unicast
address specifies a single interface. Data packets sent to a unicast
destination travel from the sending host to the destination host. It is a direct
line of communication. A few types of addresses fall under the unicast
banner:
2. Global unicast addresses: Global unicast addresses are the equivalent of

IPv4 public addresses. These addresses are routable and travel throughout
the network.

3. Link-local addresses: Link-local addresses are designated for use on a

single local network. Link-local addresses are automatically configured on
all interfaces. This automatic configuration is comparable to the
169.254.0.0/16 APIPA automatically assigned IPv4 addressing scheme.
The prefix used for a link-local address is fe80::/64. On a single-link IPv6
network with no router, link-local addresses are used to communicate
between devices on the link.
4. Site-local addresses: Site-local addresses are equivalent to the IPv4 private

address space (10.0.0.0/8, 172.16.0.0/12, and 192.168.0.0/16). As with
IPv4, in which private address ranges are used in private networks, IPv6
uses site-local addresses that do not interfere with global unicast addresses.
In addition, routers do not forward site-local traffic outside the site. Unlike
link-local addresses, site-local addresses are not automatically configured
and must be assigned through either stateless or stateful address
configuration processes. The prefix used for the site-local address is
FEC0::/10.
5. Multicast addresses: As with IPv4 addresses, multicasting sends and

receives data between groups of nodes. It sends IP messages to that group
rather than to every node on the LAN (broadcast) or just one other node
(unicast).
6. Anycast addresses: Anycast addresses represent the middle ground

between unicast addresses and multicast addresses. Anycast delivers
messages to any one node in the multicast group
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP)

As discussed earlier, hosts on computer networks need IP addresses to enable
them communicate on a network. There are two methods of assigning IP
addresses to hosts. The first method is to use static addressing. This involves
manually assigning an address from those available to you and allowing the
host to always use that address. The problems with this method include the
difficulty in managing addresses for a multitude of machines and efficiently
and effectively issuing them. In addition, it is difficult using this method in
very large networks.

PROTOCOLS SESSION 6
Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol (DHCP) enables ranges of IP

addresses, known as scopes or DHCP pool, to be defined on a system running
a DHCP server application and distributed to clients. When another system
configured as a DHCP client is initialized, it asks the server for an address. If
all things are as they should be, the server assigns an address from the scope to
the client for a predetermined amount of time, known as the lease.
At various points during the lease (normally the 50 percent and 85 percent
points), the client attempts to renew the lease from the server. If the server
cannot perform a renewal, the lease expires at 100 percent, and the client stops
using the address.
In addition to an IP address and the subnet mask, the DHCP server can supply
many other pieces of information; although, exactly what can be provided
depends on the DHCP server implementation. In addition to the address
information, the default gateway is often supplied, along with DNS
information.
In addition to having DHCP supply a random address from the scope, you can
configure it to supply a specific address to a client. Such an arrangement is
known as a reservation. Reservations are a means by which you can still use
DHCP for a system but at the same time guarantee that it always has the same
IP address. DHCP can also be configured for exclusions. In this scenario,
certain IP addresses are not given out to client systems.
Advantages of using DHCP

The advantages of using DHCP are numerous.
1. Administrators do not need to manually configure each system.
2. Human error such as the assignment of duplicate IP addresses is
eliminated.
3. DHCP removes the need to reconfigure systems if they move from one
subnet to another, or if you decide to make a wholesale change in the IP
addressing structure.
4. From an administrative perspective, after the initial configuration, DHCP is
about as maintenance-free as a service can get, with only occasional
monitoring normally require

Disadvantages of Using DHCP

1. The downsides are that DHCP traffic is broadcast-based and thus generates
network traffic—albeit a small amount.
2. It requires the installation of a server.
3. The DHCP server software must be installed and configured on a server,
which can place additional processor load (again, minimal) on that system
The DHCP Process

To better understand how DHCP works, let’s spend a few minutes to look at
the processes that occur when a DHCP-enabled client connects to the network.
When a system/host/client configured to use DHCP comes onto the network, it
broadcasts a special packet that looks for a DHCP server. This packet is known
as the DHCPDISCOVER packet. The DHCP server, which is always on the
lookout for DHCPDISCOVER broadcasts, picks up the packet and compares
the request with the scopes it has defined. If it finds that it has a scope for the
network from which the packet originated, it chooses an address from the
scope, reserves it, and sends the address, along with any other information,
such as the lease duration, to the client. This is known as the DHCPOFFER
packet. Because the client still does not have an IP address, this
communication is also achieved via broadcast.
When the client receives the offer, it looks at the offer to determine if it is
suitable. If more than one offer is received, which can happen if more than one
DHCP server is configured, the offers are compared to see which is best. Best
in this context can involve a variety of criteria but normally is the length of the
lease. When the selection process completes, the client notifies the server that
the offer has been accepted, through a packet called a DHCPRE-QUEST
packet. At this point the server finalizes the offer and sends the client an
acknowledgment. This last message, which is sent as a broadcast, is known as
a DHCPACK packet. After the client system receives the DHCPACK, it
initializes the TCP/IP suite and can now communicate on the network.

PROTOCOLS SESSION 6
Dear students, we have come to the end of the last session of

Unit 3. If you will remember, we have discussed IP
addresses, classes of IP address, private and public IP address and so on. We
also looked at IP version 6 which is a relatively new concept in networking.
We finally deal in detail how IP addresses are assigned to clients/hosts on a
network, i.e. through static method and DHCP. I hope you enjoyed the lesson.
See you in the next unit, Unit 4.
Exercise 3.6
1. The versions of IP addresses are IP version 4 and IP version…..
a. 8
b. 3
c. 2
d. 6
2. How many bit long is IP version 4?
a. 10 bits long
b. 20 bits long
c. 32 bits long
d. 128 bits long
3. Private IPs are routable on the Internet.
True/False
4. Class C IP address range starts from 192 to…
a. 193
b. 128
c. 255
d. 223
5. Which of the following is a private IP address?
a. 192.167.2.3
b. 172.21.3.98
c. 192.11.28.23
d. 11.200.2.88
6. DHCP server supplies only IP addresses to clients on a network.
True/False



NETWORK MEDIA AND TRANSMISSION
TECHNOLOGIES UNIT 4
UNIT 4: NETWORK MEDIA AND TRANSMISSION

TECHNOLOGIES
Unit Outline
Session 1: General Media Considerations
Session 2: Types of Network Media – Guided and Unguided media
Session 3: Types of Network Media – The Twisted Pair Cable
Session 4: Network media – Coaxial Cable
Session 5: Network media - Fibre-Optic Cables
Session 6: Unguided Media or Wireless Media
We wish to welcome you to the fourth unit of this module.

In fact, this unit is stuffed with lots of information on
network media and other transmission technologies. Network media is critical
to every connection between two or more devices. For two devices to connect
and communicate, there must be a connection link between them. This could
be a wired/cable or wireless link. This is to say that without the network media,
communication cannot take place. This unit therefore explains types of
network media, lists some media connectors and media convertors, explains
how different cable types are prepared and defines the concept of modulation
and demodulation. I hope you will enjoy every bit of the unit. Please sit back,
read and enjoy the lessons.
Unit Objectives
By the end of the unit, you should be able to:
1. Define network media or communication channel
2. List and explain types of network media or communication channel
3. Mention cables and their connectors and other media connectors
4. Demonstrate how different kinds of cables are prepared
5. Explain modulation and demodulation with respect to modems
6. Understand asynchronous transmission interface standard multiplexing
of signals

UNIT 4 TECHNOLOGIES


UNIT 4
TECHNOLOGIES SESSION 1
SESSION 1: GENERAL MEDIA CONSIDERATIONS

Hello, welcome to the first session of Unit 4. This session
opens the discussion on network media or transmission
channel or media. As we defined network, networking cabling is the link
between devices that allows data or information to be shared. However, to
select a particular cable or network media for your network may depend on
certain media considerations and before looking at the individual media types,
it is a good idea to first have an understanding of some general media
considerations. This session focuses on the general media considerations for
selecting network media.
Objectives
By the end of session, you should be able to:
a) understand what to consider before selecting a particular media for your
network
Read on now…
Choosing a medium for your network requires careful considerations to select

the appropriate medium for your network. This is because, although all cables
share certain fundamental characteristics, there some differences you need to
understand in order to know appreciate their functions and correct use. For
instance, copper cables differ drastically from fiber-optic cables in composition
and types of signals they carry. The considerations include the following:
1. Data Transmission Rates
One of the more important media considerations is the supported data
transmission rate or speed. Different media types are rated to certain maximum
speeds, but whether they are used to this maximum depends on the networking
standard being used and the network devices connected to the network.
Transmission rates normally are measured by the number of data bits that can
traverse the medium in a single second. In the early days of data
communications, this measurement was expressed in bits per second (bps), but
today’s networks are measured in Mbps (megabits per second) and Gbps
(gigabits per second).

UNIT 4 GENERAL MEDIA CONSIDERATIONS
SESSION 1
The different network media vary greatly in the transmission speeds they
support. Many of today’s application-intensive networks require more than the
10Mbps offered by the older networking standards. In some cases, even
100Mbps, which is found in many modern LANs, is simply not enough to
meet current network needs. For this reason, many organizations deploy 1Gbps
networks, and some now even go for 10Gbps implementations.
2. Signaling Method
Signing method is a way of transmitting signal from one device to the other
through a network medium. The signing methods Broadband Versus Baseband
Networks employ two types of signaling methods:
i. Baseband transmissions use digital signaling over a single wire.
Communication on baseband transmissions is bidirectional, allowing
signals to be sent and received, but not at the same time. To send
multiple signals on a single cable, baseband uses something called Time
Division Multiplexing (TDM). TDM divides a single channel into time
slots.
ii. Broadband transmissions: In terms of LAN network standards,
broadband transmissions use analog transmissions. For broadband
transmissions to be sent and received, the medium must be split into two
channels. Multiple channels are created using Frequency Division
Multiplexing (FDM).
3. Maximum Segment Length

Each cable type can transport data at a particular speed before its signals begin
to weaken past the point that a receiving station can read them accurately; this
phenomenon is called attenuation. Network media vary in their resistance to
attenuation. Coaxial cable generally is more resistant than UTP, STP is slightly
more resistant than UTP, and fiber-optic cable does not suffer from attenuation
at all. That’s not to say that a signal does not weaken as it travels over fiber-
optic cable, but the correct term for this weakening is chromatic dispersion
rather than attenuation.
A cable segment is a length of cable between two network devices, such as a

NIC and a switch. Any intermediate passive (unpowered) devices, such as wall
jacks, are considered part of the total segment length.

UNIT 4
So for some cables like the twisted pair, the maximum segment length is
100meters while coaxial cables are between 185 and 500 meters for Thinnet
and Thicknet coaxial cables respectively. Fibre optics cable has the longest
maximum segment length.
4. Interference and Eavesdropping Susceptibility

How well a media type resists signal interference from outside sources depends
on the medium’s construction and type of signals it’s designed to carry.
Interference to electrical signals on copper media comes in the form of
electromagnetic interference (EMI) and radio frequency interference (RFI).
Motors, transformers, fluorescent lights, and other sources of intense electrical
activity can emit both EMI and RFI, but RFI problems are also associated with
the proximity of strong broadcast sources in an environment (such as a nearby
radio or TV station). RFI can also affect wireless networks if the frequencies
are in the same range in which the wireless network is operating.
Another type of interference found in copper wires is a form of EMI called
crosstalk, which is interference one wire generates on another wire when both
wires are in a bundle (as all cabling in LANs is). Therefore in choosing any of
these cables, you must take these into consideration in order to select the
appropriate media for your network.
5. Ease of installation
The difficulty of installing a cable plant has a bearing on your choice of media.
Cable plant is the term for all the cables and connectors tying your network
together. Sometimes you have to make a tradeoff between the highest quality
available and the cost and time factors involved in installing the medium
correctly.
Some factors that must be considered are a medium’s minimum bend radius,
which limits the angle at which a cable can be bent to run around corners; the
cost and time needed to terminate the medium, which involves installing
connectors and attaching media to patch panels and jacks; and the physical
environment.
6. Testability
How difficult and expensive is it to test the medium after it’s installed?
Declaring a cable installation successful just because computers can
communicate doesn’t really constitute a test. A network that “works” might be

SESSION 1
crippled by excessive transmission errors caused by poor cable termination. A

true test of cabling, whether it’s copper or fiber optic, is to install it, add the
connectors and other termination points, and then test it with a device that can
certify whether the cable meets the requirements for its category. Simple
testers that check for basic electrical or optical connectivity are inexpensive (a
few hundred dollars or less) but don’t give you a true picture of your cable
plant.
7. Total Cost
When figuring the total cost for media, you must include the cabling,
connectors, termination panels, wall jacks, termination tools, testing
equipment, and, of course, time. The complexity of a large media installation
(for a new building, for example) can be daunting, which is why there are
companies specializing in media installation. In almost all cases, fiber-optic
cabling costs considerably more than copper cabling for all components. When
you need fiber-optic cabling, however, there’s really no substitute. Some
people opt for a wireless network because of the cost of wired components, but
wireless networks are often not the solution when there are many users
requiring high bandwidth. As a network administrator, you need to factor in all
costs as well as users’ needs before deciding which media types to use and in
which situations. A combination of types tends to be the norm in today’s
networks.
8. Simplex, Half Duplex, and Full Duplex

Dialog mode of a media plays critical role in data communication and
networking. It determines the direction in which data can flow through the
network media. Basically, there are three types of dialog modes. These are
simplex, half duplex, and full duplex. These can be explained as follows:
Simplex mode allows for one-way communication of data through the
network, with the full bandwidth of the cable being used for the transmitting
signal. One-way communication is of little use on LANs, making it unusual at
best for network implementations.
1. Far more common is half-duplex mode, which accommodates transmitting
and receiving on the network, but not at the same time. Many networks are
configured for half-duplex communication.
2. Full-duplex mode is the preferred dialog mode for network communication.
Full-duplex mode allows communication in both direction (transmitting
and receiving) at the same time. To use full duplex, both the network card
and the hub or switch must support full duplexing. Devices configured for
UNIT 4
full duplexing can transmit and receive simultaneously. This means that
100Mbps network cards theoretically can transmit at 200Mbps using full-
duplex mode.
Ethernet Standards
Ethernet can operate at different speeds over different types of media, and each
variation is associated with an IEEE standard. The following sections discuss
many of these standards, some of which are obsolete or had limited use.
Standards Terminology Ethernet standards are generally expressed in one of
two ways.
1. One way is using the IEEE document number defining the standard. For
example, IEEE 802.3 is the parent document specification for 10 Mbps
Ethernet using thick coaxial cable.
2. The second way of expressing an Ethernet standard is to use the XBaseY
terminology. Most IEEE 802.3 documents describe the transmission speed,
type of transmission, and length or type of cabling and are designated with
terms such as 100BaseT. In 100BaseT, for example, the “100” denotes the
speed of transmission (100 Mbps), the “Base” indicates a base-band
signaling method, and the “T” specifies twisted-pair cabling. All the BaseT
Ethernet standards use a physical star topology. The following sections
discuss the major standards and their designations.
So in summary, we want to say that we don’t just choose

any media to setup our networks. That is done by carefully
considering the factors stated above before selecting a particular media. This
will ensure that the appropriate media is chosen to make the network efficient,
cost effective and robust. I hope you enjoyed reading this content.
Exercise 4.1
1. What determines the direction in which data can flow through the
network media?
A. Transmission mode
B. Dialog mode
C. Token passing
D. Direction mode
2. Which communication flow in one direction in a network, the
communication is termed at as…….
SESSION 1
A. one way communication

B. simplex
C. duplex
D. half-duplex
3. The degradation in signal strength as it travels through the transmission
media is known as…
A. attenuation
B. chromatic dispersion
C. electromagnetic interference
D. full-duplex

UNIT 4
SESSION 2: TYPES OF NETWORK MEDIA: GUIDED AND

UNGUIDED
Hello student, welcome to session 2 of Unit 4 entitled: ‘Types

of network media’. It can also be referred to as the
communication channel or the transmission media. When working with an
existing network or implementing a new one, you need to identify the
characteristics of network media and their associated cabling. The network
media plays a key role in data communication. It is an important part of the
communication system which comes between the sender, the transmission
device, and the receiver. Before you can move data from one end of the
network to the other end, data must go through a channel or medium to its
intended destination. This session focuses on network media and connectors
used in today’s networks. We also look at their advantages and disadvantages.
Objections
1. List types of network media
2. Categorize standard media types and associate properties.
3. Categorize standard connector types based on network media
Now read on…
In a network, a communication channel or media is a connection between

transmitter and receiver through which transmission signals travel. A
communication channel ensures computer connections and transmission of
information in a network. We can classify network media into;
1. Guided Media
2. Unguided Media
Guided Media
Guided transmission media refers to transmission media that directly connect
communication devices with each other via wires or physical media for data
transmission. Guided media is also known as cable-based media or bounded
media because the data signals are enclosed to a cabling media. There are three
main types of guided media, namely;
1. Twisted pair cable
TYPES OF NETWORK MEDIA:
UNIT 4
SESSION 2 GUIDED AND UNGUIDED
2. Coaxial or Coax cable

3. Fiber-optic cable
Unguided or Wireless Transmission Media

Unguided media is also referred to as unbounded or wireless media.
The unguided transmission media is one which does not use the physical
medium to transmit information from one computer to another. Unlike the
guided transmission media, the unguided transmission media utilize air as a
transmission media instead of wire or cable so it is also termed as ‘wireless
transmission media’.
The communication devices in unbounded communication channels/media

communicate with each other through air or space using broadcast radio
signals, microwave signals, and infrared signals as a medium. Unbounded
media can also be used at each and every place where it is impossible to install
cables. The best solution is to use unbounded media.
Data can be transferred to each and every place in the world by using
unbounded media.
Some examples of unbounded communication channels are as follows:
 Microwave System
 Communication Satellite
 Broadcast Radio
 Cellular Radio
 Infrared
Advantages:
1. It is used for long distance communication.
2. It has high speed data transmission.
3. Many receiver stations can receive signals from same sender station.
Disadvantage
1.It is very costly.
2. Radio waves travel through Lowest portion of atmosphere

UNIT 4
Hi student, in this session we learned about the two main

classes of network communication channels. This included
guided and unguided media. The guided included the twisted pair, coaxial and
fibre optic cables whiles the unbounded or unguided include microwave
system, communication satellite, broadcast radio, cellular radio, and infrared.
All these media have been treated in detail in the next four sessions. I hope you
enjoyed it.
Exercise 4.2
1. Distinguish between guided and unguided communication
channels
2. Give two examples each of guided and unguided transmission media

TYPES OF NETWORK MEDIA:
UNIT 4
SESSION 2 GUIDED AND UNGUIDED


UNIT 4
SESSION 3: TYPES OF NETWORK MEDIA – THE

TWISTED PAIR CABLE
Welcome to this session. This session focuses on the twisted

pair cable as a type of guided communication channel.
Twisted pair cable appears to be the most common type of cable in our local
area networks today. This could be attributed to so many reasons. The session
will also look at some of these reason. Relax, read and enjoy it.
Objectives
1. Describe the features of twisted pair cable
2. Mention the types of twisted pair cable
3. Explain the advantages and disadvantages of twisted pair cables
Now read on…
Twisted-pair and coaxial cables both use copper wire to conduct the signals
electronically; fiber-optic cable uses a glass or plastic conductor and transmits
the signals as light. For many years, coaxial was the cable of choice for most
LANs. Today, twisted pair has proven to be the cable medium of choice, thus
retiring coaxial to the confines of storage closets. Fiber-optic cable has also
seen its popularity rise but because of cost it has been primarily restricted to
use as a network backbone where segment length and higher speeds are
needed. That said, fiber is now increasingly common in server room
environments as a server-to-switch connection method, and in building-to-
building connections in metropolitan area networks (MANs).
Twisted Pair Cable/Wire

Twisted-pair cabling has been around for a very long time. It was originally
created for voice transmissions and has been widely used for telephone
communication. Today, in addition to telephone communication, twisted pair
is the most widely used medium for networking.

UNIT 4 TYPES OF NETWORK MEDIA – THE
SESSION 3 TWISTED PAIR CABLE
Twisted pair wire is popular today because it is lighter, more flexible, and
easier to install than coaxial or fiber-optic cable. It is also cheaper than other
media alternatives and can achieve greater speeds than its coaxial competition.
These factors make twisted pair the ideal solution for most network
environments.
Advantages of Twisted Pair Cables

1. It is easy to install
2. It is flexible
3. Its speed capacity is high
4. Inexpensive in terms of cost/price
5. Maximum length per segment is100-meter
6. Higher degrees UTP is used in LAN technologies such as Ethernet
Disadvantages of Twisted Pair cables

4. Bandwidth is less than coaxial cables
5. It has less resistance to interference
6. It has worst noise immunity.
7. Less durability, so it requires the maintenance at the regular basis.
8. Susceptible to electromagnetic interference
Two main types of twisted-pair cabling are in use today: Unshielded

Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP). UTP is
significantly more common than STP and is used for most networks.
Shielded twisted pair is used in environments in which greater resistance
to EMI and attenuation is required. The greater resistance comes at a
price, however. The additional shielding, plus the need to ground that
shield (which requires special connectors), can significantly add to the
cost of a cable installation of STP. In addition, the data transmission
speed of the twisted pair wire is near about 9600 bits per second at a
distance of 100 meters. The twisted pair is inexpensive and has less
speed than coaxial cable or fiber optics.
Note
A third type of twisted-pair cable, Screened Twisted Pair (ScTP) , is
available, but it isn’t widely deployed. ScTP encases all the wires in the cable
within a single shield. This is in contrast to standard STP cable, which uses
the same shield but also encases each individual wire with shielding. ScTP is
cheaper than STP, but it is still more expensive than UTP.

UNIT 4
Activity 1: Now can you google and

answer this questions, “What are
advantages and disadvantages of UTP
and STP in particular?
Categories of Twisted Pair Cable

There are several categories of twisted-pair cabling. The early categories are
most commonly associated with voice transmissions. The categories are
specified by the Electronic Industries Association/ Telecommunications
Industry Association (EIA/TIA). EIA/TIA is an organization that focuses on
developing standards for electronic components, electronic information,
telecommunications, and Internet security.
UTP cabling is rated according to categories devised by the

Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) and the Electronic Industries
Alliance (EIA); the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) has also
endorsed these standards. The ANSI/TIA/EIA 568 Commercial Building
Wiring Standard defines standards for the kinds of wiring used in commercial
environments and helps ensure consistent performance from wiring products.
Currently, the ANSI/TIA/EIA 568 standard includes eight categories for UTP
wiring; these categories also govern the number of twists per foot or meter:

• Category 1—Applies to traditional UTP phone cabling, which is

designed to carry voice but not data. This cabling is, therefore, labeled
as voicegrade. Most UTP installed before 1982 falls into this category.
This standard is no longer recognized by TIA/EIA.
• Category 2—Certifies UTP cabling for bandwidth up to 4 Mbps and

consists of four pairs of wire. Because 4 Mbps is slower than most
current networking technologies (except for older token ring
installations), Category 2 is unlikely to be seen in networking
environments and is no longer recognized by TIA/EIA.
• Category 3—Certifies UTP cabling for bandwidth up to 10 Mbps with

signaling rates up to 16 MHz. This category supports 10BaseT Ethernet
and 4 Mbps token ring networks with maximum segment lengths of
100 meters. Category 3 consists of four pairs, with each pair having a
minimum of three twists per foot (10 twists per meter). Cat 3 remains
in use in some older networks but should be replaced when networks
are upgraded. Most networks have already migrated to 100 Mbps and
1000 Mbps speeds, and Cat 3 isn’t suitable for these speeds.
• Category 4—Certifies UTP cabling for bandwidth up to 16 Mbps with

signaling rates up to 20 MHz. This category supports primarily
10BaseT Ethernet and 16 Mbps token ring and is the first
ANSI/TIA/EIA designation that labels cables as datagrade (meaning
they’re capable of carrying data) rather than voicegrade. Cat 4 consists
of four twisted pairs.
• Category 5—Certifies UTP cabling for bandwidth up to 100 Mbps

with signaling rates
up to 100 MHz. This category supports 100BaseTX, Asynchronous
Transfer Mode 4 (ATM) technologies at 25 and 155 Mbps, and Copper
Distributed Data Interface
(CDDI) at 100 Mbps. Category 5 also consists of four twisted pairs
with an average of
three to four twists per inch. Cat 5 cabling has been superseded by
Category 5e and
can be used in Gigabit Ethernet (1000BaseT), but Cat 5e is the

UNIT 4
minimum recommendation because of the additional tests required for

it. Cat 5 cable is no longer widely available.
• Category 5e—Category 5 enhanced UTP cabling, as the name

suggests, is an enhancement to Category 5 UTP. It differs mainly in the
tests it must undergo and was designed to correct some shortcomings in
Cat 5 cabling, particularly in Gigabit Ether- net and full-duplex
operation. Cat 5e is an acceptable cable type for 1000BaseT Ethernet,
but Category 6 should be considered for new installations. Cat 5e
consists of four pairs and is rated for 100 MHz signaling rates; it comes
in both shielded and unshielded versions.
• Category 6 —This standard, published in June 2002 by the TIA/EIA,
is the recommended UTP cabling standard for Ethernet applications
over copper media at speeds up to 1 Gbps. Category 6 cabling uses the
same type of modular jack as lower categories and is backward-
compatible with Category 5 and Category 5e cable plants. It’s specified
to operate at signaling rates of 250 MHz. Some Cat 6 cabling includes a
spline, or separator, in the jacket for additional separation between
pairs of wires. However, this separator isn’t a requirement. Cat 6 is the
preferred cabling for 1000BaseT (Gigabit Ethernet) networks, but it can
also support 10GBaseT for distances under 55 meters. Cat 6 is a four-
pair cable and comes in both shielded and unshielded versions.
• Category 6a—Published in February 2008, Category 6a (Category 6
augmented) is suitable for signaling rates up to 500 MHz and is the
category specified for 10GBaseT networks with segments up to 100
meters. It comes in both shielded and unshielded versions.
Two additional categories aren’t yet TIA/EIA standards and might never be in
the United States. However, Europe has accepted the Category 7 and Category
7a standards, which specify a fully shielded twisted-pair cable (each wire pair
is shielded, as is the outer sheath) with performance characteristics well above
earlier cabling standards. Signaling rates are specified at up to 600 MHz for
Cat 7 and 1000 MHz for Cat 7a. Because of a different connecting hardware
design, these cables and connectors aren’t likely to be backward-compatible.
Cat 7 and 7a are ISO/IEC 11801 standards, and their use in the upcoming 40
and 100 Gigabit Ethernet standards is uncertain. These two categories of cable

might have a short life if they aren’t specified in a widely adopted networking
standard.
Category 5e and 6 UTP cabling characteristics
Maximum cable length 100 m (328 ft.)

Bandwidth Up to 1000 Mbps
Bend radius Minimum four times the cable diameter or 1 inch
Installation and maintenance Easy to install, no need to reroute; the most flexible
Cost Least expensive of all cabling options
Connector type RJ-45 plug, RJ-45 jack, and patch panels
Security Moderately susceptible to eavesdropping
Signaling rates 100 MHz for Cat 5e; 250 MHz for Cat 6
Interference rating Susceptible to EMI and crosstalk
Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable

As its name indicates, STP includes
shielding to reduce crosstalk and limit the
effects of external interference. For most
STP cables, this means the wiring includes a
wire braid inside the cladding or sheath
material as well as a foil wrap around each
wire pair. This shielding improves the
cable’s transmission speed and resistance to
interference, which allows using STP in electrically noisy environments or
very high-bandwidth applications. Unfortunately, no standards for STP
correspond to the ANSI/ TIA/EIA 568 Standard for UTP, but you can readily
find STP versions of Cat 5e, Cat 6, and Cat 6a. These STP versions are
sometimes referred to as foiled twisted pair (FTP), and the shielding surrounds
all four wire pairs rather than each wire pair.
Twisted-Pair Cable Plant Components

A twisted-pair cable plant requires more than just the cabling, which is usually
sold in spools of 1000 feet. In addition, you find most of the following
components:

UNIT 4
● RJ-45 connectors—Whether STP or UTP, most twisted-pair cabling uses

registered jack 45 (RJ-45) connectors to plug into network interfaces or other
networked devices. This connector looks much like the RJ-11 connector on
modular phone jacks, but it’s larger and contains eight wire traces rather than
the four or six in an RJ-11. An RJ-45 connector (see Figure 4-3), often called
an RJ-45 plug, is most commonly used in patch cables, which are used to
connect computers to hubs and switches and computers to RJ-45 wall jacks.
Registered Jack 45 (RJ45) Connector
Patch cable—A patch cable is a short cable for connecting a computer to an

RJ-45 jack or connecting a patch-panel port to a switch or hub. Patch cables
can be made with inexpensive tools, two RJ-45 plugs, and a length of TP cable,
which you do later in your own Hands-On exercise. Although making a patch
cable is easy, most network administrators prefer buying ready-made cables to
save time.
UTP patch cable

RJ-45 jacks—An RJ-45 jack (also known as Keystone) is what you plug an
RJ-45 connector into when the computer is in a work area away from hubs and
switches. It has a receptacle for an RJ-45 plug on one side and a place to
terminate, or “punch down,” the TP cabling on the other side. RJ-45 jacks are
usually placed behind wall plates when cables are run inside walls but can also
be recessed into the floor or placed in surface-mounted boxes if the cabling
runs on the outside of walls.
Patch panel
The patch panel looks like the switch but it is not a switch. It is sometimes
referred to as a passive switch. Patch panels are used to terminate long runs of
cable from the work area (where the computers are) to the wiring closet (where
the switches and hubs are). Patch panels are like RJ-45 jacks, in that they have
a receptacle on one end and punchdown terminals on the other, but a patch
panel can usually accommodate 12, 24, or 48 cables. Example is shown in the
pictures below and it shows the front side of a patch panel, where a patch cable
plugs in, and the back side, where long runs of cable are terminated.

UNIT 4
Installing UTP Cabling

One skill required of a network technician is terminating UTP cables. Cable
termination means putting RJ-45 plugs on the cable to make a patch cable or
punching down cable wires into terminal blocks on a jack or patch panel. To
create a patch panel, a technician needs the following tools:
• Bulk UTP cabling
• Wire cutters or electrician’s scissors Activity 2: Take some
• Cable stripper time, go to the Internet
• Crimping tool to find out how these
• Cable tester tools look like
• RJ-45 plugs
To terminate cable at an RJ-45 jack or a patch panel, you need the following
tools:
• Bulk UTP cabling
• Wire cutters or electrician’s scissors
• Cable stripper
• Type 110 punchdown tool
• Cable tester
• RJ-45 jack and patch panel
Cable Preparations
One of the most important aspects of making a cable or terminating a cable at a
jack or patch panel is to get the coloured wires arranged in the correct order.
There are two competing standards for the arrangement of wires: TIA/EIA
568A and TIA/EIA 568B. Either standard is okay to follow, as long as you
stick to one throughout your network. The arrangement of wires for both
standards is shown just below.
Pinout Positions
Pinout positions refer to the arrangement of pins on an integrated circuit. The
difference between the two standards is the location of the orange and green
pins.

The Pinout Positions of TIA/EIA 568A:

- Pin 1: white and green stripe
- Pin 2: green
- Pin 3: white and orange stripe
- Pin 4: blue
- Pin 5: white and blue stripe
- Pin 6: orange
- Pin 7: white and brown stripe
- Pin 8: brown
The Pinout Location of TIA/EIA 568B:

- Pin 1: white and orange stripe
- Pin 2: orange
- Pin 3: white and green stripe
- Pin 4: blue
- Pin 5: white and blue stripe
- Pin 6: green
- Pin 7: white and brown stripe
- Pin 8: brown
Different Cabling Types

- Straight-through Cable: Straight-through cables are used to connect unlike
device or devices of different kind. They refer to connectors at each end of a
patch cable terminated with the same standard. Such cables are used to connect
end-user devices to networking devices, such as hubs and switches, and send a
signal directly through. It connects computers to switches, printers to switches.
EIA/TIA 568A

UNIT 4
EIA/TIA 568B
- Crossover Cable: Crossover cables are used to connect like-devices or

devices of the same kind. They are terminated at both ends with different
standards. In other words, one side is terminated with TIA/EIA 568A and the
other is terminated with TIA/EIA 568B. To create a crossover cable, Pin 1 is
crossed with Pin 3 and Pin 2 is crossed with Pin 6. Crossover cables connect
two hubs through the data port or provide a direct connection between two
workstations without using a switch or hub.
- Rollover Cable: Rollover cables are also referred to as console cables and
have opposite pinout positions on each end of the cable. Dissimilar to
crossover cables and straight-through cables, rollover cables are designed to
create an interface with the device rather than carry data.

They are used to connect to routers and manageable switches for configuration
and setups.
Hands-On Project 3-1: Making a Patch Cable

Time Required: 20 minutes
Objective: Create a 568B straight-through patch

cable.
Required Tools/Equipment: Wire cutter and cable
stripper, RJ-45 crimping tool, 2 to 4 feet of Cat 5/5e
or Cat 6 cable, two RJ-45 plugs, cable tester (optional)
Description: In this project, you make a patch cable according to the
instructions. The instructor will inspect the cable for the correct wire
order and strain relief. If possible, a cable tester is used to test for
conductivity and wiremap, at a minimum.
1. Strip approximately 2 inches of the outer jacket off one end of the cable
with the cable stripper. Be careful not to nick the inner wires’ insulation.
Most UTP cable strippers are calibrated to score the cable’s outer jacket so
that you can simply break it off. Cable strippers differ in the techniques
you use with them, so refer to the instructions that came with yours or ask
your instructor.
2. Untwist the four pairs of wires.
3. Here comes the tricky part: Arrange the wires from left to right (as you’re
looking down on them) so that they’re in the following order: white with
orange stripes, orange, white with green stripes, blue, white with blue
stripes, green, white with brown stripes, and brown. This order adheres to
the 568B wiring standard.
4. Clip the eight wires so that a little more than a half-inch of wire extends
beyond the outer jacket.

UNIT 4
5. While holding the RJ-45 plug in one hand with the clip facing away from
you, insert the eight wires into the connector, making sure the tops of wires
extend to the front of the connector and the cable jacket goes far enough
into the connector so that the jacket will be caught by the crimp bar.
6. Now insert the RJ-45 connector into the crimping tool, and make sure the
wires don’t slip. Squeeze the handle on the crimping tool firmly. It might
take a little hand strength or using two hands, depending on the crimping
tool’s quality. This tool does two things. First, it forces the eight small
contacts at the top of the plug down onto the wires; the contacts are pushed
just far enough in that they slice through the insulation on each wire,
thereby making an electrical contact with the wire. Second, the strain-relief
bar is pushed in to grab the cable’s outer jacket, making it more difficult to
pull the wires out of the plug.
7. Repeat the process for the other end of the cable, and test with a cable
tester, if available. Congratulations! You have made a patch cable.
8. If time and materials allow, make a crossover cable, using the 568B wiring
scheme on one end and the 568A wiring scheme on the other. Keep your
tools handy for the next project.
This is session has been very long but I believe you have
learnt a lot. In this session we focused on the twisted pair
cable. We looked at the types and categories of the Unshielded twisted pair.
We also looked at the advantages and disadvantages of twisted pair cable.
Don’t forget you have two assignments to perform. That brings us to the end of
this session.
Exercise 4.3
1. Distinguish between the shielded twisted pair and unshielded
twisted pair cables
2. State three (3) categories of unshielded twisted pair cable.



UNIT 4
SESSION 4: NETWORK MEDIA – COAXIAL CABLE
Hello students, we warmly welcome you to this session. We

have already learnt something about networking media or the
communication channel. Apart from the twisted pair cable, there is another
cable that is very important in networking, i.e. Coaxial or coax cable. Although
this type of cable appears outdated, there is still the need to understand how
this cable works and types of coaxial cable. We will also look at the speed, and
maximum length per segment. Let’s continue to read for more.
Objectives
By the end of session, you should be able to:
1. describe the coaxial cable
2. state the characteristics of coaxial cable
3. explain the advantages and disadvantages of coaxial
Now read on…
Coaxial Cable
The coaxial cable is not any new cable. It looks just like the TV cable that we
already know. We have been using the TV cable, right? Yes, it means you
know coaxial cable. However, the kind of coaxial cable used in computer
networking is a different grade.

UNIT 4 NETWORK MEDIA – COAXIAL CABLE
SESSION 4
Coaxial cable is also termed as coax. It carries high-frequency range signals

than twisted-pair cable. It is made up of a single solid copper wire core that is
covered by insulating material.
A copper mesh is used to cover the insulated copper wire. It also protects the
cable from electromagnetic waves.
Coaxial cable is the same cable that is used for television. This cable is used
for long-distance telephone lines and local area networks for voice and data
transmission with very high frequency.
Coaxial cable bandwidth is 80 times higher than the twisted-pair wire. So, it is
more expensive than twisted pair. It is constructed in this way to add resistance
to attenuation (the loss of signal strength as the signal travels over distance),
crosstalk (the degradation of a signal, caused by signals from other cables
running close to it), and EMI.
Advantages
1. High bandwidth
2. Use in long-distance telephone lines
3. 10Mbps high-speed digital signal transmission
4. Transfer data safely
5. Compared to twisted pair cables, they can have higher speeds and better
protection over long distances.
Disadvantages
1. Failure of one cable will disrupt the entire network
2. Difficult and expensive installation
3. If the protector is defective, it is possible to create a ring
Performance
Although these types of cables have more bandwidth and speed compared to
twisted pair cables, the voltage drop and signal attenuation is more and
requires repeated use of a repeater.
Application
 Analog TV networks
 Cable TV networks
 In Ethernet networks

UNIT 4
Types of Coaxial Cables

Two types of coax are used in networking:
1. Thin coax, also known as Thinnet
2. Thick coax, also known as Thicknet
Thin Coaxial Cable

Thin coax is much more likely to be seen than thick coax in today’s networks,
but it isn’t common. Thin coax is only 0.25 inches in diameter, making it fairly
easy to install. It also known as the 10Base2 according to ethernet standards.
Here 2 represents the maximum distance of 200 meters recommended between
nodes/repeaters. Thinnet cabling can become damaged if it is sharply bent or
twisted, so handle it carefully. (It is not nearly as fragile as fiber-optic cabling,
however.) Unfortunately, one of the disadvantages of all thin coax types is that
they are prone to cable breaks, which increase the difficulty when installing
and troubleshooting coaxial-based networks. Its connection is the BNC
connector.
Thick Coaxial Cable

Neither is particularly popular anymore, but you are most likely to encounter
thin coax.
Ethernet-based LANs using thick cable RG8/U cable that is 0.4 inch in
diameter for internet-connection are referred to as Thicknet or10Base5
systems. Here 10 means 10Mbps speed that this cable can offer, Base means
baseband, and 5 represents the maximum distance 500 meters recommended
between nodes/repeaters.

SESSION 4
Thick coax was used primarily for backbone cable. It could be run through
plenum spaces because it offered significant resistance to EMI and crosstalk
and could run in lengths up to 500 meters. Thick coax offers speeds up to
10Mbps, far too slow for today’s network environments. It is also known as
10Base5. Its connector is the vampire taps
Activity 1: Now can you google and

answer this questions,
“What are the differences between the
thinnet and thicknet coaxial cables?”
Differences between Thinnet and Thicknet Coaxial Cables

UNIT 4
Thick Coaxial Cable Thin Coaxial Cable

1. It is technically known as 10- It is technically known as 10-BASE-
BASE-5. 2.
The maximum segment length is
2. The maximum segment length is
nearly 200 metres (185 m to be
500 metres.
exact).
3. It uses the thick coaxial cable RG- It uses the thinner coaxial cable RG-
8/U. 58/AU.
Connectors used are BNC
4. Connectors used are vampire taps.
connectors.
5. It allows a maximum of 100 It allows a maximum of 30 stations
stations to be connected. to be connected.
Connectors
BNC connector for Thinnet

SESSION 4
T-Connector
Thicknet connector
Vampire tap
Thin Coax Categories
Cable type Description

RG-59 /U Used to generate low-power video connections. The RG-59
cable cannot be used over long distances because of its high-
frequency power losses. In such cases, RG-6 cables are used
instead
RG-58 /U Has a solid copper core. Used for radio communication and
thin Ethernet (10Base2).
RG-58 A/U Has a stranded wire core. Used for radio communication and
thin Ethernet (10Base2).
RG-58 C/U Used for military specifications.
RG-6 Often used for cable TV and cable modems.

UNIT 4
In this lesson we learned about the coaxial cable which is

Guided type of network cable. There are two types; the
Thicknet and Thinnet. Thick coaxial cable is bigger than the thin coaxial cable.
The maximum distance for the Thicknet is 500 meters while that of the Thinnet
is 185 meters. We hope you enjoyed reading this session. We are left with the
last two sessions. Let’s keep reading.
Exercise 4.4
1. What is the connector for thin coaxial cable?
A. BNC connector
B. vampire taps
C. RJ45
D. RJ11
2. The maximum distance for thicknet coaxial cable is ….meters.
A. 100
B. 200
C. 185
D. 500

SESSION 4


UNIT 4
SESSION 5: NETWORK MEDIA - FIBRE-OPTIC CABLES
Dear students, we in the fifth session of the fourth unit. This

session is dedicated to discussing one of the networking
communication channels – fibre-optic cable. You might have heard about it
because of its unit characteristics. In many ways, fiber-optic media addresses
the shortcomings of copper-based media which include twisted pair and
coaxial cables. Because fiber-based media use light transmissions instead of
electronic pulses. There are a lot more characteristics you need to know about
this cable. Just sit back, read and enjoy the session.
Objectives
1. briefly describe the fibre-optic cable
2. state the characteristics of the fibre-optic cable
3. explain the advantages and disadvantages of using fibre-optic in networking.
Now read on…
Fibre-Optic cable Characteristics

Fiber optics is also known as light pulse media. It uses a binary method of data
transfer. Fiber is made up of thin glass fiber. A fiber optics consists of a very
narrow fiber of glass called the core. It is thinner than human hair. Because
fiber-based media use light transmissions instead of electronic pulses, threats
such as EMI, crosstalk, and attenuation become nonissues. There is no
possibility of data loss. Fiber is well suited for the transfer of data, video, and
voice transmissions. In addition, fiber-optic is the most secure of all cable
media. Anyone trying to access data signals on a fiber-optic cable must
physically tap into the medium. Given the composition of the cable, this is a
particularly difficult task.
In addition, the best advantage of fiber optics is that data is already in binary
form and it just needs to be converted into light only. It can transmit data up to
billions of bits per second. The main disadvantage of fiber optics is that it is
very expensive and also difficult to install and modify.

UNIT 4 NETWORK MEDIA - FIBRE OPTIC
SESSION 5 CABLES
Fibre cable
Characteristics of Fibre-optic cable
Maximum cable length 2 km (6562 ft.) to 100 km (62.14 miles)

Bandwidth 10, 40, and 100 Gbps and higher
Bend radius 30 degrees per foot
Installation and Difficult to install and reroute; sensitive to strain
maintenance and bending
Cost Most expensive of all cabling options
Connector type Several types (see bulleted list in the next section)
Security Not susceptible to eavesdropping
Interference rating None; least susceptible of all cable types

UNIT 4
Two types of fiber-optic cable
1. Multimode fiber: This kind of fibre-optic has many beams of light

traveling through the cable, bouncing off the cable walls. This strategy
actually weakens the signal, reducing the length and speed at which the
data signal can travel. Multi-mode fibre, therefore, has low bandwidth, less
expensive, less immune to contamination and use for short distances under
2 kilometres.
2. Single-mode fiber: this type of fibre-optic is used for long distances,

typically over 2 kilometres and has high bandwidth and high signal quality.
It uses a single direct beam of light, thus allowing for greater distances and
increased transfer speeds.
Refer to the chart below for a comparison of the two modes.
Some of the common types of fiber-optic cable include the following:

1. 62.5-micron core/125-micron cladding multimode

SESSION 5 CABLES
2. 50-micron core/125-micron cladding multimode
3. 8.3-micron core/125-micron cladding single mode
Fiber Optics cable is used for

 Internet services
 Long-distance communication
 Local area network
Advantages
1. High bandwidth:
In particular, fiber-optic cable is a good medium for high-bandwidth, high-
speed, long- distance data transmission because of its lower attenuation
characteristics and vastly higher bandwidth potential.
2. Less attenuation of signals
Voltage drop as well as the need for repeaters is less compared to coaxial cable
and twisted pair cable.
UNIT 4
3. Protect against electromagnetic interference:

Fiber-optic media is as immune to electrical interference as any medium can
get. Light pulses are unaffected by EMI and RFI. This characteristic also
makes fiber-optic cables highly secure. They emit no external signals that
might be detected, unlike electrical or broadcast media, thereby eliminating the
possibility of electronic eavesdropping.
4. Corrosion-resistant: There is no corrosion on this kind of cable.
Disadvantages
1. It is moderately difficult installation.
2. Its maintenance procedures of fiber often require skilled technicians with
specialized tools.
3. Furthermore, the cost of a fiber-based solution limits the number of
organizations that can afford to implement it.
4. Another sometimes hidden drawback of implementing a fiber solution is
the cost of retrofitting existing network equipment.
5. Fiber is incompatible with most electronic network equipment. This means
you have to purchase fiber-compatible network hardware.
Fiber-Optic Connectors
A wide variety of connectors can be used with fiber-optic media, depending on
the light- emitting sources used to generate light pulses and the corresponding
light-detecting sensors used to detect them.
• Straight tip—Straight tip (ST) connectors join fibers at cross-connects or to
optical devices. They’re used most often in Ethernet networks with fiber-
optic cable as backbone cabling. An ST connector locks onto the jack when
twisted.

SESSION 5 CABLES
• Straight connection—Straight connection (SC) connectors push on, which

makes them easy to install and requires less space for an attachment. They
make a strong connection and can be used when splicing fiber-optic cables.
An SC connector is a one-piece component, with two receptacles for
sending and receiving fibers. A notch in its jacket ensures the correct
orientation when inserted.
• Locking connection—Locking connection (LC) connectors push on and

pull off with an RJ-45-style latching mechanism. They’re about half the
size of SC connectors, which makes them good for high-density
applications, in which many fibers are concentrated in one location.
• Medium interface connector—A medium interface connector (MIC) is

used for Fiber Distributed Data Interface (FDDI). Like SC connectors,
MIC connectors are one-piece constructions.
• Subminiature type A—The company Amphenol originally designed

subminiature type A (SMA) connectors for microwave use and later
modified them for fiber-optic use. Two SMA versions are widely available:
The 905 uses a straight ferrule, which is a metal sleeve for strengthening
the connector, and the 906 uses a stepped ferrule with a plastic sleeve to

UNIT 4
ensure precise alignment of fibers. Like ST connectors, SMAs use two

connectors for each fiber strand.
● Mechanical transfer registered jack—A mechanical transfer registered jack
(MT-RJ) connector looks a little like an RJ-45 connector. It provides a high-
density fiber-optic connection by using two fiber-optic cables. Compared with
other connector types, MT-RJ connectors take only half the space for the same
number of cable terminations. They’re also easy to install and require only one
connector for a two-fiber termination.
Fibre Optic Splicing Machine for termination
Fiber-Optic Installation
Installing fiber-optic networks is somewhat more difficult and time consuming
than copper media installation. However, advances in connector technology
have made field termination of fiber-optic cables almost as fast and easy as
copper terminations. The connectors and test equipment required for
termination are still considerably more expensive than their copper
counterparts, but the trend toward easier, more affordable fiber-optic networks

SESSION 5 CABLES
continues. Fiber-optic cable to the desktop, although not common, is becoming

a feasible option for more companies.

UNIT 4
There are several methods for terminating fiber-optic cables because of the
many connectors and cable types available, so installation details are beyond
the scope of this book. Before embarking on a fiber-optic termination task, you
need to purchase a fiber-optic termination kit, which can range from several
hundred to several thousand dollars. Some tools in a typical fiber-optic
termination kit include the following:
• Buffer tube stripper—A tightly calibrated tool designed for stripping
buffer tubes off the glass fiber strand without breaking the fiber
• Cable stripper—Used to remove the fiber cable’s outer sheath; much
like the cable stripper used with UTP
• Crimper—Used with connectors that use crimping as the method to fix
the connector to the cable
• Diamond cleaver—Used to cut glass fiber cleanly without shattering
the end
• Inspection scope—Used for examining the end of a fiber strand to
make sure it’s clean and polished
• Polishing tool—Used to polish the end of a cleaved (cut) strand of fiber
Table 3: Summary of Ethernet standards and properties

IEEE
Transmission Minimum Maximum
Ethernet standard document Cable type Design notes
speed cable grade distance
#
Maximum four
10BaseT 802.3i 10 Mbps UTP Cat 3 100 meters hubs between
stations
Maximum two
100BaseT/TX 802.3u 100 Mbps UTP Cat 5 100 meters hubs between
stations
2 km over
100BaseFX 802.3u 100 Mbps MMF or SMF N/A MMF, 10 km
over SMF
Cat 5 (Cat 5e Maximum one
1000BaseT 802.3ab 1000 Mbps UTP or 6 100 meters hub between
preferred) stations
Full-duplex
10GBaseT 802.3an 10 Gbps UTP Cat 6A 100 meters
only; no hubs
Obsolete; saw
100BaseT4 802.3u 100 Mbps UTP Cat 3 100 meters
little use
550 meters
1000BaseLX 802.3z 1000 Mbps MMF or SMF N/A over MMF, 5
km over SMF

SESSION 5 CABLES
1000BaseSX 802.3z 1000 Mbps MMF N/A 550 meters

Succeeded by
1000BaseCX 802.3z 1000 Mbps Twinax N/A 25 meters
1000BaseT
10GBaseSR
10GBaseLR Choice of
Varies from
10GBaseER technology
802.3ae 10 Gbps MMF or SMF N/A 82 meters
10GBaseSW depends on
up to 40 km
10GBaseLW application
10GBaseEW
40 km over
40 Gigabit MMF, SMF, Standard
40 and 100 SMF, 7
Ethernet and 100 802.3ba and copper N/A ratified June 17,
Gbps meters over
Gigabit Ethernet assembly 2010
copper
Hi students, we have come to the end of this session. In this

session, we looked at the fibre-optic cable; its
characteristics, advantages, disadvantages, connectors and types. The machine
used for terminating fibre cables called splicer was also displayed. I hope you
enjoyed the session.
Exercise 4.5
1. State two characteristics of the fibre-optic cable
2. Discuss three reasons why you may prefer fibre-optic cable to copper cables
such as twisted pair or coaxial cable.
3. List three connectors for fibre-optic cables
4. Distinguish between the single mode and multimode fibre-optic cables.

UNIT 4
SESSION 6: UNGUIDED MEDIA OR WIRELESS MEDIA
We warmly welcome you all to the sixth session of Unit 4.

This is a four-unit module and therefore, this is the last session
of the module. If you remember, we started this unit by looking two main
classes of transmission media. These were guided and unguided media or
wired and wireless media. The first five session were dedicated to looking at
the guided media while this session looks the unguided media or wireless.
Wireless media is a media that uses the atmosphere to send signals across the
network. There are so many types and so many reasons for using this kind of
media in networking. You may want to know more about this media, please sit
back, read and enjoy the session.
Objectives
By the end of this session, you should be able to
1. define wireless media or wireless network
2. state the characteristics of wireless media
3. discuss types of wireless networks
4. explain the advantages and disadvantages of using wireless networks
Now sit back and read on…
Wireless Network/Unbounded Media

The communication devices in unbounded communication channels /media
communicate with each other through air or space using broadcast radio
signals, microwave signals, and infrared signals as a medium. Unbounded
media can also be used at each and every place where it is impossible to install
cables. The best solution is to use unbounded media. Data can be transferred to
each and every place in the world by using unbounded media.
Wireless technologies are playing a bigger role in all kinds of networks. Since
1990, wireless options have increased, and the cost of these technologies
continues to decrease. As wireless networking has become more affordable,
demand has increased, and as demand increases, so does production of wireless
equipment, which brings prices down even more. For this reason, wireless
networks can now be found in most towns and cities in the form of hotspots,

UNIT 4 UNGUIDED MEDIA OR WIRELESS MEDIA
SESSION 6
and many home users have turned to wireless networks so that their computers
are no longer tethered to a network cable.
The adjective “wireless” might lead you to believe that wireless networks have
no cabling of any kind. However, wireless networks are often used with wired
networks to interconnect geographically dispersed LANs or groups of mobile
users with wired servers and resources on a wired LAN. Networks including
both wired and wireless components are called “hybrid networks.” Indeed,
even in home or small business networks with workstations connecting to a
wireless AP or router, the AP or router usually connects to the Internet via a
wired connection to a cable modem or similar device. Probably the only truly
wireless networks are ad hoc networks or small infrastructure networks put
together for the purpose of sharing files among a small group of people.
Today, wireless local area networks (WLANs) provide a flexible and secure
data communications system that augments an Ethernet LAN or, in some
cases, replaces it. Wireless transmissions send and receive data using radio
frequency (RF) signals, freeing you from wired solutions.
In a common wireless implementation, a wireless transceiver

(transmitter/receiver), known as an access point, connects to the wired network
from a fixed location using standard cabling. The wireless access point
receives and then transmits data between the wireless LAN and the wired net-
work infrastructure.
Client systems communicate with a wireless access point using wireless LAN
adapters. Such adapters are built into or can be added to laptops, Personal
Digital Assistant (PDAs), or desktop computers. Wireless LAN adapters
provide the communication point between the client system and the airwaves
via an antenna.

UNIT 4
Wireless Benefits
Wireless networking has a lot of appeal in many circumstances and can offer
the following capabilities:
 Create temporary connections to existing wired networks.
 Establish backup or contingency connectivity for existing wired networks.
 Extend a network’s span beyond the reach of wire-based or fiber-optic
cabling, especially in older buildings where rewiring might be too
expensive.
 Allow businesses to provide customers with wireless networking easily,
thereby offering a service that gets customers in and keeps them there.
 Enable users to roam around a corporate or college campus with their
machines.
Applications for wireless networking

Today, common applications for wireless networking technologies include the
following:
1. Ready access to data for mobile professionals, such as doctors or nurses
in hospitals or delivery personnel.
For instance, United Parcel Service (UPS) drivers maintain connections to
a server at the home office; their handheld computers send and receive
delivery updates and status information to a network server over a wireless

SESSION 6
phone connection. Doctors can carry lightweight mobile devices on their

patient visits and have wireless access to patient information at all times.
2. Delivering network access to isolated facilities or disaster-stricken areas.

For example, some organizations use battery-powered wireless
technologies to install field networks in areas where power and connections
might be unavailable.
3. Access in environments where layout and settings change constantly. For

instance, film studios often include wireless network components on the set
so that information is always available, no matter how the stage
configuration changes.
4. Improved customer services in busy areas, such as check-in or reception

centers. For example, Hertz employees use handheld units to check in
returned rental vehicles right in the parking lot.
5. Network connectivity in structures, such as historical buildings, where
in-wall wiring is impossible to install or prohibitively expensive.
6. Home networks where installing cables is inconvenient. More people who
own multiple computers are installing inexpensive wireless networks so
that family members can share Internet connections and files.
Types of Wireless Networks

Depending on the role wireless components play in a network, wireless
networks can be sub- divided into the following categories:
1. Local area networks (LANs)—In LANs, wireless components act as part
of an ordinary LAN, usually to provide connectivity for mobile users or in
changing environments or perhaps across areas that couldn’t otherwise be
networked. Examples include older buildings where installing wiring is
impractical or areas that encompass public or common property where
cabling might not be permitted.
2. Extended LANs—In extended LANs, an organization might use wireless

components to increase a LAN’s span beyond normal distance limitations
for wire-based or fiber- optic cables.

UNIT 4
3. Internet service—A company that wants to be a high-speed ISP but

doesn’t have a media infrastructure available, as cable and phone
companies do, can use wireless technologies to bring Internet access to
homes and businesses.
4. Mobile computing—With mobile computing, users communicate by using

a wireless networking medium, such as radio or cell phone frequencies,
that enable them to move while remaining connected to a network.
Wireless LAN Transmission

All wireless communication depends on sending and receiving signals
broadcast through the air to carry information between network devices. These
signals take the form of waves in the electromagnetic (EM) spectrum. The
frequency of the wave forms used for communication is measured in cycles per
second, usually expressed as hertz (Hz). The entire EM spectrum starts with
low-frequency waves, such as those used for electrical power (60 Hz in the
United States) and telephone (0 to 3 kilohertz [KHz] for traditional voice
systems) and goes all the way through the visible light frequencies to the
highest frequencies in existence, at which gamma rays and other high-energy
particles operate.
In wireless communication, frequency affects the amount and speed of data

transmission. The transmission’s strength or power determines the distance
that broadcast data can travel and still remain intelligible. In general, however,
the principles governing wireless transmissions dictate that lower-frequency
transmissions can carry less data more slowly over longer distances, and
higher-frequency transmissions can carry more data faster over shorter
distances.
The middle part of the EM spectrum is commonly divided into several named
frequency ranges (bands).
Wireless Frequencies
The following are the most common frequencies for wireless data
communication:
● Radio—10 KHz to 1 GHz (gigahertz)
● Microwave—1 GHz to 500 GHz
● Infrared—500 GHz to 1 THz (terahertz)

SESSION 6
The important principles to remember about a broadcast medium are the

inverse relationship between frequency and distance and the direct
relationship between frequency and data transfer rate and bandwidth. It’s
also important to understand that higher-frequency technologies often use
tight-beam broadcasts and require a clear line of sight between sender and
receiver to ensure correct delivery.
We can set up wireless networks as local area networks. These are called
Wireless LANs. Wireless LANs make use of four main technologies for
transmitting and receiving data, discussed in the following sections:
1. Infrared
2. Laser
3. Narrowband (single-frequency) radio
4. Spread-spectrum radio
1. Infrared LAN Technologies

Infrared (IR) wireless networks use infrared light beams to send signals
between pairs of devices. These devices typically generate signals strong
enough to prevent interference from light sources in most office environments.
Infrared works well for LAN applications because of its high bandwidth,
which makes 10 to 100 Mbps transmission rates easy to deliver. The four main
kinds of infrared LANs include the following:
 Line-of-sight networks require an unobstructed view, or a clear line of
sight, between the transmitter and receiver.
 Reflective wireless networks broadcast signals from optical transceivers
near devices to a central hub, which then forwards signals to their intended
recipients.
 Scatter infrared networks bounce transmissions off walls and ceilings to
deliver signals from sender to receiver. TV remotes work in this fashion.
This approach limits maximum reception distances to approximately 30
meters (100 feet). Because bounce technologies introduce signal delays,
scatter infrared results in lower bandwidth than line of sight.
 Broadband optical telepoint networks provide broadband services. This
technology offers high speed and wide bandwidth, can handle high-end
multimedia traffic, and matches the capabilities of most wired networks.

UNIT 4
IR transmissions are sometimes used for virtual docking connections that

enable portable computing devices to communicate with wired computers or
peripheral devices, such as printers. Even though infrared offers reasonable
networking speeds and convenience, infrared LANs are hampered by the
typical 100-foot distance limitation. Because infrared light is close in
frequency to visible light (and most visible light sources emit strongly in
infrared frequencies), infrared is prone to interference problems from
fluorescent and other light sources in most work environments. These devices
are often called IrDA devices, named after the Infrared Device Association, a
trade association for designers and manufacturers of infrared equipment.
2. Laser-Based LAN Technologies

Laser-based transmissions also require a clear line of sight between sender and
receiver. Any solid object or person blocking a beam interrupts data
transmissions. To protect people from injury and excess radiation, laser-based
LAN devices are subject to many of the same limitations as infrared but aren’t
as susceptible to interference from visible light sources.
3. Narrowband Radio LAN

Technologies Narrowband radio (also called “single-frequency radio”) LANs
use low-powered, two-way radio communication, much like what’s used in
taxis, police radios, and other private radio systems. Receiver and transmitter
must be tuned to the same frequency to handle incoming and outgoing data.
Unlike light-based communications, such as infrared or laser, narrowband
radio requires no line of sight between sender and receiver, as long as both
parties stay within the broadcast range of these devices—typically, a maximum
range of approximately 70 meters (230 feet).
In the United States, government agencies, such as the Federal

Communications Commission (FCC), regulate nearly all radio frequencies and
in Ghana, National Communications Authority (NCA) allocates, assigns, and
regulates the use of frequencies in conformity with development strategies
for the communications industry. They also monitor the frequency to
identify cases of interference, and take action against illegal broadcasters
and users of unauthorised wireless devices.

SESSION 6
Organizations that want frequencies for their exclusive use in specific locales
must complete a time-consuming, expensive application process before being
granted the right to use them. Because of the difficulty in securing exclusive
use, the FCC or NCA sets aside certain frequencies for unregulated use, such
as the ones at which cell phones and remote-control toys operate. As wireless
networking and other forms of wireless communication become more popular,
crowding of these frequencies could become a problem.
Depending on the frequency, walls or other solid barriers can block signals and
prevent transmission and reception. Interference from other radio sources is
also possible, particularly if the devices broadcast in the unregulated frequency
ranges, as most wireless LAN technologies do. As with any broadcast
technology, anyone within range of the network devices could eavesdrop on
network communication. For narrowband radio technologies, this range is
quite short. Table 4-3 summarizes the characteristics of narrowband wireless
LAN technologies.
Table 4.6.1: Narrowband wireless LAN characteristics

Characteristics Value
Unregulated: 902–928 MHz, 2.4 GHz, 5.72–
Frequency ranges
5.85 GHz
Maximum distance 50–70 m (164–230 ft.)
Bandwidth 1–10 Mbps
Installation and maintenance Easy to install and maintain
Interference Highly susceptible
Cost Moderate
Highly susceptible to eavesdropping within
Security
range
Other single-frequency LAN technologies operate at higher power ratings.

Networks of this type can usually transmit as far as the horizon and even
farther by using repeater towers or signal- bouncing techniques. This kind of
technology is well suited for communicating with mobile users but much more
expensive than lower-powered alternatives. In addition, transmission
equipment is more expensive and usually requires FCC licensing. Most users
of this technology, even in the largest organizations, purchase this service from
a communications carrier instead of operating their own facilities.

UNIT 4
Lack of security can be a serious concern with this kind of networking

technology. Anyone with the correct receiver can eavesdrop on
communications, which explains why encryption of traffic is common for
networks operating at these frequencies. Table 4.6.2 summarizes the
characteristics of high-powered single-frequency radio networks.
Table 4.6.2: High-powered single-frequency LAN characteristics

Unregulated: 902–928 MHz, 2.4 GHz, 5.72–
Frequency ranges
5.85 GHz
Line of sight, unless extension technologies
Maximum distance
are used
Installation and maintenance Difficult, highly technical, requires licensing
Interference Highly susceptible
Cost Expensive to very expensive
Security Highly susceptible to eavesdropping
4. Spread-Spectrum LAN
Technologies Spread-spectrum radio addresses several weaknesses of single-
frequency communications, whether high or low power. Instead of using a
single frequency, spread-spectrum uses multiple frequencies simultaneously,
thereby improving reliability and reducing susceptibility to interference. Also,
using multiple frequencies makes eavesdropping more difficult.
The two main kinds of spread-spectrum communications are frequency

hopping and direct- sequence modulation. Frequency hopping switches data
between multiple frequencies at regular intervals. Transmitter and receiver
must be tightly synchronized to maintain communication. The hardware
handles the timing of hops and chooses the next frequency without sending any
information about this activity, so eavesdropping is nearly impossible. Because
frequency-hopping technologies use only one frequency at a time, however,
their effective bandwidth is usually 1 Mbps or lower and seldom exceeds
2Mbps.

SESSION 6
Direct-sequence modulation breaks data into fixed-size segments called

“chips” and transmits the data on several different frequencies at the same
time. The receiving equipment knows what frequencies to monitor and how to
reassemble the arriving chips into the correct sequences of data. It’s even
possible to transmit dummy data on one or more channels, along with real data
on other channels, to make it more difficult for eavesdroppers to re-create the
original data. Typically, these networks operate in unregulated frequencies and
provide band- widths from 2 to 6Mbps, depending on the number of dummy
channels used. 802.11b/g/n networks using the 2.4 GHz frequency use direct
sequence spread spectrum (DSSS).
Table 4.6.3: Spread-spectrum LAN characteristics

Frequency ranges Unregulated: 902–928 MHz or 2.4 GHz, 5 GHz
Limited to cell boundaries but often extends over
Maximum distance
several miles
1–2 Mbps for frequency hopping, 2–6 Mbps for direct-
Bandwidth
sequence modulation
Installation and
Depends on equipment; ranges from easy to difficult
maintenance
Interference Moderately resistant
Cost Inexpensive to moderate
Security Not very susceptible to eavesdropping
5. Wireless Extended LAN Technologies

Certain kinds of wireless networking equipment extend LANs beyond their
normal cable-based distance limitations or provide connectivity across areas
where cables are not allowed (or able) to traverse. For instance, wireless
bridges can connect networks up to 3 miles (4.4 km) apart. These LAN bridges
permit linking locations by using line-of-sight or broadcast transmissions.
They can also make it unnecessary to route dedicated digital communication
lines from one site to another through a communications carrier. Normally,
upfront expenses for this technology are as much as 10 times higher, but it
eliminates recurring monthly service charges from a carrier. This savings can
quickly make up for (and exceed) the initial expense. Spread-spectrum radio,
infrared, and laser-based equipment are readily available commercially.

UNIT 4
Longer-range wireless bridges are also available, including spread-spectrum

solutions that work with Ethernet or token ring over distances up to 25 miles.
As with shorter-range wireless bridges, the communication cost savings over
time can justify the cost of a long-range wireless bridge. When it’s connected
correctly, this equipment (in long-range and short- range varieties) can
transport both voice and data traffic. Table 4-6.4 summarizes the
characteristics of wireless extended LAN technologies.
Table 4.6.4: Wireless extended LAN characteristics

Frequency ranges Spread-spectrum, infrared, laser
1–3 miles for short-range, up to 25 miles for long-
Maximum distance
range
1–6 Mbps for spread-spectrum, 2–100 Mbps for
Bandwidth
infrared and laser
Installation and
Depends on equipment; ranges from easy to difficult
maintenance
Interference Highly resistant
Cost Inexpensive to moderate
6. Microwave Networking Technologies

Microwave systems deliver higher transmission rates than radio-based
systems do, but because the frequencies are so high, transmitters and receivers
must share a common clear line of sight. Microwave communication usually
requires FCC approval and licensing and is more expensive than radio systems.
Experts distinguish between two types of microwave systems: terrestrial and
satellite.
Terrestrial refers to line-of-sight transmissions between special microwave

towers or between transmitters and receivers mounted on tall buildings,
mountaintops, or other locations with long, clear lines of sight. Terrestrial
microwave systems use tight-beam, high-frequency signals to link sender and
receiver. By using relay towers, microwave systems can extend a 4 signal
across continental-scale distances.

SESSION 6
In fact, many communications carriers use microwave towers to send traffic

across sparsely populated areas where traffic is moderate and distances make
laying cable expensive. The tight-beam nature of these systems means
transmitters and receivers must align precisely for the best results. Some low-
powered microwave systems are available for short-range LAN use, but they,
too, require a clear line of sight between transmitters and receivers. Table 4.6.5
summarizes the characteristics of terrestrial microwave networks.
Table 4.6.5: Terrestrial microwave LAN/WAN characteristics

Frequency ranges 4–6 GHz or 21–23 GHz
Maximum distance Typically 1–50 miles
Installation and
Difficult
maintenance
Varies depending on power and distance; longer
Interference
distances are more prone to weather disturbances
Cost Expensive
Highly susceptible, but signals are usually
Security
encrypted
7. Satellites
The other main alternative for microwave transmission is satellite. Instead of
aiming at transmitters or receivers within a clear line of sight on the ground,
satellite microwave systems send and receive data from geosynchronous
satellites that maintain fixed positions in the sky. This is how TV signals and
some long-distance phone signals travel from one side of the world to another:
The sender beams the signal to a satellite visible on the horizon, the satellite
relays the signal to one or more satellites until it comes onto the receiver’s
horizon, and then the satellite redirects the signal to the receiver.
Most organizations can’t fund launching satellites, so most satellite microwave

systems must lease frequencies on satellites operated by global
communications carriers. Because this approach is prohibitively expensive,
even multinational companies with legitimate needs to send data around the
globe typically choose to pay for their communications time rather than
exclusive use of their own frequency.

UNIT 4
Even more than terrestrial microwave, satellite communication covers a broad

area and can be received by anyone with the right reception equipment. That’s
why microwave transmissions are routinely encrypted—to make sure only
their intended recipients can access their contents. Table 4.6.6 summarizes the
characteristics of satellite microwave communications.
Table 4-6.6: Satellite microwave WAN characteristics

Frequency ranges 11–14 GHz
Maximum distance Global reach
Installation and
Prohibitively difficult
maintenance
Prone to EM interference, jamming, atmospheric
Interference
disturbances
Cost Prohibitive
For extending the reach of a network to its ultimate dimensions, microwave

technologies currently offer the broadest reach. That’s why they are labeled
LAN/WAN (terrestrial) or WAN (satellite) technologies.
Wireless Access Points (APs)

A wireless access point (AP) is both a transmitter and receiver (transceiver)
device used for wireless LAN (WLAN) radio signals. An AP typically is a
separate network device with a built-in antenna, transmitter, and adapter. APs
use the wireless infrastructure network mode to provide a connection point
between WLANs and a wired Ethernet LAN. APs also typically have several
ports, giving you a way to expand the network to support additional clients.
They can just APs or wireless routers. Whereas just APs do not router, wireless
routers are members of more than one network and route between the
networks.

SESSION 6
Depending on the size of the network, one or more APs might be required.
Additional APs are used to allow access to more wireless clients and to expand
the range of the wireless network. Each AP is limited by a transmission
range—the distance a client can be from an AP and still get a usable signal.
The actual distance depends on the wireless standard being used and the
obstructions and environmental conditions between the client and the AP.
Factors affecting wireless transmission ranges are covered later in this chapter.
You can use an AP in an infrastructure wireless network design. Used in the
infrastructure mode, the AP receives transmissions from wireless devices with
- in a specific range and transmits those signals to the network beyond. This
network might be a private Ethernet network or the Internet. In infrastructure
wireless networking, multiple access points might cover a large area or only a
single access point for a small area, such as a single home or small building.
802.11 Wireless Standards

Here, we compare and contrast different wireless standards.
802.11 represents the IEEE designation for wireless networking. Several wire-
less networking specifications exist under the 802.11 banner. All these
standards use the Ethernet protocol and the Carrier Sense Multiple Access with
Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) access method.
The 802.11 wireless standards can differ in terms of speed, transmission
ranges, and frequency used, but in terms of actual implementation they are
similar. All standards can use either an infrastructure or ad hoc network design,
and each can use the same security protocols.
IEEE 802.11: There were actually two variations on the initial 802.11 wireless
standard. Both offered 1 or 2Mbps transmission speeds and the same RF of
2.4GHz. The difference between the two was in how data traveled through the
RF media. One used FHSS, and the other used DSSS. The original 802.11
standards are far too slow for modern networking needs and are now no
longer deployed.
The original! Created in 1997, this now-defunct standard supported a blazing

fast maximum connection speed of megabits per second (Mbps). Devices using
this haven't been made for over a decade and won't work with today's
equipment.

UNIT 4
IEEE 802.11a
Created in 1999, this version of Wi-Fi works on the 5GHz band. This was done
with the hope of encountering less interference since many devices (like most
wireless phones) also use the 2.4GHz band. 802.11a is fairly quick, too, with
maximum data rates topping out at 54Mbps. However, the 5GHz frequency has
more difficulty with objects that are in the signal's path, so the range is often
poor.
IEEE 802.11b
Also created in 1999, this standard uses the more typical 2.4GHz band and can
achieve a maximum speed of 11Mbps. 802.11b was the standard that kick-
started Wi-Fi's popularity.
IEEE 802.11g
Designed in 2003, the 802.11g standard upped the maximum data rate to
54Mbps while retaining usage of the reliable 2.4GHz band. This resulted in the
widespread adoption of the standard.
IEEE 802.11n
Introduced in 2009, this version had slow initial adoption. 802.11n operates on
both 2.4GHz and 5GHz frequencies, as well as supporting multi-channel
usage. Each channel offers a maximum data rate of 150Mbps, which means the
standard's maximum data rate is 600Mbps.
IEEE 802.11ac
The ac standard is what you will find most wireless devices using at the time of
writing. Initially released in 2014, ac drastically increases the data throughput
for Wi-Fi devices up to a maximum of 1,300 megabits per second.
Furthermore, ac adds multi-user, multiple-input, multiple-output technology
(MU-MIMO) support, additional Wi-Fi broadcast channels for the 5GHz band,
and support for more antennas on a single router.
IEEE 802.11ax
Next up for your router and your wireless devices is the ax standard. As ax
completes its rollout, you will have access to theoretical network throughput of
10Gbps—around a 30-40 percent improvement over the ac standard.
Furthermore, wireless ax will increase network capacity by adding broadcast

SESSION 6
subchannels, upgrading MU-MIMO, and allowing more simultaneous data

streams.
Working with APs

When working with wireless APs, you need to understand many terms and
acronyms. This section defines some of the more common wireless acronyms
you see both on the exam and in wireless networking documentation
Service Set Identifier (SSID)—A network name needed to connect to a
wireless AP. It is like a workgroup name used with Windows networking.
802.11 wireless networks use the SSID to identify all systems belonging to the
same network. Client stations must be configured with the SSID to be
authenticated to the AP. The AP might broadcast the SSID, allowing all
wireless clients in the area to see the AP’s SSID. For security reasons, APs can
be configured not to broadcast the SSID or to cloak it. This means that an
administrator needs to give client systems the SSID instead of allowing it to be
discovered automatically.
• Basic Service Set (BSS)—Refers to a wireless network that uses a single
AP and one or more wireless clients connecting to the AP. Many home
offices are an example of a BSS design. The BSS is an example of the
infrastructure wireless topology. Chapter 1 discusses wireless topologies
and other networks.
• Extended Service Set (ESS)—Refers to two or more connected BSSs that
use multiple APs. The ESS is used to create WLANs or larger wireless
networks and is a collection of APs and clients. Connecting BSS systems
enables clients to roam between areas and maintain the wireless connection
without having to reconfigure between BSSs.
• Extended Service Set Identifier (ESSID)—Although the terms ESSID
and SSID are used interchangeably, there is a difference between the two.
SSID is the name used with BSS networks. ESSID is the network name
used with an ESS wireless network design. With an ESS, not all APs
necessarily use the same name.
• Basic Service Set Identifier (BSSID)—The MAC address of the Basic
Service Set (BSS) AP. The BSSID is not to be confused with the SSID,
which is the name of the wireless network.

UNIT 4
In this session we looked at wireless networks. We

discussed the benefits of wireless networks, types of
wireless networks and so on. Since this session is the last session of this unit,
we want to take the opportunity to compare all the media types discussed in
this unit as summary. Just use the table to review what you have done.
Comparison of LAN media characteristics
Maximum cable
Type Bandwidth Installation Interference Cost
length
10–10,000
UTP 100 m Easy High Cheapest
Mbps
16–10,000
STP 100 m Moderate Moderate Moderate
Mbps
Thinnet 185m 10 Mbps Moderate Moderate Obsolete
Thicknet 500m 10 Mbps Moderate Moderate Obsolete
Fiber 100 Mbps–10 Most
2–100 km Moderate None
optic Gbps expensive
None for
11 to 300
Wireless 100-300 feet Easy Moderate physical
Mbps
media
Exercise 4.6
1. State and explain three benefits of Practical

wireless networks. Tutors are encouraged to
2. Explain four situations that may help students configure a
call for the use wireless network. wireless router
3. Distinguish between the twisted
pair, coaxial and fibre-optic cables

SESSION 6


GLOSSARY
Network A connection between two or more entities, people, devices

or items
Computer Two or more computers connected by a transmission

Network or medium that enables them to communicate for the purpose
Computer of sharing resources.
Networking
1000baseT A technology defined by the IEEE 802.3ab standard,

Ethernet supports 1000 Mbps Ethernet (usually called Gigabit
Ethernet) over Category 5 or higher UTP cable, using
baseband signaling.
10BaseT A technology defined by IEEE 802.3i, it’s Ethernet running

at 10 Mbps, using baseband signaling over Category 3 or
higher twisted-pair cabling. Although still seen in older
networks, newer networks use 100BaseT or faster
technology.
10GBaseT A technology defined by IEEE 802.3an, it’s

10 Gigabit Ethernet running over four pairs of Category 6A
UTP cabling, using baseband signaling. Unlike the other
BaseT Ethernet standards, 10GBaseT operates only in full-
duplex mode.
100BaseFX 100 Ethernet using baseband signaling over two strands of fiber-
Mbps optic cabling.
802.11i A security extension to 802.11 and a successor to Wi-Fi
Protected Access; currently the strongest security protocol
for wireless networks. See also Wi-Fi Protected Access
(WPA).
Access Point A wireless device that serves as the central connection point
(AP) of a wireless LAN and mediates communication between
wireless computers.
Attenuation Weakening of a signal as it travels the length of the

medium.
192 CoDEUCC/ Bachelor in JHS Education

GLOSSARY
Automatic A private range of IP addresses assigned to an APIPA-

Private IP enabled computer automatically when an IP address is
Addressing requested via DHCP but no DHCP server responds to the
(APIPA) request. See also Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol
(DHCP).
Broadcast The scope of devices to which broadcast frames are

Domain forwarded. Router interfaces delimit broadcast domains
because they don’t forward broadcasts, whereas switches
and hubs do.
Baseband A type of signaling used in networks, in which each bit of

data is represented by a pulse of electricity (on copper
media) or light (on fiber-optic media). These signals are sent
at a single fixed frequency, using the medium’s entire
bandwidth. LAN technologies use baseband signaling.
Baseline A record of performance data gathered when a system is

performing well under normal operating conditions. The
baseline can then be compared with data collected during
peak resource demands to give you insight into your
system’s capabilities and limitations.
Broadband A type of signaling that uses analog techniques to encode

binary 1s and 0s across a continuous range of values.
Broadband signals move across the medium in the form of
continuous electromagnetic or optical waves rather than
discrete pulses.
Domain A collection of users and computers in a server- based

network whose accounts are managed by Windows servers
called domain controllers
Encapsulation The process of adding header and trailer information to

chunks of data.
CoDEUCC/ Bachelor in JHS Education 193

GLOSSARY
Equipment A room that houses servers, routers, switches, and other

Room major network equipment and serves as a connection point
for backbone cabling running between telecommunications
closets.
Firewall A hardware device or software program that inspects

packets going into or out of a network or computer and then
discards or forwards packets based on a set of rules.
Flow Control A mechanism network protocols use to prevent a destination

device from becoming overwhelmed by data from a
transmitting computer, resulting in dropped packets.
Frame A packet with source and destination MAC addresses added

and an error-checking code added to the back end. Frames
are generated by and processed by the network interface.
Fiber-Optic A cable type that carries data over thin strands of glass by
Cable using optical (light) pulses to represent bits.
Crossover A type of patch cable that uses the 586B standard on one
Cable end and the 586A standard on the other end. This
arrangement crosses the transmit and receive wires so that
transmit on one end connects to receive on the other end.
Often used to connect two devices of the same type to one
another—for example, connecting a switch to a switch.
Crosstalk Interference one wire generates on another wire when both

wires are in a bundle.
Collision The extent to which signals in an Ethernet bus topology

Domain network are propagated. All devices connected to a logical
bus topology network are in the same collision domain.
Switch and router ports delimit collision domains.
De- The process of stripping the header from a PDU as it makes

Encapsulation its way up the communication layers before being passed to
the next higher layer. See also protocol data unit (PDU).

GLOSSARY
Frame A packet with source and destination MAC addresses added

and an error-checking code added to the back end. Frames
are generated by and processed by the network interface.
See also packet.
Full-Duplex A communication mode in which a device can

Mode simultaneously transmit and receive data on the same cable
connection. Switches can operate in full-duplex mode, but
hubs can’t.
Gigabit See 1000BaseT Ethernet.

Ethernet
Half-Duplex A communication mode in which a device can send or
Mode receive data but can’t do both simultaneously. Hubs operate
only in half-duplex mode; switches can operate in both half-
duplex and full-duplex modes.
IP Address A 32-bit dotted-decimal or 128-bit hexadecimal address

used by IP to determine the network a host resides on and to
identify hosts on the network at the Internetwork layer.
Hub A network device that performs the same function as a

repeater but has several ports to connect a number of
devices; sometimes called a multiport repeater. See also
repeater.
Internetwork A networked collection of LANs tied together by devices

such as routers. See also local area network (LAN).
Local Area A small network, limited to a single collection of machines

Network (LAN) and linked by interconnecting devices in a small geographic
area.
Modem A device that converts a sending computer’s digital signals

to analog signals for transmission over phone lines and then
converts analog signals to digital signals for the receiving
computer.

GLOSSARY
Network The amount of data that can be transferred on a network

Bandwidth during a specific interval; usually measured in bits per
second.
Network The cabling used to communicate between LANs or

Backbone between hubs or switches. The backbone cabling often runs
at a faster speed than the cabling used to connect computers
because the backbone must carry data from many computers
to other parts of the network.
Network The amount of data that can be transferred on a network

Bandwidth during a specific interval; usually measured in bits per
second.
Network The software defining the rules and formats a computer

Protocols must use when sending information across the network.
Open Systems ISO Standard 7498 defines a frame of reference for

Interconnection understanding networks by dividing the process of network
(OSI) communication into seven layers. Each layer is defined in
Reference terms of the services and data it handles on behalf of the
Model layer above it and the services and data it needs from the
layer below it.
Packet A chunk of data with source and destination IP addresses (as

well as other IP information) added to it. Packets are
generated by and processed by network protocols.
Repeater A network device that takes incoming signals and

regenerates, or repeats them to other parts of the network.
Peer-To-Peer A network model in which all computers can function as

Network clients or servers as needed, and there’s no centralized
control over network resources.
Physical Layer Layer 1, the bottom layer of the OSI model, transmits and
receives signals and specifies the physical details of cables,
NICs, connectors, and hardware behavior. See also Open
Systems Interconnection (OSI) reference model.
GLOSSARY
Protocol Suite A set of protocols working cooperatively to provide network

communication. Protocols are “stacked” in layers in which
each layer performs a unique function required for
successful communication. Also called a protocol stack.
RJ-45 A connector used to terminate twisted-pair cable for making

Plug/Connector patch cables. It has eight wire traces to accommodate a
standard twisted-pair cable with four wire pairs.
Switch A network device that reads the destination MAC addresses

of incoming frames to determine which ports should
forward the frames
Simple Mail The standard protocol for sending e-mail over the Internet.
Transfer
Protocol
(SMTP)
Termination The attachment of RJ-45 plugs on a cable to make a patch

cable or punching down the cable wires into terminal blocks
on a jack or patch panel.
Terminator An electrical component called a resistor, placed at the ends

of a physical bus network to absorb the signal instead of
allowing it to bounce back up the wire.
Twisted-Pair A cable containing one or more pairs of insulated strands of

(TP) Cable copper wire twisted around one another and housed in an
outer sheath.
User Datagram A connectionless Transport- layer protocol designed for

Protocol (UDP) efficient communication of generally small amounts of data.
Wide Area Internetworks that are geo-graphically dispersed and use

Networks third-party communication providers to provide connectivity
(WANS) between locations. See also internetwork.

GLOSSARY
Wireless The name given to the 802.11 series of IEEE standards that
Fidelity (Wi-Fi) define four common varieties of wireless LANs: 802.11a,
802.11b, 802.11g, and 802.11n.
Wireless A short-range networking technology designed to connect

Personal Area personal devices to exchange information.
Network
(WPAN)

REFERENCES
Panek, C. (2020). Networking Fundamentals. Hoboken: John Wiley & Sons,

Inc.
Peterson, Larry; Bruce, D. (2012). Computer Networks : A Systems Approach
Fifth Edition (Fifth Edit). Burlington, MA 01803: Kaufmann, Morgan,
Elsevier Inc.
Peterson, L., & Davie, B. (2011). Computer Networks : A Systems Approach
Fifth Edition Solutions Manual. Morgan Kaufmann.
Tomsho, G. (2014). Guide to Networking Essentials (Sixth Edit). Boston:
Cengage Learning.

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UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION

EBS 286 Network Computing edited

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE COAST

CODE PUBLICATIONS, 2019

© COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF CAPE

First Publications, 2021

All right reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced, stored in a

Cover page illustrated by Enoch Mbroh

This Course Book “Network Computing” has been exclusively written by

We wish you a happy and successful study.

Dr. Emmanuel Arthur-Nyarko

CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education i

It has become a tradition in academic circles to acknowledge the assistance one

It is in the foregoing context that the names of Dr. Emmanuel Arthur-

I wish to thank the Vice-Chancellor, Prof. Johnson Nyarko Boampong, the

Finally, I am greatly indebted to the entire staff of CoDEUCC, especially

Prof. Isaac Galyuon

ii CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education

FOR FURTHER DETAILS YOU MAY CONTACT

COLLEGE OF DISTANCE EDUCATION OF THE

All rights reserved. No part of this publication should be reproduced,

About this Book ... ... ... ... ... ... i

UNIT 1: DATA COMMUNICATION AND NETWORKING

Session 1: Fundamental Reasons for Networking … … 3

CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education iii

UNIT 2: NETWORK COMPONENTS AND DEVICES … 39

Session 1: Common Network Device and Tools … … 41

UNIT 3: OSI AND TCP/ IP MODELS AND NETWORK

iv CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education

4.3 Connectionless and Connection-Oriented

UNIT 4: NETWORK MEDIA AND TRANSMISSION

Session 1: General Media Considerations … … … 131

CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education v

NOTE AN IMPORTANT POINT

TIME TO THINK AND ANSWER QUESTION(S)

SELF- ASSESSMENT QUESTION(S)

vi CoDEUCC/ Bachelor of Education (JHS)

UNIT 1: DATA COMMUNICATION AND

This is a blank sheet for short notes on:

CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education 1

• Issues that are not clear; and

2 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education

SESSION 1: FUNDAMENTAL REASONS FOR

In today’s interconnecting society, it has become very crucial

1.1 Definition of Computer Network

A Computer Networking can also be defined as a set of autonomous computers

CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education

A computer network consists of two or more computing devices such as

Computer networking refers to connected computing devices (such as laptops,

1.2 Reasons for Setting up a Network

1.3 Advantages and disadvantages of Computer Network

CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education

about new curriculum standards to the same document, spreadsheets, or

Disadvantages of networking computers

6 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education

1.4 Impact of networking on today’s society

Students in remote locations can access the same resources as those on

1.5 The role of human network on data networking human

In this session, we looked at the fundamental reasons for

CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education

1. What is computer network

8 CoDEUCC/Bachelor in JHS Education

SESSION 2: NETWORK TOPOLOGIES