ENGINEERING DESIGN

Introduction
Introduction

The definition of engineering design is: Engineering design is the process of devising a
system, component, or process to meet desired needs. The primary way that engineers
utilize the forces and materials of nature for the benefit of mankind is through new and
innovative designs. Engineering is that profession in which the energy, forces and
materials of nature are made useful to mankind. The engineer is known for his ideas
that employ natural science, mathematics, computer analysis, art and his overall
experiences in order to produce or improve a product or service useful to humans or to
enrich their lives.

What is Engineering Design?

· Process of inventing a device or improving on an existing device to meet human

needs or to solve problems.

· Analysis problems have complete definitions, which lead to a single correct

solution. Design problems are usually vaguely defined and have more than one
solution.

· Design is an iterative process. As the solution to the design problem develops,

the details of the chosen solution, the choice among the solution options or the
definition of the problem itself may change.

· Good design requires a defined methodology or process for a arriving at the

problems solution.

· Design is simultaneously a creative, analytical, and cumulative process. While a

certain amount of design can be taught in a lecture format, design is often best
learned by hands- on experience.

The Importance of the Engineering Design Processes

Two quotes emphasize the importance of design in the product realization process:

“After all, 70%of a product’s total cost is determined by its design, and that cost includes
material, facilities, tooling, labor, and other support costs.”

“Studies have shown that 50 to 80 percent of the life cycle cost of products is influenced
in engineering design.”
The first quote not only indicates the large impact that the engineering design processes
have on product cost but also some of the other considerations that go into the product
realization process, (PRP), such as tooling, facilities, and labor. These other
considerations dictate that certain members of the engineering design team must be
knowledgeable in these other areas.

Many authors have developed a “framework” or “structure” to help describe

engineering design. Most of these “structures” have been developed in the European
design community. Studying the engineering design processes became necessary only
after WWII when the products which were being developed became more complex.
When the companies which had been involved in the war effort reverted to peacetime
producers, the associated design processes and development techniques carried over
into their peacetime products. Greater use of physical laws, mathematics, information
theory, materials selection, and systematic design techniques was required. Perhaps the
“king” of these complicated peacetime projects was the landing of a man on the moon.
This required a concept, a lot of calculations, preliminary layouts, much prototype
testing great deal of detail designing and specifying the shape of the parts and recording
this in a document (drawing), production, and finally the “moon shot.”

Selection of Material

Introduction

The selection of the proper material is a key step in the design process because it is the
crucial decision that links computer calculations and lines on an engineering drawing
with a real or working design. The enormity of this decision process can be appreciated
when it is realized that there are over 40,000currently useful metallic alloys and
probably close to that number of nonmetallic engineering materials. An improperly
chosen material can lead not only to failure of the part or component but also to
unnecessary cost.

Selecting the best material for a part involves more than selecting a material that has
the properties to provide the necessary service performance; it is also intimately
connected with the processing of the material into a finished part. Thus, a poorly chosen
material can add to manufacturing cost and unnecessarily increase the cost of the part.
Also, the properties of the part may be changed by processing, and that may affect the
service performance of the part. When we realize that material selection should be
based on both material properties and material processing, the number of possible
combinations is almost without bound.

Performance Characteristics of Materials

The performance or functional requirements of a material usually are expresses in

terms of physical, mechanical, thermal, electrical, or chemical properties. Material
properties are the link between the basic structure and composition of the material and
the service performance of the part

We can divide structural engineering materials into metals, ceramics and polymers.
Today the range of materials available to the engineer is much larger and growing
rapidly. We usually rely on material properties that are reasonably cheap and easy to
measure, are fairly reproducible and are associated with a material response that is well
defined and is related to some fundamental response.

The Materials Selection Process

The selection of materials on a purely rational basis is far from easy. The problem is not
only often made difficult by insufficient or inaccurate property data but is typically one
of decision making in the face of multiple constraints without a clear-cut objective
function. A problem of materials selection usually involves one of two different
situations.

1. Selection of the materials for a new product or new design.

2. Reevaluation of an existing product or design to reduce cost, increase reliability,

improves performance, etc.

It generally is not possible to realize the full potential of a new material unless the
product is redesigned to exploit both the properties and the manufacturing
characteristics of the material. In other words, a simple substitution of a new material
without changing the design provides optimum utilization of the material. Most often
the essence of the materials selection process is not that one material competes against
another for adoption; rather, it is that the processes associated with the production or
fabrication of one material competes with the processes associated with the other. For
example, the pressure die casting of a zinc-base alloy may compete with the injection
molding of a polymer. Or a steel forging may be replaced by sheet metal because of
improvements in welding sheet-metal components into an engineering part. Materials
selection, like any other aspect of engineering design, is a problem-solving process. The
steps in the process can be defined as follows:

1. Analysis of the materials requirements. Determine the conditions of service and

environment that the product must withstand. Translate them into critical material
properties.

2. Screening of candidate materials. Compare the needed properties with a large

materials property database to select a few materials that look promising for the
application.
3. Selection of candidate materials. Analyze candidate materials in terms of trade-offs
of product performance, cost, fabric ability, and availability to select the best material
for the application.

4. Development of design data. Determine experimentally the key material properties

for the selected material

properties for the selected material to obtain statistically reliable measures of the
material performance under the specific conditions expected to be encountered in
service. Design data properties are the properties of the selected material in its
fabricated state that must be known with sufficient confidence to permit the design and
fabrication of a component that is to function with a specified reliability. The extent to
which this phase is pursued depends upon the nature of the problem.

Methods of Material Selection

There is no method or small number of method of materials selection that have evolved
to a position of prominence. Partly, this is due to the complexity of the comparisons and
trade-offs that must be made. Often the properties we are comparisons cannot be
placed on comparable terms so a clear decision can be made. Partly it is due to the fact
that little research and scholarly efforts have been devoted to the problem. In a general
sense designers and materials engineers follow a variety of approaches to materials
selection. A Common path is to examine critically the service of designs in environments
similar to the one of the new design. Information on service failures can be very helpful.
The results of accelerated laboratory screening tests or short time experience with a
pilot plant can provide valuable input. Often a minimum innovation path is followed and
the material is selected on the basis of what worked before or what is used in the
competitor’s product. Some of the more common and more analytical methods of
materials selected are:

1. Cost vs. performance indices

2. Weighted property indices

3. Value analysis

4. Failure analysis

5. Benefit-cost analysis

Cost is so important in selecting material; it is logical to consider cost at the outset of the
materials selection process. Considerable effort is being given to developing computer-
based methods of estimating manufacturing cost that can be employed in the
conceptual stage of design. If this is not available it is usually possible to set a target cost
and eliminate the materials that are too expensive. Since the final choice is a trade off
between cost and performance (properties), it is logical to attempt to express that
relation as carefully as possible. The cost of substituting lightweight materials to
achieve weight saving(fuel economy) in automobiles. The horizontal axis shows the
reduction made possible by each substitution and vertical axis shows the cost of the
lightweight material relative to its conventional counterpart. In most cases the
lightweight materials lie above the breakeven curve where the cost of the substitute
part equals the cost of the conventional part, because less materials by weight needs to
be purchased for the substitute. The exception is high-strength steel substituted for
mild steel. Note that this plot dose not considers possible saving in processing and
assembly for the lightweight material.

ENDURANCE LIMIT

Endurance limit may be defined as the maximum reversed stress which may be repeated an
indefinite number of times of a polished standard (7.5mm dia) specimen in bending without
causing failure. The number of stress repetitions required to determine the endurance limit
is very large as compared to the stress.
 ENGINEERING DESIGN

Limits, Fits, Tolerances, Surface Finish, Shafts And

Springs
Limits

As you in a design a little consideration will show that in order to maintain the sizes of
the part within a close degree of accuracy, a lot of time is required. But even then there
will be small variations. If the variations are within the certain limits, all parts of
equivalent size will be equally fit for operating in machines and mechanisms. Therefore
certain variations are recognized and allowed in the sizes of the mating parts to give the
required fitting. These facilities to select at random from a large no. of parts for an
assembly and results in a considerable saving in the cost of production. In order to
control the size of finished part with due allowance for error for interchangeable parts
is called limit system.

Limit System

There are the terms used in limit system which are described as follows:

1. Nominal size-It is the size of a part specified in the drawing as a matter of

convenience.

2. Basic size –It is the size of a part to which all limits of variation are applied to arrive
at final dimensioning of the mating parts. The nominal or basic size of a part is often the
same.

3. Actual size-It is the actual measured dimension of the part. The difference between
the basic size and the actual size should not exceed a certain limit; otherwise it will
interfere with the interchangeability of the mating parts.

4. Limits sizes-There are two extreme permissible sizes for a dimension of the part as
shown below. The largest permissible size for a dimension of the part is called upper or
high or maximum limit where as the smallest size of the part is known as lower or
minimum limit.

5. Allowance-It is the difference between the basic dimensions of the mating parts. The
allowance may be positive or negative. When the shaft size is less than the hole size,
then the allowance is positive and when the shaft size is greater than the hole size, then
the allowance is negative.
6. Tolerance-It is the difference between the upper limit and lower limit of a
dimension. We have already discussed this with examples above.

7. Zero Line-It is a straight line corresponding to basic size. The deviations are
measured from this line. The positive and negative deviations are shown above and
below the zero line.

8. Upper deviation-It is the algebric difference between the maximum size and the
basic size. The upper deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol ES and of a shaft, it
is represented by es.

9. Lower Deviation-It is the algebric difference between the minimum size and the
basic size. The lower deviation of a hole is represented by a symbol EI and of a shaft, it is
represented by ei.

10. Actual Deviation-It is the algebric difference between an actual size and the
corresponding basic size.

11. Mean Deviation-it is the arithmetical mean between the upper and lower
deviations.

12. Fundamental Deviation-It is one of the two deviations, which is conventionally

chosen to define the position of the tolerance zone in relation to zero line as shown in
figure.

Fits

degree of tightness between two parts

– Clearance Fit – tolerance of mating parts always leave a space

– Interference Fit – tolerance of mating parts always interfere
 – Transition Fit – sometimes interfere, sometimes clear

Tolerances

1. Tolerances can be defined as the magnitude of permissible variation of dimension or

other measured or control criterion from the specified value.

2. Tolerances have to be allowed because of the inevitable human failings and machine
limitations, which prevent ideal achievements during fabrication.

3. In order to maintain economic production and facilitate the assembly of components

it is necessary to allow a limited deviation from the designed size.

4. Due to its inevitability, tolerances constitute an engineering legality for deviation

from the ideal value, and like any other legal matter, formulation of tolerances must also
be given due consideration, and much thought and planning should go into it.

5. The various factors affecting the choice of tolerances should be given due
consideration, as the setting of tolerances is not an arbitrary matter.

6. Though functional requirement is the primary consideration, i.e., the permitted

deviation in size must permit the assembly to function correctly for its designed life,
there are other factors like standardization, manufacturing needs etc. which also
influence the choice of tolerances and primary consideration of functional requirement
sometimes requires compromise with these factors.

7. The primary purpose of tolerance is to permit variation in dimensions without

degradation of the performance beyond the limits established by the specification of the
design.

8. Where high performance is the criterion, there the functional requirements will be
the domination factor in setting tolerances.

9. However, where the functional performance provides some latitude, then tolerance
choice may be influenced and determined by factors like standardization, method of
tooling and available manufacturing equipment.

10. The numerical values of tolerances may range across the entire spectrum of
measurements and if in all the cases, the functional requirement is taken as the only
criterion to decide the value of tolerance then there may be serious disadvantages like
too many different tolerances which mean excessive amount of special tooling,
complications in inspection, etc.
11. If a limited no. of standard tolerances are established, and the tolerances are chosen
from these so that these are slightly closer than the function dictates, then we get the
advantages of fewer variations of tooling, few calculations and increased unit quantities
because of repeated use of the same designs.

Tolerances must be placed on the dimensions of a part to limit the permissible

variations in size because it is impossible to manufacture a part exactly to given
dimensions. A small tolerance results in greater ease of interchangeability of parts, but
it also greatly adds to the cost of manufacture.

Tolerances can be expressed in either of the two ways. A bilateral tolerance is specified
as a plus or minus deviation from a basic dimension, e.g., 2.000 + 0.004in. This system is
being replaced by the unilateral tolerance, in which the deviation in one direction from
the basic dimension is given. For example,

2.000 + 0.008 or 5.005 + 0.000

-0.000 -0.005

In the case of bilateral tolerance, the dimension of the part would be permitted to vary
between 1.996 and 2.004 in for a total tolerance of 0.008 in. If unilateral tolerance is
specified, the dimension could vary between 2.000 and 2.008, and again the total
tolerance is 0.008 in. Unilateral tolerances have the advantages that they are easier to
check on drawings and that a change in the tolerance can be made with the least
disturbance to the other dimensions.

Surface Roughness

The surface roughness of the manufactured part must be specified and controlled
because of fatigue failure, wear, or the need to produce a certain fit. However like this
situation with tolerances, over refinement of surface finish costs money. Therefore we
need a way to measure and specify surface roughness.

No surface is absolutely smooth and flat; on a highly magnified scale. Several

parameters are used to describe the state of surface roughness.

Rt is the height from maximum peak to deepest trough.

Ra is the centerline average (CLA), the arithmetic average based on the deviation from
the mean surface

Ra = y1+y2+y3+…+ yn / n

Rrms is the root mean-square value of height.

Rrms =(y12+y22+y32+…..+yn2/n) 1/2

Surface roughness measurements typically are expressed in micro inches

(1min=0.025mm=0.000001 in). Until recently, surface roughness was characterized by
the rms value, but currently the CLA value is preferred. The rms value is about
11percent greater than the value based on the arithmetic average. There are other
important characteristics of a surface besides the height of the roughness. Surfaces may
exhibit a directionality characteristic called lay. Surfaces may have a strong directional
lay(e.g., from machining grooves), a random lay, or a circular pattern of marks. Another
characteristic of the surface is its waviness, which occurs over a longer distance than
the peaks and valleys of roughness.

It is important to realize that specifying a surface by average roughness height is not an

ideal approach. Two surfaces can have the same value of Ra (or Rrms) can vary
considerably in the details of surface profile. There is much yet to be learned about the
control and specification of surfaces.