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1 Introduction to cells

The cell theory

The cell theory states that: 

1. All living organisms are composed of cells.

Over the years many living organisms, both unicellular (example: bacteria) and multicellular
(example: humans), have been studied under microscopes and all have been found to be
composed of cells.

2. Cells are the smallest unit of life.

They are the smallest structures capable of surviving on their own.

3. Cells come from pre-existing cells and cannot be created from non-living material.

For example, new cells arise from cell division and a zygote (the very first cell formed when an
organism is produced) arises from the fusion of an egg cell and a sperm cell. 

Common features of cells:

- Surrounded by a cell membrane, which separates the cell contents from the surrounding.
- Contain genetic material, which stores all instructions needed for the cell activities.
- Carry out chemical reactions, catalyzed by enzymes produced by the cell.
- Produce energy (ATP) to carry out all cell activities.

Exceptions to the cell theory (questioning the cell theory)

Atypical examples of cells:

1. Striated muscle - building blocks are muscle fibers – atypical because:

 much larger than most animal cells
 have many nuclei (multinucleated)

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 2. Giant algae – atypical because:
 Much simpler structure
 Unicellular (carry out all functions of life) but has a much larger size than a typical cell;
length could reach 100 mm (e.g Acetabularia)

3. Aseptate fungal hyphae – fungi consist of thread-like structures called hyphae, which are divided
up into small cell-like sections by cross walls called septa (in most fungi) – except in aseptate
fungi- atypical because:
 there are no septa – each hypha is one long continuous cell that is not separated by
septa.
 Each hypha has many nuclei.

4. Red blood cells – atypical because:

 biconcave disks that carry oxygen to different tissues.
 lack a cell nucleus, cellular organelles and cannot synthesize proteins

Unicellular organisms

Unicellular organisms are organisms that consist of only one cell that carry out all the 7 functions of life.

1. Metabolism – chemical reactions inside the cell (e.g cell respiration to release energy).
2. Growth – an irreversible increase in size.
3. Response – the ability to react to changes in the environment.
4. Reproduction – producing offspring either sexually or asexually.
5. Nutrition – obtaining food, to provide energy and the materials needed for growth.
6. Homeostasis – keeping conditions inside the organism within tolerable limits.
7. Excretion – getting rid of the waste products of metabolism.

An easy way to remember Metabolism, Response, Homeostasis,

Growth, Reproduction, Excretion and Nutrition is:
“MR H GREN” 2
(each letter is a function of life)
 Autotroph: synthesize its organic matter from
inorganic matter. (e.g by photosynthesis)
Heterotroph: obtain organic matter from other
organisms.
Examples of unicellular organisms:

 Chlorella – photosynthetic (autotroph) unicells

 Paramecium – heterotroph unicell
 Euglena – autotroph and heterotroph unicell.

Investigation of functions of life in Paramecium and one named photosynthetic unicellular organism.

 Paramecium

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  Chlorella

The importance of the surface area to volume ratio as a factor limiting cell size.

 Cells don’t grow indefinitely; they reach a certain size and then divides.
 As cells grow, the surface area to volume ratio decreases.
 The surface area controls the rate of exchanging material and heat /the rate of diffusion through
cell membrane (proportional relationship).
 The volume controls (proportional to):
 The rate of heat production
 The rate of waste production
 The rate of resource consumption
 As cells grow, the volume increases faster than the surface area.

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  As a result, material and heat cannot be exchanged fast enough to remove waste and heat, and
provide enough resources to be consumed in the cell’s metabolism; the cell becomes unable to
meet the needs of the cell. Therefore, the cell divides.
 Therefore, the ratio limits the size of the cell.

Multicellular organisms

Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the interaction of their cellular
components.

 Multicellular organisms show emergent properties.

 Emergent properties arise from the interaction of component parts
 The whole is greater than the composition of its parts.
 For example: cells form tissues, tissues form organs, organs form organ systems and organ
systems form multicellular organisms.
 For example your lungs are made of many cells. However, the cells by themselves aren’t much
use. It is the many cells working as a unit that allow the lungs to perform their function.

Differentiation in multicellular organisms

 Differentiation is the process where a less specialized cell becomes a more specialized cell.
 Cells develop in different and specific way.
 Examples of differentiated cells and their specialized functions:
o Red blood cells are specialized to carry oxygen
o Muscle cells – contraction and relaxation to help in movement
 A group of differentiated cells form a tissue.
 Cells differentiate to develop specialized tissues to carry out specialized functions
 Example of a tissue:
a group of nerve cells make up a nerve tissue
 Cells contain all the genes of the organism.
 Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in a cell’s genome.

Stem cells

 Stem cells: are cells that have the capacity to divide and differentiate along different pathways
(pluripotent).
 Stem cells are undifferentiated cells.
 The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in
embryonic development
 Sources of stem cells:
 Embryonic stem cells – used to replace damaged cells e.g brain cells
 Adult stem cells such as bone marrow hematopoietic cells
 Cord stem cells – obtained from the umbilical cord/placenta
 Diseases treated using stem cells: leukemia, heart diseases, lymphoma, diabetes, etc.

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Therapeutic uses of stem cells

Example one (Disease: Leukemia)

 Source: Stem cells obtained from bone marrow (hematopoietic cells)

 Method: Bone marrow transplants

Stem cells found in the bone marrow (hematopoietic cells) give rise to the red blood cells, white blood
cells and platelets in the body.

1. Stem cells (hematopoietic cells) are removed from the bone marrow of the patient or donor by
using a needle which is inserted into the pelvis (hip bone).
2. The patient is given high doses of chemotherapy, the chemotherapy kills the cancer cells but
also the normal cells in the bone marrow. This means that the patient cannot produce blood
cells.
3. After the chemotherapy treatment the patient will have a bone marrow transplant in which the
stem cells are transplanted back into the patient through a drip, usually via a vein in the chest or
the arm.

Example two (disease: Stargardt’s disease)

 What is the Stargardt’s diseas?

 Full name: Stargardt’s macular dystrophy
 Genetic disease that develops in children between 6 and 12.
 Due to a recessive mutation, that causes a membrane protein used for active transport
in retina cells to malfunction.
 As a consequence, photoreceptive cells in the retina degenerate. So vision becomes
progressively worse and could lead to loss of vision and blindness.

 Source: Stem cells obtained from embryos.

 Method: using developed methods, embryonic stem cells could develop into retina cells and
then those cells are injected into the eyes.

Sources of stem cells and the ethics of using them.

- Embryos – embryonic stem cells

- Cord blood – blood extracted from umbilical cord
- Adult tissue such as bone marrow.

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Therefore, stem cells could be divided into 3 main types:

Embryonic stem cells Adult stem cells Cord blood stem cells
Arguments for: Arguments for: Arguments for:

1. Easier to obtain than adult 1. No embryo is destroyed 1. No embryo is destroyed

stem cells.
2. Almost unlimited growth
potential
3. Can differentiate to any
type of cells; pluripotent.
4. Less chance of genetic
damage than with adult
stem cells.
Arguments against:
1. An embryo needs to be
destroyed.
2. Killing an embryo for the
sake of science.
3. Chance of malignant
tumours development
4. Might be incompatible with
the tissues of the patient.
2. Cells are usually compatible
with the tissues of the
adult.
3. Less chance of tumors
formation.
Arguments against:
1. Limited growth potential
2. Limited types of cells are
produced.
3. Sometimes not easily
obtained.
e.g
Hematopoietic cells in the bone
marrow produce a variety of
red and white blood cells.
2. Cells are usually compatible
with the tissues of the
adult.
3. Easily obtained from what
used to be considered
waste
4. Can develop to various
types of cells (less than
embryonic).
5. Less chance of tumors
formation.

How to calculate the linear magnification of drawings and the actual size of specimens in images of
known magnification.

You may be requested to find the magnification or the actual size of an image. Remember the following
when solving problems on magnification:

- Measure using a transparent ruler (in mm)-ex. 5.1 cm (X 10) = 51 mm

- Convert units when needed

X 1000 or 103 X 1000 or 103

mm µm nm
-3 -3
÷ 1000 or X 10 ÷ 1000 or X10

- Make sure to write the formula: Magnification = image size

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 Actual size
- Image size is the measured size
- Actual size is either given or to be calculated
- Magnification must be given or calculated (mainly from the scale bar) to find the actual size.
- When the size (length, width, etc) is given in a question, it is the actual size.
- The image size can always be found by measuring the micrograph size using a ruler.
- Write the unit for the final answer
- Make sure to write Given before solving the question.
- Units should be the same

- Mag = Image
Actual Practical 1:

- Actual size =
Calculation of the
magnification of drawing
Image and the actual size of
Mag structures and
ultrastructures shown in
drawings or micrographs.