--' , Fkyncal & fuellite Gedesy)

LECI".URE 3: T,FF' GRAWTY fTELD OF Tffi, EaRTH

To understand gravity, lets first define gravitation (gravrtarironal force)

Gravitation (Gravitacional Forcb)

From Nervton Larv of Universal Gravitation:

GM,m
'Rt
Where:
f = Gravitational force between'two objects
Mr,m = Mass of the earth and rnass of object
Rr = Dstancr ber*een the ob-iects

G : (6-67 421 5 + 0-00009 2 ) x l0 -t 1

= Universal constad of gravitation
#
'qi?j'

Forrotatfu'gb@ on tfue strrf,rc ofthe earth" aeorCingto l$ewt€d 3d law of motiorg for
every action ther,e is an egr*al an opposite reaction-'
. The action foroe (gravitatiml force / ceffiipetal force) is balance by a reaction force
(centi@a,l force).

Centrifuial ferce

Centrifugal force:
o Is actually not a forge but the erperience of an i*rertial f,w,ce experienced in rotatiag
reference frare acting away from the cbnter oftlte rotatilcn-
o It is eqtral in rnagnitude but opposite to fie cerltuipetal force required to constrain tb
body to.move in a circular motion-
o The force is directed outward and is peryndicularto the rotation axis

Centrifugal force (for a perfecfly Stical shpe) is defined as:

F":r4a2l: t\o)2R-cos6
for 1 unit mass,' Fb : dt'Rcsd
Wirere:
n\ = mass of,tkpointacted upon
at = angalarvelocity of the rotaticg earth :. 7292115 x l0-tr rad s-r
/= rotationanll=Rcos/

In vector form, for a unit rnass:

F
_f
=coz I and / :xoi*lo j+zot
The force is only in i and jdirection, tlrerefore t=
g -

Therefore: !, = r'(to i* r, J-)

+ To include diagram
 €t'yt4 A Sabllite Gedesy)

Cenrifirgal force at the pcle arrd equator:

. Pole: Fc: o2Rcas6: dt'Rcos90 =0
o Equator Fc : ot2Rc*sf:o2Rcos0 = ozR
.This is only 1i300 of gravity
r Henc€, maximum at equator and minimurn at pole

Gilvity
The force of gnvity at any poiet onthe earth is the vectorial resultant of the gravitational
force and centifirgal force-

In Simplified forrn:
g=F + F, :T* co, Rcosg

Ih vectorial resultant (comideriry 3 si&s of g, F,4\ wrth a unit mass:

u:+
E2 = F2 + 4t =2F{"

Henbe:

g
GM(- alR ".)t
= Ro l,.t GM7 prt*-, )
'...
1/hygravif af pole is stroryer fta4 at egretor???
..
At eguator:
o Gravitational force and ceailrift€at f,'orce are along the same line but opposite in
direction
' . Simplyadde4 g"x9.7&w-2

. Gravitational fcxw aed c€ffiift€ail foroe are perpedi,ct*arto wh o{kr

. Simply g gp -9-83msa

Gravitv Potential

What is potential?
oPotential is defined as the work done by tlr,:-force field that results fr,om M 1o bring -
' *, frominfinityto apointdistance r fromM I

o {J =W = Fr or {J:W =mgh
. Potential is a scalar, mning only has magritude 1tl(X,f ,Z) or U(r,e,.l)1
. Gravitypotential : Gravitationa,l potetrial + centrifugal potential

Gravitational Potential
: .'rr::
. .- t
(Plrysical &ktellite

Gravitational potential, V =
Gy
R
r It is a firnction whose ls derivatives is Gravitation
. I[ v=91d -then{:-GY:p
RdRR'
r Negative sign indicate that as r increases I/ decreases
' Note: Differentiatioa should be carriedoutin 3 components (vecror)
o For various point mass€s 4,m2,h,..-,To

t - Gtf!-
,v _"Lo1
ft
o'*
:':;T;T,1:# inseeidro,,',
: Gilf+ . GII1+
Tri# i#grals:
:-
volus&e
Efhere:
dr: Eiereot cfms o*rtsi& or inside ttre sphere

' o ' This lead to nvo impor,tmt equaticns in physical geodesy

I-a$ace e$rdion-- VzV :t\r.
Tne for a,U pdas=O o-"rid" tb*iurf*" containing all rmfier
: _Ca be solved
to give expresi,ons forthe earth's potedial
' ' Poissgl:s.'ryatrr9:;*1
*1ff" strrf,rce containingarl rnder

Ccntriftsal Pofe$tid

ceN*rift$t por€nrid, A =
+ =
#
. ' It is a fi,mction nihose l$ deri,naives is Cenffiad force
o ff; O=+:8#.rbes
#=efRcos6:F,
. Sincec€frifr€d foree fu alrector, fu

GravitvPotentielofTheEarth (Geopotential) :

Potential of gnvity is the scalar sum oftk potential of gravitation and potential of
centifirgal force:
o W'=V +9.
 . But, gravitational potential€affiof
=GI[l+
'
eath is rotoomp**ty cowtad; bewe,
decity
. This is because C*}dty of fu
Mioa
is not aco*tietro+rs
tbe
sp(ouSif the€arth's srxfece) and di'sr'egard
If we restrict ourselves to ttr€ eferior
be erass &ee' i'a p : g
'
*r" or, **ii", this space is to
mass of thrc earrh,s atnosphere

vzV *-d^.1:t** fof I/ (gBvitational poterrtial)

This will Satisry Laplace equation: .=o
spherical harmonic expansron
"*G "Uoi*ausing
l.aplace equauon in Cartesian
coordinalrs {x'y'z}"

(r'q')')t
Laplaceequationinsphericaltoo"**""*o , a2A

Y'v
,_-=F|
a ( -, av\ -Ji*F,"r%).7ktg=o
ail,- a, )*7rr"
. Where:

Q= Co-latitude
'L- Longitude - '

*l11T for l-aplace equation (external

and rnanipdetkr'as,-S to
Througlr some e4iansions IM"ic Sef,ies' u&ich is very usetul
. gravitatioouf podti*f is horvn
*3.$';f
develop the'geopoiential
mc&ls oflbe ear$-

Spkricat Harmonb Series:

o'
oo{nl\ + bi sint@il,
Y V.
^\
=
E#Z':ftF:
s Lqen&e Frsctions md pobmomials
Note: ry€)*ae;(r) *e tuesa

Comideringr=wlit!,tk-PCIt€ffiY(r,0,).}caber€p-esqd*T*i*ofrmtion
erydtd ig*o a series surface
.ph*"- s".a u ftdkm'can be
,;; of a tmrt
f (a,r)on the
sPherical'harmonic

Surface- SPherical
v*^ev harmomc:
-r@,,

=i Z,': tt'gi *'{* z} * olsin(nz}

t4 tr=O
^',

'iypes of surface spherical harmomc:

3 i"? number of zones
o Tnnalrrarmonics' m=O:
Dividi*g the sphere i
o:DitiilgG spbere into altemating +ve and -ve
. Tesseral harmonics, m
+
alterrntiag*veaod-ve sectors
into
. ffi"fffffi"t cs,m= n: Divi4rngthesurface
 _.
g-lrysicat & fuellite Gedesy)

Zgrd Iessere{ Sedord

TptofSpfte*xltffi

C 6OG @cGsa
* 0,0
SS{b *s$G@
1B 1,1 zfi z,i 22

o GS&AeA
e +€sssG
\q/

3,O - 3.? 32 3,3

.Sptlenc{ tmorfc*, }lod,9rfe* rr = I,tJ,l

Alternatively, the Spherical Harmonic Sedes carr also be represemted in the followi4g ways:

bi s. l(* fi
v (r. e. s.) =
E=|ry klb: *4* t) +

v(r.0.s")=t[:)""8 p:kN,E co{*tl+ n; s;a{mt}l

v Q. e. t) =
+l- t #E p: kk:eod'a)+ si *{'r}]
t!*,Iu:e}k cos(nt)+xi-'4-dil]
y{r.e.1")=Ylt 4

Wbere: aI :bI = A,rbi,trsyeonstant/coefficids

4:#*uB:=#
t C : -#u, : #, Where a i-sa radius of spherical earrh
=

K:: -S- = -#u, : #,where a is aradius ofspherical earth

P:Q):ri{cosa) : Legsndre rurccons
SI :CI: Potedid Coefficients
Ki :4 = DYnanical For'rn Factors
n= Or,&r, n: Degfen
 (Plrysical & Satellite Geesfl '
_

t :@S0,Where 6 is co-latitude

Herce: Potential due to Gravity: Gravitational I Gravitatiorr'pohtial (Spherical Harmonic

Series) + Cenhifi€al Potential.

For lower order and degree of harmonic t€rms, equation 3 will be reduced to the following
forra of spherical harmonic expansion of the earth's gravitational potential:
"
v (r . e . t) =
Yl- E
(:) t F: Arb:cos(,,,.e) +s : .id. r f]

Where F:,e:,5:: are frrlly nornalized I-egendre Functions asdPo€effiat

Coefficients, and the srunsration for.n begins at n:2
alld, eds at nf (tk maximum
degree oftbe geopctential model)

Note: l,ower degree of harrnorric terms czilses imtnlance ia mass exms dd deficiency
North& So{dnPobs

Tk current Geopotential model, EGM96 (Earth GraviM Model 1996) bs coefficients .

e:,5: to degree and order of 360 (apploximately 130,000 terms).

Crravifypo*entialisthereforer'.'
W =V +Q.

where:k'(r,g,A)=Tlta;(:)'Z^urlft :co{r,/)+S:,*(,,r1}]

The Normal Gravitv Fietd

The normal gavity field is a refererce surface for the eserml gavity fietrd of ee earth-

E{-: i.:.;
€.:"" Source of normal gravity field:
€r:'+ . Model eafih" s/hich best fit tk dtet s@ offte @dl
Assrune:.hve the sare rmss a theesth (lf) *a same mgutarvelociry {ar)
. The surface is a leve{ srrfee (eqtlilt*e*iat s*rfee} fu
t}as its ovrn.gravity field.

Criteria ofttre gavity potential at a point on the ellipsoid is:

c {J =Y +(b =f +lr'(t' * y')
. Satisfy I-apia*q*ri* F", =o) in tne spa€ e>rterior to tk ellipsoid
. Normal gaviry field is rotatioqallysyrnmetric
. Level surface of normal ellipsoid is the same as gravity potential as the geoi4
Uo:Wo

Noq consider a farnily ofellipsoids (ellipe and auxiliary circles) that has a constant foc.al
lengfb, E, seini miffi axis, z, anri semi major *it, JC' *t -

6
 Diagram!!!

Where: p = prametric / reduced latitude

0:X)-
F {Polar angle)
Ecc€ntricity,
- = ! where g ='[S -S
" JE'+u'
For this system, ttre etlipsoidal coordinates (u,0,.1.) are also bwn as orthogonal
Cwvelfurc*r Coordinaes

The centrifirgal po€er*tial is given as:

o =)t,$'
2\/
* y,)

Noq using u= b andreplacing sinf = oosp sirce fi =%)-d, we get:

e'=!rr(r, +y?):*r'(r, +t \os, f

2

From I-aplacecondition, ttie Laplace eqtiaitmin ellipsoidal coordinates (a,O,,ll,is;.

'l ,utSL +!"
*2rel *u"n av E2cos2 o+u' azY
v2v =rE'+u-f au+ftr""tth*ffi#:o
The solution for I-aplace eqr.ration in Sptrerical Ilarmonic Series of the model earth's
gravitational potential in ellipsoidal coordinales is:

?: (r\": cos{m r) + bi sin(m;}

l.Iote: p:Q)amdg:(r) are known as lagbdreFurctiom and legendre Functions of

!a:t3t
the second kiltd
#;ti
\e'
Since the pdentb{ mwtbe rotationa}ly symmetric, dl the terms cont&iniry ml,(no*mnal
ternns) will be zero-

v(u,o)=#AA.\(sinp)
* 0"1';)
Where: r: cosdand 1k)=P,(cma)= eGi"B)
Solving this, we get:
y(u,p):Y^'E*ir'":
*("^''-:)
Wltrere:
 ' (Plrystcal & fueltiteCedesy)

n=i1['-#)^':-4
q_itt
n _ tff ,. rat'1.---,'u-Ef
n'=rtl'*E)
G by expa*ding the series, the spherical harmonic e.:rpansion for the gravitational potential
ofttp model earth a-s:
Y (u. o) :
Yl,- Er"[:)'" r-t| n = 1,2,3,---,a

'i:@50
3e2o
Jr, --(- t)'*'
Qn+r\zn + r)

)$oq the-Nomaal Gravity Potential is: .

:
- y+@
ffo"-' Ir*,r", t(*, u !)-1.'(r' +u,\os' p
f T Tl
(r =

Or, in Spherical
"ryrSeries:
: v+* =
(r
ry\, -F,r,,C)- r,,n|* iu' (u' + u'\os' p
Normal Gr*vtry

Noq from the express,ioll of,normal graviatioml po.Semsial, the expression for tho normal
gravity can be deerc"d-

Ilornral gavity (in vector form) ar€ grvea by the gr,gfu iftk gravitatioml potential
:YU : ld.In 1Oir]n lA{J^
Y: gradu
fi,-:=
:% a*z'*E *:t*E *9,
Where:
4,fu,hr:Scalery
,lNA
e,e,e-7 = Unitvectors intk direction ofincreasing u,0,L
-u -O

This leads to thg following solEion:

lau:--lau
'! hau wau
iuu t au
:

' t-tt:--he ao wJg'+u' oo

rau I AU
t
'' 4 al" Jt' -uz sino oA
Where:
 elrtncol A MeIIite Gedesy)

E' cns'0 +u'

From:
(r =v*e: fftuo' 9*lr,o'*('*' o -:)-).,(r, +o,)cos, p

Diffener*iating Md ffinipulating the function, the magnitu& ofnorrnal gavity obtained are
as fotlows:

r = +{ftF+b'
aJa'siaz
-$L'},io,
cos'r9 |.t 3 qo )
p *( t - * -
t 6 qu ) -- r}
+4].,., -
)
Where.

n"=;(,* #),^'+ +l
:
n',
fg);,# \'. 5X' - I ^'f) -'
=

Now,norrnat sa.;tyatequator {P =0") * g.t. ," =#(1-m-+*)

.

An{ normal gravity at pole (p : g')we get , :Y{r-+*)

"

Normal gravity can also be expressed as a Somigliana's formula and Pireffi's quation':

somigliana's Formula, y' =ffi

,{o'eos'i +b2 sin2 $

Fr _:1
!6:a
Pizetti's eqrntion: T = T.#
-
,fl- "t {e' O

where. k=b7' -l
aT.

Iletermination of Earth?s Flattenine

Fornormal ellipsoid, theflattening (/), f :+

a

Introducing gavity flattening (f') *' f' =' o j''

lc

9
. '.r.
lr
. : (Plryncal&l'ateiliuce&sy)

oyP-by
-te
Tberefors f + f' -' and can be fiuthereKpress as.
.- : aT"

-f + -f' :d!{r*!!"J=:ei
2q'o) 2/"
7:(
L.5ote: C&*in$'s quation derronsrated that the flattening of tbe earth.could be ob*aiwl from
gm'vfry observations

4:.:-a:a

to