Communication Study Pack Final

G.S.
S Get Set for Success Series
Marketing Training Academy
Business Communication Study Pack
Robin T. C
© 2009, Marketing Training Academy Business Communication
© 2009, Marketing Training Academy
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maximize gains from all opportunities.
About the Communication Study Pack

This study pack has been carefully developed to cover syllabi of most examination
boards (local and international) offering business communication as subject. The study
pack consists of nine chapters each covering a key area in business communication.
Our focus has been to bring out the principles of effective communication. Each chapter
begins with study tips for the learner. These tips we strongly feel will benefit the student
in their preparation and in taking the exam. Further tips are contained in our Get it
Right: Effective Study and Learning Strategies Programme. The programme is
designed to enable learners to achieve that success through identified, tried and tested
strategies and skills. It presents guidelines that will give the learner a sense of direction
to make meaningful improvements to learning. For more information about the
programme contact one of our programme administrators at our offices.
We have also included sample questions and suggested solutions, and these are
presented in the appendices section of the study pack. We will continually review the
contents of the study pack to ensure that it remains relevant and current. We are
confident that you will benefit immensely from the material in this study pack.
About the Authors

The communication study pack was compiled by Robin T. C. He holds a Bachelor’s
degree in Industrial and Manufacturing Engineering and a Master’s degree in
Manufacturing Systems and Operations Management. Our content reviewer Duduzile N
holds a Bachelor’s degree in Marketing.
Wishes
Wishes You the Best
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

1.1.0 Introduction and Definition of Communication .................................................. 2
1.2.0 The Purpose of Communication ....................................................................... 2
1.3.0 The Process of Communication ....................................................................... 3
1.3.1 The Sender ...................................................................................................... 3
1.3.2 Encoding.......................................................................................................... 3
1.3.3 The Message ................................................................................................... 3
1.3.4 The Channel .................................................................................................... 4
1.3.5 Decoding ......................................................................................................... 4
1.3.6 The Recipient................................................................................................... 4
1.3.7 Feedback ......................................................................................................... 4
1.4.0 One-Way and Two-Way Communication ......................................................... 4
1.5.0 Barriers to Effective Communication ................................................................ 5
1.6.0 Strategies for Overcoming Barriers .................................................................. 7
CHAPTER TWO: COMMUNICATION MEDIA AND CHANNELS

2.1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................... 11
2.2.0 Written Communication.................................................................................. 11
2.2.1 Advantages of Written Communication .......................................................... 14
2.2.2 Disadvantages of Written Communication ..................................................... 15
2.3.0 Oral Communication ...................................................................................... 15
2.3.1 Advantages of Oral Communication............................................................... 17
2.3.2 Disadvantages of Oral Communication .......................................................... 17
2.4.0 Visual Communication ................................................................................... 17
2.4.1 Advantages of Visual Communication ............................................................ 18
2.4.2 Disadvantages of Visual Communication ....................................................... 18
2.5.0 Choosing the Appropriate Medium ................................................................. 18
2.5.1 Factors Affecting the Choice of Medium......................................................... 19
2.5.2 When to Use Written Communication ............................................................ 19
2.5.3 When to Use Oral Communication ................................................................. 20
2.5.4 When to Use Visual Communication .............................................................. 20
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2.6.0 Importance of Non-Verbal Communication .................................................... 20
CHAPTER THREE: PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

3.1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................... 23
3.2.0 Planning......................................................................................................... 23
3.2.1 Considering your Purpose.............................................................................. 23
3.2.2 Considering the Recipient .............................................................................. 23
3.2.3 Considering the Structure .............................................................................. 24
3.3.0 Organising Information................................................................................... 25
3.3.1 Sources of Information ................................................................................... 26
3.3.2 Note Taking and Summarising ....................................................................... 26
3.4.0 Presentation and Structure ............................................................................ 27
CHAPTER FOUR: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION SKILLS

4.1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................... 30
4.2.0 Effective Speaking ......................................................................................... 30
4.3.0 Effective Listening.......................................................................................... 31
4.3.1 The Listening Process ................................................................................... 31
4.3.2 Factors Affecting Listening ............................................................................. 32
4.3.3 Improving your Listening Ability ..................................................................... 33
4.4.0 Effective Writing ............................................................................................. 33
4.5.0 Effective Reading........................................................................................... 34
4.5.1 Previewing ..................................................................................................... 34
4.5.2 Pre-questioning.............................................................................................. 35
4.5.3 Skimming ....................................................................................................... 35
4.5.4 Scanning........................................................................................................ 36
4.5.5 Strategies for Critical Reading ....................................................................... 36
4.5.6 Methods of Improving Reading ...................................................................... 36
4.6.0 Effective Observation (Non-Verbal Communication) ...................................... 37
4.7.0 Effective Thought and Reasoning Skills ......................................................... 39
CHAPTER FIVE: COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS

5.1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................... 42
5.2.0 Levels of Communication ............................................................................... 42
II
5.2.1 Interpersonal Communication ........................................................................ 42

5.2.2 Intrapersonal Communication ........................................................................ 42
5.2.3 Small Group Communication ......................................................................... 42
5.2.4 Public Communication ................................................................................... 42
5.2.5 Mass Communication .................................................................................... 43
5.3.0 Communication in Organisations ................................................................... 43
5.3.1 Reasons for Organizational Communication .................................................. 43
5.4.0 Communication Networks in Organisations.................................................... 44
5.4.1 The Circle ...................................................................................................... 44
5.4.2 The Chain ...................................................................................................... 44
5.4.3 The Delta or Y................................................................................................ 45
5.4.4 The Star ......................................................................................................... 45
5.5.0 Communication Systems ............................................................................... 46
5.5.1 Vertical Communication ................................................................................. 46
5.5.2 Horizontal or Lateral Communication ............................................................. 46
5.5.3 Diagonal Communication ............................................................................... 47
5.5.4 Informal Communication Network .................................................................. 48
5.6.0 External Communication ................................................................................ 48
5.7.0 Factors Affecting the Effectiveness of Communication in Organisation .......... 49
CHAPTER SIX: WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

6.1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................... 51
6.2.0 Business Letter Writing .................................................................................. 51
6.2.1 Advantages of Letters .................................................................................... 51
6.2.2 Disadvantages of Letters ............................................................................... 51
6.2.3 Business Letter Formats ................................................................................ 51
6.2.4 Principal Parts of a Business Letter ............................................................... 54
6.2.5 Specific Business Letters ............................................................................... 62
6.2.6 Informative Letters ......................................................................................... 62
6.2.7 Persuasive Letters ......................................................................................... 77
6.2.8 Circular Letters .............................................................................................. 81
6.2.9 Standard Letters ............................................................................................ 82
6.2.10 Application Letters ......................................................................................... 82
6.3.0 Job Description .............................................................................................. 86
III
6.4.0 The Memorandum ......................................................................................... 87

6.4.1 Purpose of a Memo........................................................................................ 87
6.4.2 Important Parts of a Memo............................................................................. 87
6.4.3 Attachments ................................................................................................... 89
6.4.4 Tone of a Memo............................................................................................. 90
6.4.5 Length of a Memo .......................................................................................... 90
6.4.6 Persuasive Memorandum .............................................................................. 90
6.4.7 Directive Memorandum .................................................................................. 91
6.5.0 E-Mail ............................................................................................................ 92
6.6.0 Forms and Questionnaires ............................................................................. 95
6.6.1 Designing a Form .......................................................................................... 95
6.6.2 Questionnaires............................................................................................... 96
6.6.3 Routine Business Forms ................................................................................ 97
6.6.4 Report Forms ................................................................................................. 98
6.6.5 Application Forms .......................................................................................... 99
6.7.0 Notices........................................................................................................... 99
6.8.0 Press Releases............................................................................................ 100
6.9.0 Advertisements ............................................................................................ 102
6.10.0 Reports ........................................................................................................ 103
6.10.1 Format of a Formal Report ........................................................................... 103
CHAPTER SEVEN: ORAL COMMUNICATION

7.1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................. 107
7.2.0 Telephoning ................................................................................................. 107
7.2.1 Making a Call or Receiving a Call ................................................................ 108
7.2.2 Telephone Answering Machine and Voice Messages .................................. 109
7.3.0 Dictating Letters and Reports....................................................................... 110
7.3.1 Techniques of Dictating ............................................................................... 110
7.4.0 Public Speaking ........................................................................................... 111
7.4.1 Stages of Public Speaking ........................................................................... 111
7.4.2 Use of Voice ................................................................................................ 113
7.4.3 Facial Expressions and Physical Movements............................................... 114
7.4.4 Audiovisual Aids .......................................................................................... 114
7.4.5 Types of Audiovisuals and their Uses .......................................................... 115
IV
7.5.0 Meetings ...................................................................................................... 122

7.5.1 Notice of a Meeting ...................................................................................... 123
7.6.0 Agenda ........................................................................................................ 124
7.6.1 The Chairperson’s Agenda .......................................................................... 126
7.7.0 Agenda Papers ............................................................................................ 127
7.8.0 Quorum........................................................................................................ 127
7.9.0 Members of a Meeting ................................................................................. 127
7.10.0 Meeting Procedures ..................................................................................... 129
7.10.1 Starting the Meeting ..................................................................................... 129
7.10.2 Apologies for Absence ................................................................................. 130
7.10.3 Minutes of Previous Meeting ........................................................................ 130
7.10.4 Matters Arising ............................................................................................. 130
7.10.5 Business of the Meeting............................................................................... 130
7.10.6 Motions ........................................................................................................ 131
7.10.7 Voting an a Motion ....................................................................................... 131
7.10.8 Any Other Business ..................................................................................... 132
7.10.9 Date of Next Meeting ................................................................................... 132
7.10.10 Closing the Meeting ..................................................................................... 132
7.11.0 Structure of Minutes ..................................................................................... 132
7.11.1 Important Points on Producing Minutes........................................................ 136
7.12.0 Interviews .................................................................................................... 136
CHAPTER EIGHT: NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

8.1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................. 141
8.2.0 Kinesics ....................................................................................................... 141
8.3.0 Proxemics .................................................................................................... 142
8.4.0 Posture ........................................................................................................ 143
8.5.0 Orientation ................................................................................................... 143
8.6.0 Voice signals................................................................................................ 143
8.7.0 Dress and Appearance ................................................................................ 143
8.1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................. 145
8.1.1 Advantages of Visual Communication .......................................................... 146
8.2.0 Planning Visual Communication................................................................... 147
8.2.1 Considering the Purpose ............................................................................. 147
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8.2.2 Considering your Recipient .......................................................................... 148

8.3.0 Graphical Presentation of Statistical Data .................................................... 148
8.3.1 Basic Principles for Using Graphical Methods .............................................. 149
8.4.0 Pictures........................................................................................................ 160
8.5.0 Use of Colour in Communication.................................................................. 161
8.6.0 Organisation Charts ..................................................................................... 162
8.7.0 Flow Charts ................................................................................................. 162
8.8.0 Gantt Charts ................................................................................................ 163
CHAPTER NINE: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION

9.1.0 Introduction .................................................................................................. 165
9.2.0 Computer Systems Overview....................................................................... 165
9.2.1 Computer Hardware..................................................................................... 165
9.3.0 Computer Networks ..................................................................................... 168
9.4.0 The Internet ................................................................................................. 168
9.5.0 Telephone Systems ..................................................................................... 169
APPENDICES SECTION from page 171

Sample Questions and Answers
Bibliography
Sample Questionnaire
VI
Business Communication
Introduction to
Chapter One Communication
Study Tip!
Start Your Exam Preparation
Early. Never leave your
preparation until the last minute.
Preparation must begin the first
day of class. Make sure you
attend all lessons so that you do
not miss important explanations
This chapter provides a working definition of communication, outlines

the barriers to effective communication and ways of overcoming them.
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1.1.0 Introduction and Definition of Communication

Communication is the process of sharing ideas, knowledge, information, messages or
attitudes to create understanding. Communication uses previously agreed upon symbols
to share meaning and create understanding. These symbols include letters that make up
words, words, numbers, language, sounds, sign language and body language. When the
recipient understands the message the way the sender wants, then communication has
been effective. If the recipient misunderstands the message or does not get the
message then communication has been ineffective.
Communication is something we do every time, deliberately, or accidentally without even

thinking about it. When an individual observes or experiences something and attributes
meaning to it then communication has occurred.
Communication involves people. In business, communication happens between workers,

and between the firm and its customers, suppliers, shareholders, other firms and other
stakeholder groups. Communication must therefore be effective and the messages and
ideas being exchanged must be clear and properly understood. Communication is often
referred as the “lifeblood of an organisation” because all activities ranging from issuing
instructions to completing tasks involves exchange of information and ideas.
Miscommunication can have serious consequences.
1.2.0 The Purpose of Communication

Communication is a purposeful act; for it to be effective the sender must be clear about
the reason for communicating. There are three basic reasons why communication is
undertaken and these are:
1. To inform others about particular matter, items or product and the supply and
share information.
2. To influence and persuade others to adopt a particular idea or course of action.
3. To initiate action or cause others to perform a particular task.
These three reasons constitute the aims of communication and often within business
these three are part of a single communication act. They can be for a long term result or
just for a particular act. However, it is important to be clear about the overall aim of the
2
communication because this affects the way the information is encoded, the choice of
media and channels, and hence can affect the effectiveness of the communication.
1.3.0 The Process of Communication

The process of communication is illustrated below in Figure 1.1. The participants in the
process are the sender and the recipient.
Sender Encode Message Channel Decode Recipient
Feedback
Figure 1.1: Communication Process
1.3.1 The Sender

The sender is the one with the idea or information that needs to be communicated. It can
be an individual, group or an organisation. The sender initiates the communication.
1.3.2 Encoding
This is the process of putting the idea or information into a form that can be understood
by the recipient and is suitable for sending. This involves translating the information into
symbols that can be understood by the recipient. The way in which the information is
encoded is crucial to the correct understanding of the message by the recipient. It is
therefore important to consider the recipient during encoding and use the best way for
the recipient to understand the information. Thought, reasoning, speaking and writing
skills are important in encoding.
1.3.3 The Message

Once the information has been encoded, it is known as the message and is ready for
transmission. The message contains meaning that the sender wants to convey to the
3
recipient. The main can be transmitted in a written, oral or visual form. These for are
known as communication media. A medium is a group of communication instruments
within which the message belongs.
1.3.4 The Channel

This is the physical means by which the message is transmitted. The channel is closely
related to the medium used. As an example for written communication in the form of a
letter the channel can be a postal service or courier service, for oral communication the
channel can be a telephone system or a face to face meeting while for visual
communication the channel can be a photographic film.
1.3.5 Decoding
This is the process of interpreting the meaning of the symbols used in the message. The
way in which the information is decoded is also crucial to the correct understanding of
the message by the recipient. The interpretation of the meaning by the recipient may or
may not be the same as the interpretation of the sender. Thought, reasoning, listening
and reading skills are important in encoding.
1.3.6 The Recipient

This is the individual or group to whom the message is directed.
1.3.7 Feedback
Feedback is the information sent back by the recipient or the way the recipient responds
to the message. Feedback can be immediate or take some amount of time. It helps the
sender to check if the message has been understood properly by the recipient. It is
therefore important for the sender to look out for any observable reactions to the
message by the recipient.
1.4.0 One-Way and Two-Way Communication

In one-way communication the sender communicates without expecting or getting any
kind of feedback from the recipient. On the contrary two-way communication is whereby
the recipient provides feedback to the sender. One-way communication takes less time
than two way communication. At the same time in two-way communication places great
4
importance on constant interaction, and the sender and recipient can clarify information
to each other to ensure understanding.
Examples of one-way communication include advertisements and public speeches. In

both cases it is very difficult to get feedback from the audience. Examples of two-way
communication are face to face conversations and meeting. In these examples complete
exchange of ideas and clarification is possible.
Both have important benefits and must be used appropriately in right situations. In
business, managers and subordinates must use the appropriate mix of one-way and
two-way communication in order to communicate effectively and efficiently. If
communication is to be fast, when order is of importance and when accuracy can be
easily achieved then one-way communication is more appropriate. When accuracy and
clarity are important, two-way communication is more appropriate.
1.5.0 Barriers to Effective Communication

Many times communication fails to achieve its purpose. This is because barriers that
obstruct the proper exchange of information between the sender and the recipient.
These barriers need to be overcome. Barriers can result from outside influences in the
communication process or can be within the sender and the recipient.
1. Noise
This is any feature of the environment in which the communication takes place which
interferes with the accurate transmission of the message. Examples of noise include:
• sounds from heavy traffic, ringing telephones in the office or people talking
• poor signal transmissions or telephone connections
• illegible writing or unreadable printing
• surroundings and decorations in the environment which create distractions
2. Poor Communication Skills

Communications skills are the abilities to send and receive messages clearly and
effectively. They include the following:
1. Writing skills. This is the ability to express ideas clearly in writing in a language
suitable for the purpose of communication and the recipient.
5
2. Speaking skills. This is the ability to express ideas clearly in form of a speech. It
involves being able to enunciate words properly, and using the right tone, pitch
and speed for the recipient to understand the message clearly.
3. Listening skills. This is the ability to perceive what is spoken, interpret and to
understand it in the way the sender intends.
4. Reading skills. This is the ability to read words and to interpret symbols used in
the communication.
5. Reasoning skills. This is the ability to apply intelligence or mental power to draw
conclusions and determine the truth.
6. Thought skills. This is the ability to consider seriously and carefully, and to
organise ideas and opinions.
The lack or poor development of these skills can cause the following:
• incorrect encoding of messages
• use of wrong medium
• incorrect decoding
• misunderstanding
3. Emotions
Emotions such as hate, jealousy, anger, fear or love can be a barrier to communication.
They can influence the way the message is sent by the sender or understood by the
recipient.
4. Attitude
Attitudes can distort our awareness to messages and therefore hamper the
communication process.
5. Distrust
The credibility of the sender in the recipient’s mind can affect the credibility of the
message.
6. Experience and Background

People with different backgrounds of knowledge and experience often perceive the
same thing differently.
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7. Language differences
For the message to be properly communicated the words used must mean the same
thing to the sender and the recipient.
8. Information Overload
This occurs when the recipient receives too much information at once. When this
happens the recipient is unable to process the information efficiently.
9. Jargon
Technical language often causes misunderstanding. Some organisations have their own
corporate jargon which may be unfamiliar to those external to the organisation.
10. Inconsistent Verbal and Non Verbal Communication

This happens when what the sender is saying does not match with the sender’s non
verbal messages.
11. Distance
The distance between the sender and the recipient can be a barrier to communication
especially if there are no alternative means of communication that are not affected by
distance.
1.6.0 Strategies for Overcoming Barriers

Overcoming barriers is a two stage process that involves identifying the various types of
barriers that can occur and taking action to overcome them. For you to carryout the
process successfully, you need to:
1. Know what to communicate. Define the purpose of the communication clearly
and the response you want from your recipient. This can help you in encoding
the information properly.
2. Know when to communicate. Timing is important in communication. Attempting
to communicate when the recipient is busy or unavailable can be a waste of time.
3. Know how to communicate. For some situations written communication is
essential especially where a permanent record is required while for others a
personal visit would be more effective.
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4. Know your recipient. Knowing your recipient will assist you in overcoming
barriers to communication. By considering and understanding your recipient you
are likely to encode the message in a way that will not be misinterpreted or
misunderstood.
The following actions and strategies can be taken to deal with each type of barrier.
1. Overcoming Noise
Noise is best dealt with by eliminating it.
If it is physical noise in the environment that can not be eliminated then it
becomes essential to move to a quieter environment.
Avoid distracting environments.
Increase the clarity and strength of the message.
2. Overcoming Poor Communication Skills

The only way to do this is to develop or improve the reading, writing, talking,
listening and reasoning skills. This begins by the general awareness of the skills
and their importance in communication.
3. Overcoming Emotions
Understand other people’s emotional reactions and deal with them accordingly.
Get people to talk about their concerns and feelings, and empathise with them.
4. Overcoming Distrust
Create credibility by being honest and fair.
5. Overcoming Language Differences and Jargon

Explain the meaning of technical terms.
Use simple, direct and natural language.
Use visual communication to help the recipient.
6. Overcoming Information Overload

Understand the needs of the recipient. This enables you to provide only the
necessary information.
8
Select the best time to communicate. Use time when the recipient is in a position
to give your message the required amount of attention.
Establish what has already been communicated. This helps in avoiding
duplication.
Present information in a systematic and organised way.
7. Overcoming Inconsistent Verbal and Non Verbal Communication

Be aware of your non-verbal communication and make sure it agrees with your
message.
8. Overcoming Distance
With the development and growth of information technology, distance can now
be overcome easily. This can be done by using telephone systems, video
conferencing systems, teleconferencing systems, emails or faxing.
9
Communication
Chapter Two Media and
Channels
Channels
Study Tip!
Always Seek Clarification.
When you do not understand
always seek clarification from
your tutor or friends. As you
read, write down questions that
you would want to ask your tutor
or discuss with friends.
This chapter outlines the various communication forms, their advantages

and disadvantages, and ways of choosing the appropriate medium.
10
2.1.0 Introduction
The message is the essence of the communication process. However, from our
discussion of communication barriers it is clear that it does not matter how good the
message is if the means of transmission is poor or if the language used is hard to
understand. The message can take many different forms. The forms can be classified
into three main categories, which are written, oral and visual communication. These
three classes are also referred as the media of communication. A medium by definition
is a class or group of instruments within which a message belongs. It is the nature of
expression of the information.
In the following sections we shall briefly review the various types that fall under the three
communication media starting with written communication. Detailed discussions will be
done in the relevant chapters.
2.2.0 Written Communication

This is verbal communication that is expressed in writing. It consists of words and
numbers. Written communication consists of the forms shown in the table below
Table 2.1: Examples of Written Communication

Written Communication Form Written Communication Form
1. Informal note 6. Notice
2. Memorandum 7. Report
3. Letter 8. Press Release
4. Form and questionnaire 9. Procedure documents
5. E-mail 10. Written telephone message
1. Informal Note
An informal note does not require strict adherence to principles of writing. It is usually
written to a colleague to communicate information quickly. Informal notes are usually
produced when one does not find the person one wanted to communicate with and does
not have time to wait for his/her return. The note can be written quickly and left in a
prominent place for the recipient to see when he/she returns.
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Extra care must be taken in writing the note, especially regarding expression and
handwriting. The main disadvantages of the informal note are:
1. There is no confidentiality since it is left displayed prominently.
2. There is no guarantee that it will be read as soon as the recipient returns.
3. The sender cannot keep a copy of the note since it is handwritten.
2. Memorandum
This is a more formal note sent also to a working colleague. The memo is used for
internal communication only. It is usually typed and therefore the sender can keep a
copy for future reference. The memo must short and to the point. It is used to
communicate short and simple messages such as instructions and reminders.
3. Letter
The letter is mostly used to communicate with people outside the organisation. For most
internal communication the memo is used in place of the letter, however the letter still
used to communicate matters of confidentiality and discipline to individuals. The major
advantage of the letter is that it can be used to convey information clearly in writing. The
main disadvantages of the letter are it takes a long time to have a full exchange of ideas
and that it can be easily misinterpreted.
4. Forms and Questionnaires

Forms and questionnaires allow a great amount of information from a large number of
people to be collected in a standard format. This minimizes inconsistency and makes it
much easier for the data to be analysed and interpreted. Forms and questionnaires must
be carefully designed since poor wording may lead to the wrong information being
supplied.
5. E-mail
The word e-mail stands for electronic mail. This is an electronic message that is sent via
a computer network or internet. It is used for both internal and external communication.
E-mails can be brief and to the point or long depending on the information being
conveyed. Electronic reports, documents, spreadsheets can be sent together with the
message as attachments. The main advantages of e-mail are that copies of the same
message can be sent to many people at once, it is fast and immediate, and it is cheap.
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With the increased use of information technology in business organisations the e-mail is
being used in place of memos and informal notes
6. Notice
A notice is used to communicate clearly and directly to large number of people. It is
displayed on a notice board for all intended recipients to see and read. Notices must be
carefully designed so that they have visual impact and are therefore able to capture the
attention of people as they pass.
7. Report
Reports provide an accurate and detailed account of a particular event or situation. They
range from short single page reports to long book bound reports with many pages.
Reports take a lot of time and resources to prepare, and are therefore costly to produce.
The longer they are, the more likely they discourage people from assimilating them.
8. Press Release
A press release is used to pass on information to the newspaper. It helps to minimise the
incorrect reporting. An alternative to a press release is a press interview.
9. Procedure Documents
A procedure is a step by step method of carrying out a particular task. Procedures are
written to minimise variations and to ensure consistency in the way tasks are carried out
by different people. Procedure documents are very useful in training new employees on
the activities of the organisation.
10. Written Telephone Message

This is a recording of the telephone message in a written form. It gives details of the
caller, the time of the call, the purpose of the call and the required action from the
recipient. A template is normally used to record the information in a standard format and
quickly. This is completed by the person who takes the call on behalf of the intended
recipient.
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2.2.1 Advantages of Written Communication

1. There is a permanent record. Written communication provides a permanent
record of what has been communicated. The recipient has the original document
while the sender keeps a copy. This is especially important where there is need
to refer back to the communication at a later date. This avoids
misunderstandings over what was mentioned. Examples of situations where a
permanent record is necessary are legal matters, disciplinary matters,
agreements and appraisals.
2. Expression can be controlled. When writing it is possible to edit and replace
statements and sentences with better ones. As a result it is possible to produce a
message that is carefully created in terms of how it expresses information, and
how it considers the vocabulary, background and attitude of the recipient.
3. Personal feelings can be removed. Written communication is suitable for
impersonal communication such as instructions, employment letters and
memoranda. Unless there is need to express emotion such as in complaints, or
sympathetic messages, personal feelings can be generally excluded. The
advantage is that difficult situations can be handled in a more straightforward
manner in writing. This ensures that emotion does not override the facts of the
matter.
4. A meeting is not necessary. A written message eliminates the need of a meeting
since it can be sent to the recipient. The recipient also can read it at any time
when he or she is free to give it the attention it deserves.
5. Written communication is not affected by physical barriers such as noise and
distance. This is in important in remote areas where other means of
communication do not work or become costly.
6. It is cheap. Generally written communication is cheap compared to other
alternatives such as meetings or telephone calls.
7. It is more authentic. It is easier to authenticate the message by putting signatures
and using letterheads. This provides control especially in contractual matters.
8. It is confidential. Written communication can be used to convey confidential
information because the message can be sent to the right person.
14
2.2.2 Disadvantages of Written Communication

1. It lacks personal touch. Written communication tends to be impersonal. It lacks
immediacy and human contact which may be necessary in building fruitful
business relationships.
2. It lacks timely feedback. It takes time for the written communication cycle to be
completed. Therefore it is not suitable for urgent messages.
3. Written communication can be misinterpreted. This is true with every
communication but the likelihood is greater in written communication because it
does not allow for immediate clarification and correction.
4. There exclusion of non-verbal communication. The sender and the recipient do
not benefit from non-verbal communication such as facial expressions and
nodding of the head since they are excluded.
2.3.0 Oral Communication

This is verbal communication that is expressed as spoken words. It consists of the forms
shown in the following table.
Table 2.2: Examples of Oral Communication

Oral Communication Form Oral Communication Form
1. Unplanned encounter 5. Committee meeting
2. Planned conversation 6. Interview
3. Individuals meeting 7. Telephone call
4. Group meeting 8. Lecture or presentation
1. Unplanned Encounter
This happens when you meet someone unexpectedly but you have a need to pass some
information to that person. Communication in such situations suffers from lack of control
and often leads to failure to communicate desired information. Unplanned encounters
must only be used to communicate routine and uncomplicated information. Complex
information must be left out for situations where there is more control such as planned
encounters and meetings.
15
2. Planned conversation
The advantage of this encounter is that the sender has more control over the situation
and has had time to prepare. This ensures effective and efficient transmission of
information.
3. Individuals Meeting
This is a more formal encounter which often takes place between members of different
organisations. Individuals prepare in advance and the main advantage is that discussion
can lead to mutually beneficial conclusion.
4. Group / Committee Meeting

Group meetings involve a large number of people. They have all the advantages of
personal encounters. A lot of ideas can be generated but also different views can lead to
confusion and conflict.
5. Interview
An interview can be conducted for various purposes including selection of a suitable
person to fill a vacancy, appraisal, or disciplining an employee. A high degree of skill is
required to effectively conduct an interview.
6. Telephone Call
This is a conversation via a telephone system. Telephone calls have advantages of
speed and immediacy. A major disadvantage is that body language, gestures, and facial
expressions are absent.
7. Lecture or Presentation
This involves having an individual presenting his/her ideas on a particular subject to a
group of people. This form of communication is increasingly becoming popular. Its main
disadvantage is that there is no guarantee that information is assimilated and
understood by the audience. Handouts are usually supplied and visual aids also used to
aid assimilation and understanding.
16
2.3.1 Advantages of Oral Communication

1. There is timely feedback. The sender receives immediate response from the
recipient. The recipient can also seek clarification to aid understanding.
2. There is immediacy. Delays can be avoided and this makes it suitable for urgent
messages. Views can also be exchanged immediately.
3. It is suitable for personal messages. Courtesy and feelings can be expressed,
which may be important in building relationships.
4. Non-verbal communication is present. The participants can benefit from non-
verbal communication such as body language, intonation and kinesics.
2.3.2 Disadvantages of Oral Communication

1. There is no permanent record. This makes it difficult to refer back to the
message, which in turns makes it difficult to resolve misunderstandings at a later
date.
2. It is open to physical barriers. Physical barriers such as noise and distance can
easily affect the effectiveness of oral communication.
3. It is less authentic. This makes it unsuitable for contractual agreements or
messages that may require authentication.
4. It is time consuming and costly. This is especially true with personal meetings
which usually involve traveling long distances.
5. It involves personal contact. Emotions and relationships between the sender and
the recipient may affect and distort the meaning.
2.4.0 Visual Communication

This is communication that involves the use of images such as diagrams, signs and
pictures with minimal or no use of words. Visual communication is usually used in
conjunction with either oral or written communication. If used appropriately the
understanding of the audience can be increased significantly. The table below shows
some examples of visual communication forms. These and other forms are discussed in
detail in Chapter 8 on Visual Communication.
17
Table 2.3: Examples of Visual Communication

Visual Communication Form Visual Communication Form
1. Picture 4. Table
2. Colour 5. Graph
3. Diagram 6. Chart
2.4.1 Advantages of Visual Communication

1. A wide range of information can be conveyed in one image.
2. Images are good at showing relationships.
3. Images can be quickly assimilated thereby making the information easy to
understand and remember.
4. Images can be a solution to language barriers since they do not depend on any
particular language.
5. Images can attract attention and encourage interest in the message being
communicated. This is especially important where the message is complicated
and long, and the recipient(s) has to remain engaged for a long time.
2.4.2 Disadvantages of Visual Communication

1. Often works well if used to support either oral or written communication.
2. Requires explanations for the recipient to understand fully.
3. Appropriate images are often difficult, costly and take a considerable amount of
time to develop.
2.5.0 Choosing the Appropriate Medium

The crucial difference between written and oral communication lies in the importance
attributed to each. Oral communication is basic for all negotiations, liaisons and briefings
while written communication is used as evidence of previous discussions and
arrangements, and for contractual purposes.
Oral communication must be succinct and clear. Written communication can be

elaborate and present many different view points. Visual communication such as
pictures, charts, diagrams and graphs, and non-verbal communication such as facial
expressions, body language, tone and dressing are normally used to support either oral
18
or written communication. Such a combination helps the recipient to understand the

message.
2.5.1 Factors Affecting the Choice of Medium

The factors listed below affect the choice of medium to be used in the communication.
The objective of choosing a medium is to ensure that communication is effective. The
considerations range from the message itself, the needs of the recipient to the cost of
communication. The factors that must be considered are:
1. Urgency of the message.
2. Timing of the feedback. If feedback is required immediately the oral
communication is more appropriate.
3. The need for a permanent record. Where a permanent record of what has been
communicated is required then written communication is more appropriate.
4. Message complexity. Complex messages are difficult to assimilate. They must be
presented in writing so that the recipient can always refer to the message.
5. Message formality. Formal messages such as appointments and promotions are
better conveyed in a written form.
6. Message confidentiality and sensitivity. Private and confidential matters
messages are better conveyed orally.
7. The recipient. The literacy level, experience and background of the recipient
affect the choice of medium. Some individuals may fail to read and write but can
communicate well orally, and so where literacy levels are low it oral
communication may be more appropriate.
8. Costs. It is always important to select the most economical option.
2.5.2 When to Use Written Communication

Written communication can be used to:
1. Provide a summary of important ideas.
2. Record the message that has been communicated so as to provide a permanent
record and a source of historical information.
3. Present information clearly independent of interpersonal skills.
4. Express vision, plans, goals and strategy of the organisation.
5. Respond to other written or oral communication.
6. Provide credibility to communication.
19
2.5.3 When to Use Oral Communication

In most cases we use oral communication. It is most suitable in the following situations:
1. When it is important to meet the person such as in an interview.
2. When it is important to get ideas from many different people.
3. When you are discussing an important issue with someone. In such a case it
may be important to raise the issue carefully while noting the person’s reaction.
4. For negotiation purposes where a mutually beneficial agreement must be
reached.
2.5.4 When to Use Visual Communication

Visual communication is generally used in conjunction with oral or written
communication. It must only be used if it helps the recipient to understand the message
better. The following situations are more suitable for using visual communication:
1. When large amounts of information must conveyed in a summarised and
compact form.
2. When there is a need to show relationships between people, variables, etc.
3. When the message is complex. Images can be used to help the recipient to
understand the message by aiding both oral and written communication.
4. When the document or presentation is long, it can be used to break the text in a
document and speech in a presentation. The images used this way help to attract
attention and encourage interest in the message being communicated.
5. When language is barrier images can be used as a solution since they do not
depend on any particular language.
2.6.0 Importance of Non-Verbal Communication

Non verbal communication includes the following:
1. Body languages, which includes gestures, posture, facial expressions, etc. As an
example nodding your head shows agreement.
2. Tone. This is the way one speaks or writes. As an example you can vary the tone
of your voice to communicate different emotions.
3. Appearance. This includes dressing, image, style and presentation. As examples
you can project a professional image by using well designed business stationery,
or choose a place of meeting that will leave a good impression.
20
Non verbal communication is important in written, oral and visual communication. It even
occurs when we are not aware, and can help what we are communicating or contradict
it. If it used appropriately it can produce a very powerful; message. At the same time
using it inconsistently with what is being communicated can confuse the recipient.
In business communication is both an internal and external activity. Therefore

understanding non-verbal communication is important when communicating and dealing
with people within and outside the organisation. You can use it to reinforce the message
you are communicating or to conceal what you would prefer not to communicate. You
can also use it to interpret the messages that others are sending.
21
Principles of
Effective
Chapter Three Communication
Study Tip!
Use a Structured Approach to
Studying. Structured
approaches to studying like the
SQ3R method help you become
more focused. This method
involves Surveying, Questioning,
Reading, Reciting and
Reviewing.
This chapter outlines the principles of effective communication. These

important principles underlie all forms of communication.
22
3.1.0 Introduction
The principles of effective communication no matter the form it takes are planning,
organizing and presentation. These principles underlie all communication and will be
discussed in the following sections.
3.2.0 Planning
This involves developing a proper plan for the communication. In order to do this you
must consider the following key elements:
1. The purpose of the communication. This generally involves identifying the main
objective of the communication. You must answer full the following questions:
Why are communicating?
What do you intend to achieve?
What is the desired outcome?
What is the response you seek from the recipient?
2. The recipient. You must identify who you are communicating with. The recipient
can either be an individual or a group of people. The needs and attributes of the
recipient must be identified.
3. The structure and organisation of the information you want to communicate.
4. The style and presentation of the message.
3.2.1 Considering your Purpose

There are many reasons why we engage in communication in business. These include
informing colleagues, responding to previous communication, raising awareness in the
market, persuading customers to buy, etc. Identifying the purpose or objective of the
communication helps an individual to focus on what has to be communicated. This in
turn enables one to acquire relevant information for the message. Equally important the
sender is more likely to know if the communication has achieved its objective.
3.2.2 Considering the Recipient

In any communication you engage in you are trying to convey information to a recipient.
The recipient can be an individual or a group of people. It is important to answer the
following questions when considering the recipient:
1. Who is the recipient?
2. What are the needs of the recipient?
23
3. What is the recipient capable of understanding?

4. What is the relationship between the sender and the recipient?
Answering these questions and understanding the issues they indicate influences the
communication in terms of the form it takes, the vocabulary and its tone and style. For
example the vocabulary must match the recipient and if the recipient is superior the
sender should adopt a formal and respectful tone.
3.2.3 Considering the Structure

The structure of the communication takes the recipient step by step through the
message and allows the recipient to follow the progression from one point to another.
The message must have an introduction, the body and a conclusion. The underlying
principle is to:
1. Tell them what you are gong to tell them,
2. Tell them, and
3. Tell them what you have just told them.
Structuring the message involves acquiring the relevant information and organizing the
information in an appropriate and logical way. The objective of structuring is clarifying
what the message contains. Structuring allows the sender to lead the recipient through
the message in a way that will enable the recipient to understand the massage and to
follow the development from one point to another, from the beginning to the end.
1. Introduction
The introduction sets the scene for the message and prepares the recipient for what is to
be said. In the introduction the following must be done:
1. Clarify the subject and purpose of the communication
2. State how you are going to present and deal with subject matter
3. Make reference to the structure of your communication
2. Main Body of the Message

In this section of the message all the information should be conveyed. Details,
explanations, analysis, justification of key points, examples and supporting evidence
24
should be provided. The key issues that should be considered in structuring and
presentation are logical flow, headings, numbering and layout.
The details should be presented with logical flow from one point to another. Each line of
thought needs to be placed in its own paragraph and there should be clear progression
from one paragraph to the next. The reader or listener can be directed by flagging the
progression throughout the message. For example this can be done by noting the
relevance of the point to the stage of the discussion or referring to the previous or
following section.
Headings and subheadings should be used as signposts to the recipient. They orient the
recipient o the specific subject matter and also indicate relationship between different
topics. Subheadings show hierarchical relationships amongst information in the
communication. Headings and subheadings must be clear, concise and relevant to the
section. The recipient often uses them to scan the message in order to pick out
particular information.
Another useful way of showing relationships between information is to use section

numbering. Numbering also facilitate referencing of particular sections in the
communication. This is especially important in reports and long documents.
Layout refers to how information is set out. In written communication it refers to how the
information is set out on a page. White spaces can be used around heading and
important point to make them stand out clearly.
3. Conclusion
In this section all key points must be brought together and final comments on the subject
matter made. No new idea should be introduced at this stage.
3.3.0 Organising Information

Before the information is organised for communication it must be gathered. In other
words information must be identified, collected and organised in a way that will make
sense to the recipient.
25
3.3.1 Sources of Information

There are many individual sources of information including books, magazines,
newspapers, journal articles, reports, the internet and interviewing people. The sources
can be classified into two main categories, namely primary sources and secondary
sources.
Primary sources comprise of original thoughts, words and ideas that have not been
distilled by someone else’s interpretation. For example when reviewing a customer
complaint, the primary source might be the actual letter written. In most cases primary
sources are consulted in order to verify information collected and to get a complete and
accurate picture.
Secondary sources are those that provide interpretation and summaries by others. Most
text books are secondary sources of information. Secondary sources are important in
that they provide information that has already been interpreted and analysed.
3.3.2 Note Taking and Summarising

Note taking involves selecting what should be recorded and in expressing in your own
terms. Notes can be made from any source of information where one is trying to acquire
information. The general principles of note taking are:
1. Be selective; pick out key points, words and phrases.
2. Use your own words.
3. Use abbreviations.
Making notes from written sources requires one to pick out the main points from
paragraphs. Usually most paragraphs are written to contain a single point and this
should be identified. On the other hand taking notes from presentation, interviews or
observations (oral sources) requires one to pick out key points as things are being said
or going on.
1. Note Taking Techniques

The most common technique that can be used I note taking is the linear note system.
Linear notes consist of headings, subheadings and subsidiary information below these
headings. A variation of this technique is the two column system which consists of a
26
table with two columns. The first column is the recall column and the other column
shows the main points or the details.
Table 3.1: Two Column System for Taking Notes
Recall Column Definitions, Details, Fact, Supporting information
Production and − A system consists of interrelated parts.

Operations System − Inputs are converted to outputs.
− Inputs include capital, labour, equipment, raw materials,

information; outputs are products and services.
2. Summarising
Summarising involves condensing information and is extensively used in business
communication. Summary consists of three stages:
1. Reading
2. Selecting key points
3. Rewriting
The first stage is about gaining a good understanding of the material and the purpose of
the text. If at first there is no understanding the text must be reread. The second stage
involves selecting important points. Here it is important t remain impartial and to keep an
open mind. The third stage involves rewriting the ideas and points in “your own words”.
3.4.0 Presentation and Structure

All formal business communication must have an introduction, the body and the
conclusion. However, the way these are applied varies according to type of
communication.
The introduction sets the scene for the message. It orients the recipient to what is going
to be said. In the introduction the subject matter must be clarified. It is essential to give
any background issues. The approach in dealing with the subject matter must also be
stated in the introductory section.
27
The main body of the communication gives all the details. Points are established,
developed, justified and in the body of the message. The body can consist of a number
of sections where different points are developed.
The conclusion brings all ideas or points together in making final comments. The
conclusion should provide a review of all key points. Conclusions are the basis of any
recommendations.
28
Effective
Chapter Four Communication
Skills
Study Tip!
Study in a Group. Studying in a
group makes you benefit from
other people’s knowledge.
Fellow students can be the most
powerful or versatile resource
available to you.
This chapter discusses essential communication skills. These skills

covered are writing, reading, talking, listening, observation and reasoning.
29
4.1.0 Introduction
For communication to be effective both the sender and the recipient must develop
certain skills. These skills are important for encoding and decoding the message. The
skills covered in this chapter are speaking, listening, writing, reading, observation and
thinking skills.
4.2.0 Effective Speaking

How you speak affects your audience’s understanding of the message. It s not only
about speaking in an audible voice but also about ensuring that understands your
message. This means that you must capture and retain the attention of your audience,
overcome barriers such as different age groups, differing levels of education and
language differences. In order to become a better speaker, you must do the following:
2. Always aim for clarity and brevity. Avoid long winding speeches, get straight to
the point.
3. Always be aware of the difficulties that can be encountered when talking to
people of a different age group, differing levels of education and different
languages.
4. Take health factors into consideration on the part of the listener. Your message
may fail to get through because the listener is hard of hearing.
5. Remember that it is your responsibility, as the communicator of the message, to
see that it is understood. Therefore, it is essential that you obtain feedback to
check that your message has been received and understood.
6. Use the tried and tested method of asking questions open questions. Structure
your questions to contain one of the seven interrogatives which can be used to
elicit information: who, what, where, why, when, which, and how.
7. Use “open” and “closed” questions properly. Closed questions bring forth yes and
no answers, hence very little information. Open questions on the other hand
allow for conversation and exchange of ideas and opinions to take place. There
are also other types of questions:
Leading questions, which result in obtaining the answer you wanted. They
give little useful information.
Control questions, which are used to keep the subject under discussion.
30
Probing questions, which seek additional information, to add to that

previously obtained.
Reflecting questions used to check understanding.
8. Use your voice properly. Skilful use of your voice is the key to successful
speaking. You must learn to use the variables that make your voice interesting
and make people want to hear you speak (and more importantly, listen to you).
Use the variations of volume, speed and tone. Do not neglect the use of the
pause, invaluable in gaining unsolicited information.
9. Use non verbal communication effectively. Use it to support your message and to
emphasise important points. Avoid sending the wrong messages, especially
those that may contradict your message.
4.3.0 Effective Listening

There is a huge difference between hearing and listening. Hearing can just happen
passively; listening is an active function. Poor listening results in misunderstanding. In
order to obtain the necessary and relevant information from the speaker you must
develop good listening skills.
Active listening intentionally focuses on who you are listening to, whether in a group or
one-on-one, in order to understand what he or she is saying. This means engaging your
mind and your memory, concentrating and being active in seeking information from the
speaker and then organizing, interpreting and storing it. As the listener, you should then
be able to repeat back in your own words what has been said to the satisfaction of the
speaker. This does not mean you agree with the speaker, but understand what he or she
is saying.
4.3.1 The Listening Process

The listening process involves sensing, filtering and remembering. Sensing refers well
we sense the words spoken around us depends on how well our ears pick up the sounds
and our attentiveness to listening (the will to listen). Filtering is the process of giving
meaning to the symbols we sense. The contents of your mind serves as a filter though
which you give meaning to incoming messages. This is formed by your knowledge,
emotions, beliefs, biases, experiences, expectations, and such. Thus you sometimes
31
give messages meanings different from the meaning others give them. Remembering is
the ability to retain what you have heard.
4.3.2 Factors Affecting Listening

The factors that affect listening are shown below in figure 4.1. These factors are the
speaker, subject complexity, presentation and the environment.
SUBJECT
SPEAKER COMPLEXITY
ACTIVE
LISTENER
PRESENTATION ENVIRONMENT
Figure 4.1: Factors Affecting Listening
1. The Speaker
The speaker is very important to the listening process. This is the individual who is
saying out the message and the one you are listening to. It does not matter how simple
the message is; the experience, personality, frame of mind, non-verbal cues of the
speaker can impact on significantly on your attentiveness. An experienced speaker can
use non-verbal cues to support the message, capture attention by using appropriate and
interesting illustrations.
32
2. Subject Complexity
Generally we find it difficult to be engaged for a long time on complicated subjects.
However, what you think of the subject matter, your experience with it, its importance to
you and its complexity determines your interest in the subject.
3. The Environment
The environment must be conducive to listening. It must be free of distractions and must
allow for interaction or exchange with the speaker.
4. The Presentation
Message illustrated with visual images of examples is creates interest. A speaker who
introduces concepts incrementally and with examples helps the listener.
4.3.3 Improving your Listening Ability

1. Be alert; force yourself to pay attention. Avoid distractions and wandering
thoughts. Ask yourself the following questions:
Why is speaker saying this?
What is the important new idea here?
Is the speaker defining, explaining, or developing an idea?
2. Do not interrupt the speaker.
3. Improve filtering.
4. Think of the speaker’s viewpoint.
5. Consciously try to remember.
6. An active listener listens for signal words such as for example, because, even
though, however, like, and but.
7. Shut out your emotional response if it seems to be interfering with understanding.
Guard against prejudice and stereotyping.
4.4.0 Effective Writing

Good communication results when the message is read and understood the first time. It
is essential, therefore, to get the message right first time. There is an expense
associated with writing another letter to explain the first. Badly written communication
also generates unwanted telephone calls, usually asking for an explanation of the written
33
communication. This further wastes a lot of valuable time. Your writing can be improved
if you consider the following:
1. What is your objective in communicating in writing? It is usually to deal with
something too complex to be handled by a telephone call, or someone requiring
proof of something.
2. Who is your recipient, what are his or her needs, and what is the recipient’s level
of understanding? These questions help you in understanding your recipient,
which in turn helps you to write in a way that can be understood.
3. Are there any illustrations that can be used to explain the information? Using
illustration in reports and documents often helps the recipient to understand the
information. When you decide to use illustrations ensure that it adds value to the
communication.
4. Consider the readability of your correspondence. Keep sentences short (8 to 11
words), and avoid unnecessary use of technical jargon. When jargon or
unfamiliar terms are used, always explain the meaning of the terms. Define
symbols and explain formulas. Avoid using ambiguous terms and words.
5. Use the appropriate tone and style.
4.5.0 Effective Reading

If you desire to improve your communication, improving your reading is should be your
goal. It is common for people to find it difficult pick out the central thought of a letter,
report, or document or even get the meaning from the written communication. The art of
reading is the skill of catching what the author is conveying. Reading has to made
‘active’ in one way or another and your purpose, attentiveness, knowledge, and your
attitude determine what you get out of reading. You can use the following techniques to
help yourself read better.
4.5.1 Previewing
Previewing articles, reports, or documents before you read them in detail gives you a
quick but complete overview of the material. It provides you with a frame within which
the specific details of the reading material can be painted. Previewing helps you to
determine the structure and organization of what you will be reading, which make your
comprehension of what you then read more rapid and permanent. Good previewing also
helps you to anticipate the ideas of the author. This anticipation can trigger curiosity
34
causing you to engage in reading to find out more. In this way previewing will improve
your understanding of what you read and strengthen your ability to remember it.
Previewing activities include the following:

Reading the title or subject of the material and thinking about what you may
already know about the subject.
Reading the introduction, the first few paragraphs, and the summary to get the
general idea of the major topics being covered.
Reading the headings and the subheadings to see how the material is organized,
to see how the organization relates to the major points outlined in the summary
and introduction, and to anticipate what you will soon be reading.
Noting any graphic displays or pictures and determining how they relate to the
major topics and to the organization of the material.
4.5.2 Pre-questioning
Specific pre-questioning activities include the following:
Reading the questions provided by the author at the beginning or the end of the
material and using these questions to search for answers.
Interpreting headings and subheadings as questions and then reading for
answers to them in the sections or subsections that follow.
4.5.3 Skimming
Skimming means to read quickly and superficially. You should use skimming when you
want to gain a general idea. Skimming allows you to get the gist of the piece of writing in
a short space of time. It can be used to preview material before reading it carefully, to
get only an overview of the material that you do not intend to read carefully later, and to
review material that you have already read. When you are skimming you should look at:
The title
First and last paragraphs
First sentence of each paragraph
35
4.5.4 Scanning
To scan is to glance at quickly. Use scanning when you want to look quickly and closely
for something specific. It can be used at any time to find one item among many. When
you are scanning you should look for:
Dates
Names
Key words
Aim to work smarter and not harder. Zoom in on particular information. Train your eyes
to travel over the words and anchor on particular words you are looking for.
4.5.5 Strategies for Critical Reading

There are times when you may be required to examine a subject matter critically. Critical
or readers thinkers are able to have an independent judgment based on evidence and
resist manipulation. They overcome confusion by asking questions and making
connections between subjects. To read critically you should ask yourself the following
questions as you read:
1. What is the topic of the article, text or reading?
2. What issues are addressed?
3. What conclusion does the author reach about the issue(s)?
4. What are the author's reasons for his or her statements or belief?
5. Is the writer using facts, theory, or faith? (Facts can be proven. Theory is to be proved
and should not be confused with fact. Opinions may or may not be based on sound reasoning.
Faith is not subject to proof because of its nature.)
6. Has the author used neutral words or emotional words? Critical readers look
beyond the language to see if the reasons are clear.
7. Be aware of why you do, or do not, accept arguments of the author.
4.5.6 Methods of Improving Reading

1. Practising. Use light reading material.
2. Write down questions as you read. These questions will help you to test yourself
when you have finished reading.
3. Summarise as you read. Your summarized notes will help you to remember key
points later.
36
4. Building you vocabulary. As you read you will encounter many new words. Some
of these are technical terms related to specific areas. Knowing your vocabulary is
a key factor in understanding what you are reading. Look out for new words; the
meaning of a sentence may depend on them. Always have a good dictionary to
look up new words. Increase your vocabulary so that you are not delayed by lack
of understanding of new and unfamiliar words.
4.6.0 Effective Observation (Non-Verbal Communication)

In communication only a small percentage (about 7 to 10%) of the impression that you
make on other people comes from the verbal communication. The communication that
makes the greatest impression on others is that of the non verbal aspect, therefore,
never underestimate the power of non verbal communication. It is said that the non
verbal element of communication can account for over 50% of the influence which a
speaker has. These non verbal signs that carry so much weight are:
posture,
bearing and gait,
facial expressions,
eye contact,
eye movements,
distance between speaker and listener,
gestures, particularly hand to face gestures, and
your appearance (dressing).
Non verbal communication, or body language, has been described as the language we
all speak but very few of us understand. Put simply, body language is the message you
receive when you watch a silent film or the television with the sound turned off. Body
language conveys more about what people really mean than all the words ever spoken.
“Words can lie but body language does not.” Many of the signals which have been
generated in the brain are sent out by the body and communicated subconsciously.
The power for you in non verbal communication is in your ability to read and understand
the other person’s signs, signals and movements. You also learn to control the non
verbal signs and signals emanating from your own body. As examples:
37
1. Are you aware of how you are sitting? Are you creating an "I am interested"
posture by sitting forward, head slightly inclined, good eye contact with the
speaker/listener, back straight, hands unclenched, on your lap, or just resting on
the table. Or is it the opposite? Are you slouched down in your chair with arms
folded, looking down avoiding eye contact.
2. What was your bearing and gait like when you came into the presence of the
person you were meeting? Were you walking upright, with a spring in your step;
without shoulder stoop, head up ready to meet the other person's eyes? Had you
a smile on your face, giving the impression that you are very pleased to be in that
person's presence. Or was it the opposite? A shuffle of the feet, shoulders down,
a frown replacing a smile, head down, avoiding any form of eye contact.
3. Eye contact is without a doubt the most powerful element of non-verbal
communication. Other important facial expressions come from the position of the
eyebrows; are they up or down? Down is more likely to result in a frown, which
will be perceived as negative. The mouth also has an important role to play; are
the corners up or down? If the corners of the mouth are down, it will almost
certainly indicate that the person is serious or possibly angry.
4. When you are communicating with people, the way in which they accept your
communication depends to a degree on how close to them you are. We are very
guarded about our personal space. You should understand that how close you
stand or sit next to other people will depend upon how well you know them.
Stand or sit too close to someone you have just met and your message will go
unnoticed. The other person will not listen to your message as you will be
perceived as being a threat.
5. Most important of all is the gesture. Clenched fists and finger waving will only
generate resistance and appear threatening. Use the open palm gesture to
create trust and confidence. The body language that is very important to you and
which you need to learn or train yourself to control is the hand and face gestures
which you are involuntarily making while speaking. Continually touching the
nose, mouth, eyes and ears creates a feeling of uncertainty in the person
observing you; they will be more mistrustful of you. This reaction is, of course,
subconscious, but nevertheless, has a powerful influence on the feelings of
people when making a judgment about the honesty of the person with whom they
are in communication.
38
6. Creating a feeling of safety, security and confidence will be aided by dressing

appropriately, relating your dress to the circumstances of your environment or the
people with whom you are communicating. It is important to co-ordinate your
colours to convey the best possible image.
4.7.0 Effective Thought and Reasoning Skills

Reasoning skills are those processes basic to cognition of all forms. There are four
categories of reasoning skills: (1) storage skills, (2) retrieval skills, (3) matching skills,
and (4) execution skills.
Storage and retrieval skills enable you to transfer information to and from long-term
memory. Mnemonic strategies such as acronyms and acrostics are also examples of
storage and retrieval skills.
Matching skills enable you to determine how incoming information is similar to or

different from information already stored in long-term memory. There are five types of
matching skills:
1. Categorization skills. These enable you to classify objects or ideas as belonging
to a group and having the characteristics of that group. It speeds up the thinking
process, making it possible to generalize and to go beyond the information
immediately given by the isolated object or idea. For example, when you look at
an animal and call it a cat, you are categorizing. Any time you classify something
as being an example of something you already know, you are categorizing.
2. Extrapolation skills. These enable you to match the pattern of information from
one area to that found in another area. This strategy assists the thinking process
by making it unnecessary to start from scratch when you encounter new
information. Instead, you take the information that already exists for a different
purpose and adapt it to a new situation. For example, if you know the basic rules
of soccer but know nothing about rugby, you could extrapolate a great deal of
your knowledge of soccer to help you understand rugby. Any time you take
previous information and incorporate it into an understanding of a new topic, you
are extrapolating.
3. Analogical reasoning skills. This involves seeing the similarities among
essentially different objects or ideas and using existing knowledge about the first
39
set of objects or ideas to understand the others. For example, a computer-

literate person might realize that the short-term memory is similar to random
access memory (RAM) and that long-term memory is similar to a hard drive. By
using this analogy, the person would have a basis for understanding short-term
memory, long-term memory, and the relationship between them.
4. Evaluation skills. This is the process of comparing the structure of information
with an internalized system of logic to see if the information is valid or true. For
example, you can learn to follow the rules of deductive and inductive logic and to
look for and avoid specific types of errors, such as hasty generalizations and
non sequiturs.
Execution skills enable you to coordinate other skills. There are three basic execution
skills:
1. Elaboration is the process of inferring information not explicitly stated in what an
individual saw or heard. People use such skills as categorization, elaboration,
analogical reasoning, and information retrieval to make these inferences. For
example, imagine yourself in the audience when Jesus Christ first told the
parable of the Good Samaritan. The story is actually quite brief, but listeners
would go well beyond the story itself. They would realize the enormity of the gap
between the Samaritans and the Jews. They would realize that Jesus was
putting the Samaritan on a level higher than the priests of their own religion. They
would realize that the concept of neighbor that Jesus was using was vastly
different from the one they had learned about. The parable does not state much
of this explicitly; the listeners had to elaborate to have an effective understanding
of this parable.
2. Problem solving is the process of finding information or a strategy to achieve a
goal or to overcome an obstacle. Problem solving usually consists of describing
the problem, determining the desired outcome, selecting possible solutions,
choosing strategies, testing trial solutions, evaluating the outcomes of these
trials, and revising steps as necessary.
3. Composing is the process of creating new information to express an idea. It can
be viewed as a specific type of problem solving, in which the problem is to
communicate ideas in an appropriate way to achieve a goal. Composing can
consist of either written or oral communication of ideas.
40
Communication
Chapter Five in Organisations
Study Tip!
Make Flash Cards. Flash cards
can help command new and difficult
information to your memory. On
one side of the card write the word
or concept you want to learn, and
on the other write the definition,
meaning, explanation or and any
relevant information.
This chapter focuses on organisation communication. The various

patterns of communication within the organisation are described.
41
5.1.0 Introduction
In organisation information must be communicated to those who have need for it in order
to perform their work effectively and efficiently. Communication is fundamental to all
activities of the organisation and every organisation has its communication systems.
These systems can be formal or informal and effective or ineffective.
5.2.0 Levels of Communication

There are a number of levels at which people communicate and these are:
1. Interpersonal communication
2. Intrapersonal communication
3. Small group communication
4. Public communication
5. Mass communication
We shall examine these levels of communication in the following sections.
5.2.1 Interpersonal Communication

This is communication that occurs between two people. Most communication is
interpersonal it involves use of verbal and non verbal messages.
5.2.2 Intrapersonal Communication

This is communication that occurs within an individual. It consists of messages that we
send to ourselves. We talk to ourselves constantly, sending different kinds of messages
including reminders. Intrapersonal communication often affects the behaviour, attitude
and esteem of an individual. Negative talk often results in an negative self image and
low self esteem.
5.2.3 Small Group Communication

This is communication that occurs in a small group of people. It involves simple chatting,
problem solving, or work related activities. It is important for the success of the group in
carrying out its activities.
5.2.4 Public Communication

This is communication by an individual to a group of people. Examples are when one
person gives a lecture, talks or presents a report a group of people. The parties to this
42
type of communication are the speaker and the audience. The audience usually does
not participate, except only when asking questions or seeking clarification.
5.2.5 Mass Communication

This involves communicating to a large audience of diverse interests and needs. When
organisations advertise in newspapers, on the television or radio they engage in mass
communication. It is used when there is need for the information to reach a lot of people
in different places at the same time.
5.3.0 Communication in Organisations

Information is central to organizational activities and operations; ideas, instruction,
directions and explanations are all examples of the kind of information that flows through
the communication systems of an organisation. Business information must be
communicated to those who have a need of it in order to perform their work effectively
and efficiently. Lack of communication or information exchange can result in isolation of
individuals or departments from the rest of the organisation, loss of interest in the
organisation by employees, or industrial action by workers.
Information is necessary at every level of the organisation. Top management needs

complete, up to date information about the organisation’s financial position, operations,
projects, etc. in order to make policy decisions. Middle management needs information
on performance, strategy, polices, etc. to develop appropriate tactics to achieve plans
and to manage day to day activities of the organisation. Lower management and
workers below them need information on plans, targets, policies, etc. in order to carry
out their work.
5.3.1 Reasons for Organizational Communication

Listed below are some of the reasons why communication is necessary in organisations
1. To bring about change. If changes are to be successfully effected information

about those changes must be released.
2. To maintain stability. Information is necessary to ensure stability of staff. It is
necessary to create commitment to the organisation.
3. To ensure unity of purpose and direction.
43
4. To ensure functional and structural integration.

5. To establish links between the organisation and its external environment.
6. To ensure discipline.
7. To prevent rumor.
8. To meet statutory obligations.
5.4.0 Communication Networks in Organisations

These are patterns of communication in an organisation. The basic networks are the
circle, the chain, the delta and the star. In organisations communication networks are a
usually combination of these basic designs.
5.4.1 The Circle
B E
C D
In this network each subject communications with only adjacent subjects. As an

example, A communicates with B and E only. If A wants to communicate with D, this can
be done through E or through B and C.
5.4.2 The Chain
B E
C D
44
In this network subject C and D cannot communicate directly.
5.4.3 The Delta or Y
B A
In this network C can communicate directly with A, B and D.
5.4.4 The Star
B A
D E
In this network C can communicate directly with all other subjects while all other subject
cannot communicate directly.
45
5.5.0 Communication Systems

These are systems that are used in a organisation for communication. Most organisation
especially large ones have clearly defined communication systems which enable
members of the organisation to know who to contact about a particular decision or piece
of information.
5.5.1 Vertical Communication

This consists of communication up and down the structure of the organisation. It follows
the organisation’s chain of command. Downward communication starts from the upper
levels to lower levels of the organisation structure. Its major purposes are to give
instruction, direct inform or evaluate subordinates. Upward communication starts from
lower levels to upper levels of the organisation structure. Its major purposes are to give
feedback, report progress, explain, request or suggest to superiors.
Downward Upward
Vertical communication is subject to filtering or modification at each level as individuals

decide what should be passed to the next level.
5.5.2 Horizontal or Lateral Communication

Horizontal communication occurs between individuals at the same level in different
sections or departments of the same organisation. This type of communication follows
the flow of work.
46
Horizontal
5.5.3 Diagonal Communication

Diagonal communication occurs between individuals at different levels in different
sections.
Diagonal
47
5.5.4 Informal Communication Network

This is also referred to as the Grapevine. This is an informal communication network
resulting form relationships among the organisation’s members. This is usually verbal
and is often used to pass unofficial information between individuals and small groups.
The grapevine has no regard for rank and authority. It involves and connects different
levels and departments within the organisation. It connects organisation members in all
directions, vertically, horizontally and diagonally.
There are certain key positions in the grapevine structure and these are usually relatively
low organizational positions such as personal assistants, secretaries, or clerks. These
people often have access to a lot of written information. The possession of information
that is not yet known to other people can make an individual socially important in the
eyes of fellow workers.
Information carried in the grapevine does not carry a stamp of authority and therefore
the information cannot be authenticated. Two key characteristics of the grapevine are
that it is uncontrollable and conveys information with great speed. The grapevine is a
part of every organisation’s system and therefore management must not ignore it.
Managers must endeavor to use the grapevine to the benefit of the organisation.
Managers can use the grapevine in the following ways:
1. Passing information to key people such as informal leaders or opinion leaders.
This is particularly useful when complex plan for change have to be
implemented. The informal leaders and opinion leaders can discuss the issue
with others within their influence thereby aiding education and persuasion in
favour of the desired change.
2. To determine the reaction of individuals before action is taken.
3. To encourage participation in decision making and to get feedback on current
situations and problems at the workplace.
5.6.0 External Communication

Organisations have external communication links with external stakeholder groups such
as customers, suppliers, government and shareholders. As the organisation grows these
communication links with the outside world also increase. It is important for the external
communication system to be integrated with the internal communication system. For
48
example, an order received from the customer (external communication) has to be

possessed and executed in the organisation (internal communication).
5.7.0 Factors Affecting the Effectiveness of Communication in Organisation

There are a number of factors that affect the effectiveness of communication in
organisations. These factors are:
1. Formal communication channels. Communication through formal channels can
be distorted or filtered by individuals as they choose what to and what not to
communicate to others.
2. Authority. Rank determines the power and status of an individual in an
organisation. Often ranks create superiority complexes for superiors and
inferiority complexes for subordinates. This in turn affects how the two groups
communicate with each other. As an example, subordinates may not freely
communicate with superiors.
3. Information ownership. This occurs when certain individuals feel that possessing
information gives them power and control. Such individuals may eventually not
share this information with others out of fear of reducing their power.
4. Specilisation. This creates work groups since similar activities are grouped
together under one department. It is easier for people within the same
department to communicate because they have common goals and tasks, and
use the same technical jargon. On the other hand, this makes interdepartmental
communication difficult.
49
Communication
Written
Chapter Six Communication
Study Tip!
Use your Memory Effectively. Be
selective about what you store and
remember. Organizing what you
learn properly helps you to store
information in your memory and
retrieve or recall it more efficiently.
You can use mnemonics to help
you remember important points.
This chapter outlines the main forms of written communication including

letters, memos, notices, forms, questionnaires, emails, and advertisements.
50
6.1.0 Introduction
Written communication involves communication using written words. This chapter
examines the main forms of written communication.
6.2.0 Business Letter Writing

A letter is a written or printed message, usually enclosed in an envelope, and sent by
post and more recently by e-mail. In business, it is the means of communication
between two companies and people within an organisation. They are usually written
when there is a need of a permanent record, or when the message being sent is
complicated such that the recipient has to continuously refer to it. Letters can be written
quickly, and are cheap to produce and deliver. Despite the increased use of electronic
means of communication, letters are still a principal means of the organisation’s external
communication with other organisations or individuals. Although letters are normally
used to communicate with people outside the organisation they are also used internally
to communicate personal matters, issues of confidentiality and matters of discipline.
Unlike personal letters business letters use a formal tone. In order to communicate
effectively through a letter, it is important to know the principles of letter writing, the main
types of letters, the layout and principal parts of a letter.
6.2.1 Advantages of Letters

1. They can convey a number of points clearly
2. They can convey complex messages
3. They are cheap when compared telephone calls or personal meetings
4. They can be used to convey confidential information
6.2.2 Disadvantages of Letters

1. They do not allow complex ideas to be discussed
2. They are impersonal
3. Responses from the recipient are not immediate and full exchange of ideas or
information can take a long time
6.2.3 Business Letter Formats

Before discussing each of the above important parts of a business letter, we shall look at
the formats that can be adopted when writing a business letter. It is important to mention
51
at this point that modern business letters are nearly always typed (save for application
letters which may be required hand written). This is largely due to the advent of
information technology and its increased use in business. Therefore in our discussion
the word typed will be used instead of written.
Long established practices set out the business letter in the indented format, but lately
the fully block format has come into greater use. All letters given as examples in this
chapter are set out in the fully blocked format.
1. The Indented Letter
Your address
Date (write it in full)
References
Name of Recipient
Address of recipient
Salutation
HOW TO WRITE AN INDENTED LETTER
If you are using the indented form, place your address and the date on the top
right-hand side of the page. Skip a line and type the inside address. Skip a line and type
the salutation flush left. Skip a line and indent the first line of each paragraph one-half
inch. Skip lines between paragraphs.
Instead of placing the closing and signature lines flush left, type them at the right,
even with the address and date above, as illustrated below. Skip 4 lines between the
complimentary closure and your name allowing room for your written signature.
Complimentary closure
52
Your Signature
Your Name
Your Official Designation
2. The Fully Blocked Letter
Your address
References
Date (write it in full)
Name of Recipient
Address of recipient
Salutation
HOW TO WRITE A FULLY BLOCKED LETTER
When you use the block form to write a business letter, all the lines start at the left hand
margin. First provide your own address and the date, then skip four lines and provide the
inside address of the party to whom the letter is addressed.
Skip another line before the salutation, and do not punctuate after it. Then write the body
of your letter as illustrated here, with no indentation at the beginning of paragraphs. Skip
lines between paragraphs.
If you are using letterhead that already provides your address, begin with the date. After
writing the body of the letter, type the complimentary closure without punctuation, leave
4 blank lines, then type your name and title (if applicable), all flush left. Sign the letter in
53
the blank space above your typed name. Note that open punctuation is usually used with
the fully blocked layout. This means that no punctuation marks are necessary in the
reference, date, inside address, salutation and closing section. However, essential
punctuation to ensure grammatical sense must be used within the main body of the
message itself.
Complimentary closure
Your Signature
Your Name
Your Official Designation
6.2.4 Principal Parts of a Business Letter

Whatever their use all business letters have common features that are also referred to
as principal parts. The principal parts of a business letter are:
• the letterhead
• the date
• confidential headings
• the inside name and address
• attention lines
• the salutation
• the message/body of the letter
• the complimentary close
• the writer’s signature and official position
1. The letterhead
This is the printed note/typing paper that should, by regulation, be used by all limited
liability companies, and should include the following information at the top:
• The company logo or trademark.
• The full name, physical and postal addresses of the company. This is the return
address and is therefore important for future correspondence.
54
• The board of directors and the place of registration.

• The telephone, telegraphic (fax) numbers and email address. Including these
allows the recipient to contact the sender by alternative means particularly if an
immediate or personal response is required.
• A statement of the kind of business the company is involved in if this is not clear
from its name (optional).
• A ruled line that shows that it is a letterhead.
The letterhead should always be used in all business correspondence through letters not
only to authenticate the letters, but also because it expresses the firm’s personality. The
letterhead also saves time by taking away the need to type the details on every letter.
Some firms prefer to print the logo, name and address of their organisation at the head
of the page and all the other information at the foot of the page. This is an attractive style
and it avoids clustering information in one place. However, in cases where it is not
available in its complete form it would be sufficient to provide the return address. Recall
that a business letter by definition is a means of communication between two
companies, therefore continuing communication through the letter can only be if the
return address is supplied. It is important to make sure that the address is correctly
written and complete including postal codes. When writing a letter as a private individual
it is sufficient to only provide your address at the top of the letter.
2. References
These enable replies to be linked to previous correspondence. In a reply the
correspondent’s reference should be quoted if he has used one. Many letterheads
provide spaces for typing references denoted by:
Our ref:
Your ref:
If this is not the case, the best to place references is above the date, or at the left-hand
margin, in line with date.
• References of ten consist of the writer’s initials in upper cases followed by those
of the typist in lower cases. For example, TRC / fg.
• In large firms letters and figures are sometimes used to identify the department
or section from which the letter is sent. For example, Dpt A / 32.
55
• In other cases references are designed to refer to the company’s filing system.
For example, TRC / fg / 203. In this example, the reference is given in the order
of writer’s initials, typist’s initials, folder number.
• The reference can be typed as a heading after the salutation as shown in the
following example.
Dear Madam
Your Pension Ref: 201/4507
3. The date
The date helps to track correspondence over a period of time and allows both parties to
put letters in order. The date is typed after the letterhead or address, and should always
be typed in full, in the order of day, month, year. As an example:
3 September 2004.
Avoid giving the date in figures, as this can be very confusing. Giving the above date as
3/9/04 can be erroneously read as 9 March 2004 in some parts of the world where it is
usual practice to give the date in the order of month, day, year. The word date must not
be included.
4. Confidential Headings
If the letter is confidential and should only be read by the person to whom it is addressed
then it is essential to put a “PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL” heading above the
recipient’s name and address. The confidential heading must be also marked on the
envelope or visible through a window on the envelope.
PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL

Mrs Agnes Dube
The Marketing Officer
Beauty and Elegance Ltd
Main Street
Bulawayo
56
5. Attention Lines
The use of attention lines is not generally recommended and must be used only when
necessary. They are used when the letter is addressed to a particular member of the
organisation who will be dealing with the writer directly. The phrase “For the attention
of…” is inserted between the date and inside address. Like subject lines they must be
underlined.
FOR THE ATTENTION OF MRS AGNES DUBE, MARKETING OFFICER

Main Street
Bulawayo
6. The Inside Name and Address

This is the name and address of one’s correspondent (the recipient to whom the letter is
written). It follows the date and is usually placed on the left of the typing paper. If
possible, and where the correspondent is known address him/her personally by name
and official title. This is especially important in building a relationship with the
correspondent. Always take care to spell names correctly and address people in the way
they sign themselves! As an example,
Mrs Agnes Dube

The Marketing Officer
Main Street
Bulawayo
Note that,
• If she signs herself as Mrs A Dube, address her that way not as Mrs Agnes Dube.
Always address people the ways they sign themselves.
• Courtesy titles such as Mr., Mrs., Ms, Dr, Prof. The Rev., Sir, and Col. are examples
of titles used to address correspondents. It is also important to make sure that you
use the appropriate title.
57
• When addressing a woman where it is not known wether she is married or single,
use Ms.
• When writing letters to other countries, always include the name of your country. This
is important because some towns in different countries share the same name.
• If postal codes or post numbers form part of the address, they should always be
included (also on envelopes) to speed up delivery.
7. The Salutation
This is a formal opening of the letter. It is phrase that serves as a greeting. The
salutation, Dear Sir has been used customarily, but others like Dear Madam, Dear Mrs
Dube, Dear Agnes or Dear Sirs are used where appropriate. Dear Madam is used for
both single and married women. Dear Sirs is used for partnerships. When the gender of
the correspondent is not known it is recommended to use Dear Sir, however Dear Sir or
Madam is now increasingly being used.
If the recipient’s name has been used in the inside name and address, it is usual to use
a personal salutation such as Dear Mrs Dube or Dear Agnes.
8. Subject Line
This is a summary of the body of the letter; it helps to ensure that the letter is passed to
the right person without delay. It should be one sentence, and is typed immediately
below the salutation. Subject lines must always be underlined.
Dear Sir
Downgrading of Low Usage Raw Materials
9. The Message
This is the body of the letter and is the message you wish to communicate. It is
important to determine your purpose and the best way of achieving you aim. Always
endeavor to keep your sentences and paragraphs short, start a new paragraph when
you wish to stress a new point. Short sentences and paragraphs are easy to read and
understand. In any case you do not want to annoy your correspondent with long winding
sentences and unnecessary remarks, especially when making a request.
58
Some letters are short and may consist of a single paragraph. Most consist of an
introductory paragraph, the middle section, the closing paragraph and a closing line.
a) Introductory Paragraph
The first paragraph is an introduction or a reference to a previous letter if there was
previous correspondence. The main aim in the opening paragraph is to establish a
background and to give the reasons for the letter. The opening paragraph is generally an
expansion of the subject heading and it must clarify why you are writing and encourage
the reader to continue reading. Put simply, this paragraph may:
1. acknowledge previous correspondence,
2. refer to a previous meeting or contact, or
3. provide an introduction to the matter being discussed.
b) Middle Section
This section gives all the information that the recipient needs to know. This is the main
part of the letter and gives more specific detail on the subject matter you have
established in the opening paragraph. The middle section can consist of a single
paragraph or more depending on the subject matter and the amount of detail required. It
is recommended to draft the letter before finalizing it so that important details are not left
out and unnecessary information is not included.
c) Closing Paragraph
The closing paragraph summaries, and draws together facts given in previous
paragraphs. It refers to future action, give direction on the course of action to be taken,
or requests information from the reader.
d) Closing Line
This is a simple closing sentence to conclude the message. A closing line must be
relevant to the content of the message. Examples of closing lines are:
I look forward to speedy response to this letter.
Please let me know if you need any further information.
59
10. The Complimentary Closure

This is like a salutation and is a polite way of closing the letter. It must be consistent with
the salutation and its form is dictated by the relationship between the two parties. The
following are salutations and closures used in business letters:
• For Dear Sir, or Dear Madam, Yours faithfully would be a suitable closure. This
is a formal closure and is used as standard practice when the parties do not
know each other.
• For Dear Mr Frank, Yours sincerely would be suitable. This is an informal
closure used when correspondents know each other or where there is a desire to
do away with formality.
11. Signature, Title and Official Position of Writer

It is important to sign your letters by hand as this gives a personal touch to the letter.
The signature used must be the same always, and it must not carry a title. Since most
signatures are eligible, it is a good practice to always type the name of the signer below
it. The courtesy title is included in brackets after the name, in the same line. It is usual
that the courtesy title is not included if the writer is male. The official position must be
typed below the name and title. In cases where there are any people with the same
official position in the same company, it is better to include the department as shown in
following example.
Signature
D Davis (Mrs)
Supervisor, Stores and Dispatch
Business letters are signed in many different ways:

1. An official can sign for his company.
2. An employee with special authority can sign on behalf of an official. The signature of
such an employee is accompanied by “pp” (per procurationem).
3. A private secretary can sign on behalf of his/her boss. In such a case the letters “pp”
must be included before or after the signature.
60
Yours faithfully
Signature of secretary
for D Davis (Mrs)
Supervisor, Stores and Dispatch
12. Enclosures
When any document is included in the envelope with the letter, always show this by the
word “Enclosure”. To do this either affix a red adhesive “Enclosure” label at the top or
bottom left–hand side of the letter, or type the word Enclosure , Encl or Enc(s) at the foot
of the letter.
13. Copy
When the letter is copied to other people it is always appropriate to notify the recipient
about this. This is done by typing the letters “c.c” or the word “copy” followed by the
names of the people to whom the letter has been copied. The letters “c.c” mean carbon
copy, copy circulated or courtesy copy. In all cases they indicate that the letter has been
copied to other people.
c.c M Mikes, General Manager

J Johns, Technical Director
14. Reply Envelopes

A self addressed, stamped envelope is necessary when the correspondent has
requested one, or when you seek information as a favour. The reply envelope reduces
the burden of expense on the correspondent; it does not guarantee a reply.
15. Addressing Envelopes

The important requirements when addressing an envelope are accuracy, legibility and
good appearance. Accuracy and legibility are particularly important in ensuring that the
letter gets to the intended recipient. Good appearance is important for a good
impression.
When addressing envelopes the following general guidelines can be followed:
61
1. Type the first line about half way down the envelope. This gives enough space to
affix postage stamps.
2. Ensure that you type your correspondent’s name correctly, the way he uses it.
3. Never abbreviate words such as road, street, or avenue as this may cause
confusion to those responsible for delivering your letter.
4. Always include the name of the town, name of the country and the postal code to
facilitate sorting.
5. For confidential letters the words “PRIVATE AND CONFIDENTIAL” must be
typed at the bottom left-hand corner if necessary.
6.2.5 Specific Business Letters

In business letters are written for the following reasons:
• to inform or to seek information,
• to propose ideas, and
• to persuade others to take specific action.
Therefore there are two categories in which business letters fall, namely informative
letters and persuasive letters.
Before considering each category in detail, four general steps that can be followed when
writing any business letter are given below.
• Identify your reader and consider how to keep your reader’s attention.
• Determine the purpose and scope of your letter.
• Organise and draft your letter. In your writing make sure you get to the point as
quickly as possible and present your information clearly.
• Review and revise your letter. This is important in ensuring accuracy in grammar,
punctuation, facts, and spelling. Any inaccuracy can undermine your credibility.
6.2.6 Informative Letters

These letters are written when informing, and/ or seeking information. Several letters fall
into this category, and these include:
• Request letters
• Reply letters, or quotation letters
• Purchase order letters
• Letters of acknowledgment
62
• Confirmation letters
• Letters of complaint
• Adjustment letters
The sections that follow closely examine each type of letter and suggest an outline for
each letter, with an example given. The examples are based on purchasing of
typewriters and it should be noted that these letters can be written in other situations that
do not involve purchasing.
1. Request Letters
These letters also referred to as letters of enquiry inform the reader of your need. It is
important to write clearly and to include all details about what you want. The letter must
be brief, courteous and suggest a course of action in a polite manner.
Paragraph one
• The first paragraph must establish a positive business relationship, state the
purpose of the letter, and it can begin with any of the following statements:
Please send us details of…
I should like to inquire about…
With reference to you advertisement in …dated …I would like to inquire…
Paragraph two
• In paragraph two state the specific details of what is wanted. For example
prices, colours, sizes, durability, discounts, payment terms, etc. The objective
is to state as much as possible about the desired product so that appropriate
and useful information is supplied in the reply.
• Provide reasons for making your request.
• Ask for a booklet, brochure, catalogue, handbook, manual, or price list.
Paragraph three
• Paragraph three must contain a polite ending that reinforces a positive
relationship. This can be a single sentence.
63
Example of a Letter of Enquiry

Company letterhead (Leona
(Leona Trading)
Our ref: TC/mk/1

Your ref:
24 September 200-
Typmast machine services

P.O Box xt9
Bulawayo
Dear Sirs
Enquiry about Zernexy Bxs32 Portable Typewriters
I write to you to inquire about your stocks of Zernexy Bxs32 portable typewriters.
My company requires 10 state of the art Zernexy Bxs32 portable typewriters for resale at
our retail outlet. Therefore, we would like to know your prices of these portable
typewriters, which should also include packing and delivery charges. I would appreciate
it if you send me a catalogue. Please also furnish us with your terms of payment and
trade and/or quantity discounts.
I look forward to hearing from you at your earliest convenience.
Yours faithfully
trRo
T R Robbinns
Stores Manager
64
2. Letter of Quotation or Reply to an Enquiry

This is a very important letter since it is written to a potential customer. The basic
requirement when writing a reply is to provide the details that were requested. However,
it always establishes you as a helpful business associate if you provide additional
information that might interest your reader.
Paragraph one
• Reference should be made to the letter received and its date.
• Always express appreciation for the interest shown through the inquiry, this is
important in establishing a positive business relationship.
Paragraph two
• Details of the required information must be given in this paragraph. The actual
quotation tabulated in a clear and neat (usually at the centre of the page) format.
Itemise essential items so that the correspondent does not miss them when
going through your reply.
• Mention packing, delivery charges and discounts if there are any.
• Include any promotional message, and additional information that may be of
interest to your potential customer.
Paragraph three
• Paragraph three is a polite ending.
Example of a Quotation Letter
Company letterhead (Typmast machine services)
Our ref: DS/bg/1

Your ref: TC/mk/1
29 September 200-
The Stores Manager

Leona Trading
65
P.O Box xt221

Bulawayo
Dear Sir
Quotation Number QT2450
Thank your for your letter inquiring about our stocks of Zernexy Bxs32 portable
typewriters dated 24 September 200-. Enclosed is the catalogue you requested.
We are pleased to quote as follows:
ITEM PRICE/$ QUANTITY TOTAL COST/$

Zernexy Bxs32 225.00 ea 10 units 2250.00
The prices in our quotation include packing charges. Packaging and delivery is free. We
offer 10% cash discounts and 2% trade discounts. Credits are available on payment of
30% deposit with interest being charged at 5% of the outstanding monthly balance.
We hope that you will find these terms satisfactory and look forward to working with you
in the near future.
Yours faithfully
tHecttors
D tHecttorsT
orsT
D Hecttors
Sales Manager
Encl product catalogue
66
3. Purchase Order Letter

In this letter a company or individual places an order. At this stage it can be assumed
that a positive business relationship already exists. Orders must be accurate and
complete, take care to avoid mistakes. Ensure that all the necessary details such as
quantity, colour, model, sizes, delivery requirements or payment arrangements are
included. All these should be clearly written in one letter to avoid confusion in fulfilling
the order.
Paragraph one
• Reference is made to the letter of quotation and its date. The terms are
accepted.
Paragraph two
• In this paragraph details of the order which include quantity, size, colours and
brand names are stated in a tabulated format.
• State when delivery is required, and payments arrangements.
Paragraph three
• Polite ending.
Example of a Purchase Order Letter

Company letterhead (Leona Trading)
Our ref: TC/mk/1

Your ref: DS/bg/1
2 October 200-
Mr D Hecttors
The Sales Manager
P.O Box xt90
Bulawayo
67
Dear Mr Hecttors
Order Number 3020/10
Thank you for your quotation letter dated 29 September 200-. We find your terms
satisfactory and so would like to place an order for 10 Zernexy Bxs32 portable
typewrites.
I will arrange for a cash payment on delivery. The typewriters are urgently and we would
appreciate it if you can arrange for an immediate delivery. Please note that all deliveries
are taken at our main street warehouse.
We look forward to receiving the order within the next few days and to a mutually
satisfying business relationship.
Yours sincerely
trRo
T. R Robbinns
Stores Manager
4. Letter of Acknowledgement
An order must be acknowledged immediately if it cannot be fulfilled right away. This
letter is a response to an order letter and it must state when the buyer should expect the
order to arrive. Any special concerns that may affect the successful completion of the
order should be mentioned completely. This is critical in maintaining the business
relationship since it also establishes you as an honest business person. Clarification and
explanations can be sought from the buyer, this enable business to be conducted
efficiently.
Paragraph one
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• Reference should be made to the order.

• Thank the customer for placing an order with you.
Paragraph two
• Respond to the details of the order.
• Verify the receipt of the order.
• Ensure that any special concerns such delays, stock-outs, or price changes that
can affect the successful completion of the order are well communicated here.
Paragraph three
• Thank your customer again.
• Reinforce the already existing business relationship.
Example of a Letter of Acknowledgement

Our ref: DS/bg/1

Your ref: TC/mk/1
6 October 200-
Mr T R Robbinns
The Stores Manager
Leona Trading
P.O Box xt221
Bulawayo
Dear Mr T R Robbinns
Your Order Number 3020/10
We would like to inform you that we have received your order. We thank you for placing
an order with us. We are here to supply you with most up to date typewriters,
69
Your order has been processed, and we are happy to inform that it will be delivered
within the next five days. The typewriters will be supplied at the prices and on the terms
stated.
We hope that you will be satisfied with our products. Thank you once more for you order.
Yours sincerely
tHecttorsT
D tHecttorsT
D Hecttors
Sales Manager
5. Covering Letter
It is not usual to send a covering letter with the goods, but if a letter is sent it must be
brief and formal as shown in the following example. Documents that are normally sent
with the goods include dispatch notes, invoices, delivery notes and consignment notes.
The dispatch note informs the buyer that the goods are on the ways and enables a
check to be made when they arrive. An invoice is either sent with the goods or
separately in advance or after delivery has been made. The invoice is a record of the
transition and shows in detail the goods supplied, prices, quantities, discounts and total
amount invoiced. It enables payment to be made. It must be checked for accuracy
before any payments are made. A delivery note must be signed by the customer as
evidence that the goods have been delivered. It is produced in duplicate, one copy is
kept by the customer and the other is retained by the carrier. A consignment note is
completed and handed to the carrier as a contract of carriage. When the goods are
delivered to the customer the consignment note must be signed as proof of delivery.
70
Example of a Covering Letter

Our ref: DS/bg/1

Your ref: TC/mk/1
9 October 200-
Leona Trading
P.O Box xt221
Bulawayo
Dear Sirs
Your Order 3020/10
We enclose our invoice number 7290/M10 for typewriters supplied according to your
order dated 2 October 200-.
The goods have been packed in ten boxes and sent to you today by road. We hope they
will reach you promptly and in good condition.
If you pay cash on delivery we will allow you to deduct the 10% cash discount on the
total amount due.
Yours faithfully
tHecttorsT
D tHecttorsT
D Hecttors
Sales Manager
71
6. Letter of Complaint
This is letter is written when a particular business arrangement has not occurred as
previously planned and agreed or when goods supplied are damaged or do not meet
specified requirements. Complaints are written in the following situations:
1. When wrong goods have been supplied.
2. When the wrong quantity has been supplied.
3. When poor quality goods have been supplied.
4. When delivery is late or when there are frequent late deliveries.
5. When packaging is bad.
6. When the goods are damaged
7. When there is incomplete work.
8. When service is poor.
The following points must be remembered when making a complaint:

1. Do not delay. Delaying weakens your position and makes it difficult for the
supplier to investigate the situation.
2. Do not assume that the supplier is wrong. Do your investigations first so as to
establish facts.
3. Be specific about the facts by giving the information about the who, what, when
and the where aspects of the complaint. Avoid being subjective or emotional in
your approach.
4. Explain the magnitude of the problem and how it affects you.
5. Use special or recorded delivery so that you can check that your letter has been
received.
Paragraph one
• Reference should be made to the items or service purchased. Say where and
when you bought the items and how much they cost.
• State clearly the reasons for your complaint or dissatisfaction.
Paragraph two
• Provide further details on the complaint. Explain what is wrong and make
reference to an order you placed or your specifications.
• State any action you have already taken.
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• If goods are damaged provide a full list of the affected goods

• Clearly state how this has inconvenienced or affected you.
Paragraph three
• State clearly the action you expect to be done to rectify the problem and when
you expect it.
Example of a Letter of Complaint

Company letterhead (Leona Trading)
Our ref: TC/mk/1

Your ref: DS/bg/1
10 October 200-

P.O Box xt90
Bulawayo
Dear Sirs
Faulty Typewriters Supplied on 9 October 200-
On 2 October 200- we ordered 10 Zernexy Bxs32 portable typewrites under our order
number 3020/10 which you supplied yesterday. On inspection and testing the typewriters
did not give us satisfaction and we have since suspended their sale.
Two of the typewriters, serial numbers, zbx32 001204 and zbx32 001208 have sticky
keys while the rest produce faint documents. We placed this order on the basis of your
assured quality. We already had confirmed orders for the typewriters and we are
therefore in no position to supply currently.
We therefore wish to return all the 10 typewriters. Please replace them immediately with
typewriters of good quality.
73
Please let us know what arrangements you wish us to make for the return of these
unsuitable typewriters.
Yours faithfully
trRo
T R Robbinns
Stores Manager
7. Reply to a Complaint
A reply to a complaint is also known as an adjustment letter. When replying a complaint
you either accept or reject the complaint. In the cases where the complaint needs to be
rejected you must show an understanding of the customer’s position and carefully
explain why rejection is necessary.
The following points must be noted when replying a complaint:
1. The response must not delay even if it is to inform the customer that the
complaint has been received and a position would be communicated after
investigations.
2. The response must be as a result of careful investigations of the facts or events
that make up the background of the complaint. Statements must be checked for
accuracy and validity.
3. The response must be proactive and not reactive. It must be viewed as an
opportunity to reestablish go relations with the complaining customer.
4. A record of the complaint, the response and the action taken must be made for
market research purposes and future decision making.
Example of a Reply Accepting the Complaint
74
Our ref: DS/bg/1

Your ref: TC/mk/1
13 October 200-
Mr T R Robbinns
Stores Manager
Leona Trading
P.O Box xt221
Bulawayo
Dear Mr Robbinns
Thank you for your letter dated 10 October 200- pointing out the problems on the
typewriters supplied to your order number 3020/10. This has caused us a good deal of
concern and we are glad that you brought the matter to our attention.
After our preliminary investigations we agree that the typewriters were not perfect. We
normally conduct quality inspections on all our products before they are shipped to our
customers. It is not immediately clear why these escaped our quality control system, but
let me assure you that investigations are underway. We have also tightened our quality
control system and rectified the problems that were causing those defects.
Please arrange to return all the typewriters. We shall reimburse the carriage cost in due
course. We have already arranged for 10 Zernexy Bxs32 portable typewriters to be
delivered to your warehouse.
We apologise for the inconvenience this has caused you.
Yours sincerely
75
tHecttorsT
D tHecttorsT
D Hecttors
Sales Manager
Example of a Reply Rejecting the Complaint

Our ref: DS/bg/1

Your ref: TC/mk/1
13 October 200-
Mr T R Robbinns
Stores Manager
Leona Trading
P.O Box xt221
Bulawayo
Dear Mr Robbinns
We are sorry to learn from your letter dated 10 October 200- of the difficulties you are
having with the typewriters supplied to your order number 3020/10.
We always conduct quality inspections on all our products before they are shipped to our
customers and we cannot understand why the ones supplied to you escaped our quality
control system. We sympathise with you problem but regret that we cannot accept your
suggestion to take back all the 10 typewriters. We will take back the two typewriters with
sticky keys but there is no need for us to take back the rest of the batch. The faint print is
due to a ribbon cartridge problem and we have arranged for these to be replaced
immediately at no cost.
76
We trust you will accept this as being a fair and reasonable solution to the matter.
Yours sincerely
tHecttorsT
D tHecttorsT
D Hecttors
Sales Manager
6.2.7 Persuasive Letters

These letters are written when there is need to persuade or convince others to take a
particular action. There are many situations where such letters are required and in
particular in marketing. Examples of letters that fall into this category include:
• Sales letters
• Collection letters
It is also important to note that complaint letters and adjustment letters may also have a
persuasive tone ad are sometimes classified under persuasive letters.
1. Sales Letters
A sales letter aims to sell particular kinds of goods or services to selected customers. It
is a selective way of advertising. The aim of the sales letter is to persuade readers to
buy what you are selling. A sales letter must:
1. Have a powerful heading.
2. Capture the reader’s attention from start to finish.
3. Clearly state the reasons why customers should consider doing business with
you.
4. Provide attractive purchasing options.
5. Have a follow up plan.
A good sales letter must be structured in a way that captures attention, arouses interest,
creates desire, carry conviction, and induce action.
77
a) Capturing Attention
Powerful headings and good layouts are effective ways of capturing attention. Before the
reader becomes interested in what you are saying you need to capture the reader’s
attention.
b) Arousing Interest
The opening paragraph of your letter must arouse interest and encourage the reader to
take notice of what you have to say. The best way is begin with a question, instruction or
quotation.
c) Creating Desire
Having aroused interest the nest step is to create desire for the product or service you
are selling. The best way is to point out the benefits to the reader. You must also give a
clear description of the product or service. Focus on those features that make it superior
to others.
d) Convincing the Reader

The letter must convince the reader that the product is what you claim it to be and it can
do what you claim. Supporting you claim by evidence goes a long way in convincing the
reader.
e) Inducing Action
This section of the letter must persuade the reader to take a particular action. This action
may be visiting your offices, placing an order, asking for a sample or quotation, or taking
to one of your representatives.
Example of a Sales Letter

Our ref: DS/bg/SL02

Your ref:
78
3 November 200-
Mr T R Robbinns
Stores Manager
Leona Trading
P.O Box xt221
Bulawayo
Dear Mr Robbinns
Reports from all the country confirm what we have always known – that our SW2 Electric
Portable Typewriters is the new definition of a typewriter.
You will be naturally be aware of the weaknesses of other typewriters - sticky keys, slow
processing speed, bulkiness, difficulties in making corrections, to mention a few main
complaints. Our SW2 Electric Portable Typewriter enables you to offer your customers a
typewriter which is beyond criticism in the vital areas of performance, serviceability, size
and reliability.
Built for excellence, convenience and reliability the SW2 Electric Portable Typewriter is a
product which critics say is ahead of its time. Manufactured and built on the latest
technology including nano technology, TX memory system and electric/solar powering
system the SW2 Electric Portable Typewriter is clearly a superb word processing
solution. The revolutionary in built TX memory system enables the typist to recall
previous typing up to a 100 keystrokes. This technology allows for editing and correction
of documents before print. A 10’ x 5 LCD screen is conveniently fitted to enable one to
see all typing being done.
We could tell you a lot more about the SW2 Electric Portable Typewriter but we would
prefer you to read the enclosed copies of reports from other dealers and end users. The
reports speak for themselves.
79
To encourage you to hold stock of the revolutionary SW2 Electric Portable Typewriter,
we are also pleased to offer you a special discount of 5% on any order received by 31
December 200-.
Yours sincerely
tHecttorsT
D tHecttorsT
D Hecttors
Sales Manager
Encls
Example of a Collection Letters

Our ref: DS/bg/10

Your ref: TC/mk/2
13 December 200-
Mr T R Robbinns
Stores Manager
Leona Trading
P.O Box xt221
Bulawayo
Dear Mr Robbinns
ACCOUNT NUMBER 203025
80
According to our records the above account dated 29 October 200- has not been settled.
The enclosed statement shows a balance owing of $2050.50.
We must remind you that unusually low prices were quoted to you on the understanding
of an early settlement.
We hope to receive an early settlement of this account.
Yours sincerely
tHecttorsT
D tHecttorsT
D Hecttors
Sales Manager
6.2.8 Circular Letters

These letters are used to send the same information to a number of people. They are
usually used in campaigns and in announcing important developments. Once prepared,
circular letters can then be duplicated for distribution to various recipients. Names,
addresses and individual salutations may be inserted after duplication in order to
personalise the letter.
Example of a Circular Letter
20 June 2008
……………………………………
…………………………………..
…………………………………..
Dear ……………………………
Change of Company Name
81
As part of our re-branding exercise that was started in May 2008, we are changing our
registered name from Typmast Machine Services to Typmast Business Machines.
This change will not affect the service you receive in any way, except that future direct
debits will be made to Typmast Business Machines instead of Typmast Machine
Services with immediate effect. The only change you will notice is the different name on
your bank statement for this direct debit.
Details of the name change have been sent to you bank. Your rights under the direct
debit are not affected, as detailed on the attached guarantee.
Yours sincerely
6.2.9 Standard Letters

Some companies have a file of standard letters in order to save time for writing the
letters. These letters may be used to write to a person when a particular situation arises.
For example a standard letter may be written for giving notice of a disciplinary hearing.
Standard letters are typed with gaps for writing the name and address of the recipient or
any other important information. When developing a standard letter it is important to
identify standard information. This is information that does not vary form one individual to
another.
Mail merge facilities in most word processing software allow each letter to links to a
database of information about the intended recipients. These facilities are also used in
circular letters.
6.2.10 Application Letters

Application letters should be typed unless an advertisement specifies that you must
apply in own handwriting. A well presented application letter will attract attention at once
and create a favourable first impression. A good application letter must capture the
82
attention of the reader, arouse interest in your qualification, and get you an interview and
eventually the job. The following points must be considered in writing applications:
• The purpose of the application letter is to get you an interview.
• The letter must be neatly presented so that it stands out amongst many others.
• Be brief and to the point. Give all relevant information in a few words.
• Do not make exaggerated claims or sound boastful, simply show a proper
appreciation of your abilities.
• Enclose copies of your curriculum vitae and certificates.
Example of an Application Letter
25 Close Corner Rd
Chingford
CH2389
20 May 200-
The Human Resources Manager

Martina Manufacturing
Main Street
Dear Sir
QUALITY ASSURANCE MANAGER
I am writing to inquire whether you have a vacancy in your company for a Quality
Assurance Manager. I enclose a copy of my curriculum vitae for your consideration.
As you will see from my curriculum vitae, I am currently working for Typmast Machine
Services as the Senior Quality Assurance Technician. In my present position I am
responsible for managing all quality assurance in Typmast Machine Services’ Main
Street factory. I have worked closely with the Production Department and have been
able to identify problems before they affected production deadlines.
83
Over the last year I have implemented ISO 9000 throughout our factory. This meant
rewriting many of the company's procedures and in some cases creating new
procedures. I successfully obtained accreditation at the first attempt within the Board's
six-month timescale.
With my proven ability to manage and maintain the highest Quality Assurance standards
whilst also minimising costs, I feel that I would be able to make a significant contribution
to your company's management team.
I would be grateful if you would contact me if you have any vacancies in your company,
or keep my information on file in case of future openings. I would welcome hearing from
you.
Yours faithfully
JAmes
AmesN
esN
Norley James
Encs
84
CURRICULUM VITAE
Mary Matrices
Personal Details Date of birth : 05 October 1984
Marital Status : Single

National ID No : 88-999000 R00
Drivers License No : 12345 ABC
Cell : +123 999 777 123
E-mail Address : matriscsm@matony.com
Home Address : 28 kalool Court, Main St
Personality Hardworking, Diligent, Assertive, Sociable, Honest and Confident.
Professional
Diploma in general nursing (2004)
Qualifications
Diploma in intensive and coronary care nursing (2006)
Academic GCE O level, Mathematics A, English Language A, History A, Science A

Qualifications
Employment History Industrial Nurse, Typmast Machine Services

• General health observation, psycho-social problems,
Duties • Treatment of minor illnesses and referral of major illnesses.
• Continuous health education.
• Monitoring of chronic diseases.
Computer Skills Windows OS, Excel, Word, PowerPoint
Hobbies Reading self-improvement books, Traveling and meeting new people
References
Typmast Machine Services
Tel: +123 569 123
85
6.3.0 Job Description

A job description makes it clear what the job is all about. It gives details of the duties and
responsibilities involved in a job, including any supervisory duties, specific authority and
any special features of the job.
Example of a Job Description
JOB DESCRIPTION
JOB TITLE Sales Representative

REPORTS TO Sales Manager
LOCATION Harare
MAIN PURPOSE To ensure the achievement of sales volumes
MAIN DUTIES AND RESPONSIBILITIES

• To develop new business by prospecting for new clients
• To develop and maintain profitable relationships with key account customers
• To gathering and reporting market information including competitor activity and
customer needs
• To achieve set sales targets
• To carry any other duties assigned and expected in a post of this level
SKILLS, EXPERIENCE AND QUALIFICATIONS

• Should have excellent written and oral communication skills
• Must be highly motivated, hardworking and result driven
• Highly computer literate, able to use Ms Excel productively
• Marketing Degree, HND in Marketing, or equivalent
• At least 2 years experience in a related field.
May 200-
86
6.4.0 The Memorandum

A memorandum (memo in short, and memoranda for plural) is a document typically used
for communication within a company. Memos can be as formal as a business letter and
used to present a report. A memo must short and to the point, and must be used to
communicate a single idea or point. If you have two points to communicate write two
memos. A memo is an effective way of quickly communicating an idea to an individual or
group of people within an organisation. It also has an advantage of providing a
permanent record of what has been communicated.
A memo is not a letter and a letter is not a memo. The heading, structure and overall
tone make a memo different from a business letter. A memo is sent to co-workers and
colleagues and therefore does not require addresses, a formal salutation, a closing
remark, or a complementary closure.
6.4.1 Purpose of a Memo

Usually you write memos to inform readers of specific information. You might also write
a memo to persuade others to take action, give feedback on an issue, or react to a
situation. However, most memos communicate basic information, such as meeting times
or due dates. More precisely, a memo is written for the following purposes:
• To give instructions.
• To give directions about a particular procedure or policy.
• To remind individuals of issues previously discussed or agreed upon.
• To inform employees of developments.
• To initiate action or persuade others.
6.4.2 Important Parts of a Memo

Regardless of your purpose, memos generally consist of the following principal parts:
1. Heading
A memo's heading provides information about who will receive the memo, who is
sending the memo, the date, and the memo's subject. This information may be bolded or
highlighted in some way. The heading segment of the memo follows this general format:
TO: (readers' names and job titles)
87
CC: (any people you are copying the memo to)
FROM: (writer’s name and job title)
DATE: (complete and current date)
SUBJECT: (what the memo is about, highlighted in some way)
a) To and From Heading

These serve the same purposes as the sender’s and the recipient’s name and address
in a letter. Since the memo is for internal communication there is no need to include
addresses. It is only essential to provide the name of the recipient and that of the writer,
and the positions within the organisation.
Memos are often sent to a number of people, in which case the “To” heading may have
a number of names against it. Also, the memo can be copied to other people for their
information. The names of those copied must be listed against “c.c” which is normally
placed immediately after the “To” section of the heading.
b) Date
As with letter the date is important in that it makes the sequence of correspondence
clear.
c) Reference
This is usually written in short as Ref. The reference can be the initials of the writer, filing
code, invoice number or anything that the writer wants to link to the memo.
d) Subject Heading
This is a brief heading which states what the memo is all about. A god subject heading
must make the topic clear immediately. This adds to the efficiency of the communication.
2. Body or Content
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Generally, the purpose of the memo must be clearly stated at the beginning of the memo
and required action must be requested at the end. The gist of a memo should occur in
the opening sentences/paragraphs. It is a good idea to include some information about
the context, a task statement and perhaps a purpose statement in the first paragraph.
The context is the event, circumstance, or background of the problem you are solving or
the directive you are giving. The task statement describes what you are doing to deal
with a situation. The purpose statement gives your reason for writing the memo and
forecasts what is in the rest of the memo. You must come right out and tell your reader
the kind of information that is in store.
The second and subsequent paragraphs must give the details that support the ideas
being put forward. This is referred as the discussion section of the memo. In your
discussion, begin with the most information. This may mean that you will start with key
findings or recommendations. For easy reading, put important points or details into lists
rather than paragraphs when possible.
It may be necessary to include a summary section before the discussion section

depending on the type of the memo, its length and its content. This section provides a
brief statement of the key recommendations, which helps the reader understand the key
points of the memo immediately. This section may also include references to methods
and sources you have used in your research, but remember to keep it brief.
Provide a closing statement in your memo. The closing statement must be a courteous
ending stating the action the reader must take.
6.4.3 Attachments
Detailed information can be provided by attaching lists, graphs, tables, etc. at the end of
your memo. Attachments must be referred to in the memo and a notation about what is
attached must be added below the closing statement. As an example:
Attached: Product Performance Report, June 200-
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6.4.4 Tone of a Memo

Since memos are sent to those working within the same company, the tone used can be
a more informal tone than the one used when writing a business letter. For example, you
might refer to your colleagues by their first names or use humor. However, always keep
in mind that you still need to be professional.
6.4.5 Length of a Memo

Memos are generally short, concise documents. However, longer memos can be written,
depending on your topic. For example, a memo might present the new guidelines for a
specific office task. Obviously, if there are a lot of guidelines, the memo will be more
than a page. Some memos might even introduce a short report. In this case, the report
might be included in the memo, or the memo might be a separate document, introducing
the report.
6.4.6 Persuasive Memorandum

A persuasive memo seeks to persuade or convince others to take a specific action. An
example of this type of memo is shown below.
Example of a Persuasive Memo
MEMORANDUM
TO: All Sales Personnel
CC: M Martinns, Marketing Director
FROM: T R Robbins, Sales Manager
DATE: June 1, 200-
SUBJECT: Need for New Memo Format
I’ve noticed that we don’t seem to be able to communicate important changes,

requirements and progress reports throughout the company as effectively as we should.
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I propose developing one consistent memo format, recognizable by all staff as the
official means of communicating company directives.
While I know this seems like a simple solution, I believe it will cut down on needless e-
mail, improve universal communication and allow the staff to save necessary information
for later referral.
Please talk among yourselves to determine the proper points of memo writing and return
the input to me by 12 noon. I will then send out a notice to the entire staff regarding the
new memo format.
Thank you for your prompt attention to this.
6.4.7 Directive Memorandum

A directive memo states a policy or procedure you want the reader or co-worker to
follow. The length of the memo depends on how much space is required to properly
explain the procedure. The body of the memo should begin with a clear, concise
sentence that states the purpose of the memo. For example:
"The purpose of this memo is to let all members of the Sales department know that sales
meeting will be held every Friday morning at 8 a.m."
You then provide statements that explain the rationale for such a decision or procedure.
Example of a Directive Memo
MEMORANDUM
TO: All Sales Personnel
CC: M Martinns, Marketing Director; T Geralz, Managing Director
FROM: T R Robbins, Sales Manager
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DATE: June 2, 200-
SUBJECT: New Memo Format
In order to make interoffice communications easier, please adhere to the following

guidelines for writing effective memos:
• Clearly state the purpose of the memo in the subject line and in the first paragraph.
• Keep language professional, simple and polite.
• Use short sentences.
• Use bullets if a lot of information is conveyed.
• Proofread before sending.
• Address the memo to the person(s) who will take action on the subject, and CC
those who need to know about the action.
• Attach additional information: don’t place it in the body of the memo if possible.
• Please put this format into practice immediately. We appreciate your assistance in
developing clear communications.
If you have any questions, please don’t hesitate to call me. Thank you.
6.5.0 E-Mail
In many organisation employees can communicate with each other through an internal
network of computers. Further more individual from one organisation can communicate
with those in other by sending message via the internet. These messages are sent
through electronic mail (e-mail). E-mail communication has become popular because of
the following advantages:
1. It is fast
2. It is cheap
3. It enables easy copying of the same message to others
4. The message can be sent to individuals anywhere around the world
5. It easy to distribute reports and other documents as attachments
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However, for one to get the response they want from the recipient the e-mail must be
effective. In other words it must be written in a presentable way that captures attention,
and gets the sender the response he or she wants.
In order to communicate effectively through e-mail the following guidelines must be

considered:
1. Establish if the e-mail is the best way of communicating the message. For
example, disciplinary issues a better communicated face to face.
2. Identify the proper recipients of the e-mail. By doing so you avoid overloading
others with information that is not relevant to them. Receiving e-mails that re
irrelevant can be time wasting and counter productive.
3. The recipients’ e-mail addresses must be specified in the “To” line separated by
a semi colon. The computer inserts the details of the sender and the date
automatically.
4. The e-mail addresses of those copied for information must be inserted in the Cc
line. The Bcc line is rarely used except when the sender does not want the other
recipients to know who the message has been copied to.
5. Appropriate subject lines must be used. Subject lines must capture attention and
tell the reader what the email is all about. Subject lines must be concise and
must quickly tell the recipient what the e-mail is all about. A proper subject line
will increase the chances of the email being read and not being mistaken for
spam. The subject line must be written in the space provided for the subject.
6. There is no set rule for using a salutation such as “Dear Sir” or “Dear Mr
Robbins” as the opening line for the message. If a salutation is included then a
formal closure such as “Yours sincerely” must be included. Most e-mails are
signed off with a closing term such as “Regards” or “Kind Regards”.
7. Communicate a single subject in one email. If you need to communicate different
things to the same individual, do it through separate e-mails for each subject.
Doing so enables the recipient to respond to each e-mail properly and give each
matter the attention it deserves.
8. If the e-mail has several points that relate to the subject under discussion,
present the point separately. This enable the reader to addressed each of the
points in the e-mail.
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9. The response or action required, such as a phone or meeting, must be specified

in the closing section of the e-mail.
10. Contact information, such as telephone numbers, alternative e-mails, and the
name and title of the sender must be included at the end. This enables the
recipient to respond using other means and must be done with all e-mail whether
internal or external.
11. An e-mail can use a formal or informal tone. However, in both cases it must be
professional because a poorly constructed e-mail can create a bad impression.
12. Individuals must go through their inbox regularly, and respond appropriately and
timely to e-mails.
13. If attachments are included, it must be sated in the e-mail and the necessary
details for opening or accessing those attachments given.
Example of an E-mail
TO: d.hecttors@leonatrade.com
CC: martinnsm@typmast.com
BCC:
SUBJECT: Checking on SW2 Electric Portable Typewriters Quotation
Dear Dan,
I just wanted to check that you have received the quotation I emailed to you last week. I
haven't heard back and wanted to make sure it went through.
Can you please call me by Thursday so we can discuss? This is when our discount offer
expires, and I want to make sure you don't miss it.
The quickest way to contact me is by cell phone.
Regards
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T R Robbins, Sales Manager

0123 9 4335 (office)
0123 456 789 (cell)
6.6.0 Forms and Questionnaires

Forms are used to gather information in a standard way. Using forms makes the
collection and organisation of standard information quicker and more efficient. In
business forms are used widely and as such there are a number of different types
including routine forms, report forms, applications forms, and questionnaires. For them
to be effective, forms must be clear about the information required, have an attractive
layout, and have enough space for filling in answers.
Advantages of forms
1. They make the collection of standard information from a large number of people
easy.
2. They ensure that important issues are not overlooked and unnecessary
information is not included.
3. They ensure that information is presented in an identical format which makes
processing and filing easy.
Disadvantages of forms
1. They can appear impersonal.
2. They do not allow individual expressions.
3. They may be confusing and time consuming to complete.
6.6.1 Designing a Form

Forms must be designed carefully for them to engage the interest, attention and
cooperation of the individual completing the form. Poorly designed forms may result in
the wrong information being given. The following must be considered when designing a
form:
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1. Define the purpose of the form clearly. A well defined purpose enables you to
identify the information required which in turn help in the structuring of the
questions.
2. Give directions for completing the form by giving specific instructions.
3. Define any unfamiliar terms and words.
4. Keep question simple and unambiguous.
5. Provide enough space for filling in answers.
6. Make provisions for processing or filing of the form for example by providing a
“For Office Use Only” section.
Example of a Form
Goal:
Purpose of this Goal:
Action Step: Timeline:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Resources Required:
Goal Completion Date:
6.6.2 Questionnaires
Questionnaires are forms used to get people’s opinions about things. They are widely
used in research. They consist of a series of questions, usually with optional responses
provided. Questionnaires can be short or very long consisting of several pages. It is
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important to start the questionnaires with a polite request asking people to complete the
questionnaire and end with a statement thanking them for doing so. A brief explanation
of the reasons for gathering the information must be provided at the beginning. The
questions must be structured carefully and appropriate options given to allow quick
completion. An example of questionnaire is shown in the appendices section.
6.6.3 Routine Business Forms

Many forms are used for recording routine events in a company. They are usually short,
and include no unnecessary information. An example of the most common sort is the
telephone message form. It is easy to complete and also easy to read when completed.
Example of a Telephone Message Form
TELEPHONE MESSAGE
For the attention of: ………………………………………………………
Caller details:
Name: ………………………………………………………………………..
Organisation: ………………………………………………………………..
Tel: ……………………………………………………………………………
Message/Action:
Caller will call back later
Please call him/her back
No action required
Message taken by: …………………………………………………………

Date and time of message: ……………………………………………….
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6.6.4 Report Forms

These are forms on which an occurrence of a routine nature is reported. Some forms of
this kind, such as accident report forms, are legal obligations. Clarity of design and
layout is, therefore, very important. These forms must be straightforward in order to
secure all relevant information.
The form maybe separated into sections to allow for the presentation of the information
in a very clear, precise way, and the distribution of space to allow for full, yet concise,
answers to be given to questions about the cause and nature of the accident or incident.
Example of an Accident Report Form
ACCIDENT REPORT FORM
Please complete and return to the Health and Safety Officer as soon as possible after
the accident
1. Name of person involved/ injured:

…………………………………………………………
2. Date and time of accident:

…………………………/………/………at…………….am/pm*
3. Names of witnesses of accident:

1: ……………………………………………… 2: ………………………………………………
4. Describe how the accident happened:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
5. What, in your opinion, was the cause of the accident?
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………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………...
6. What immediate action was taken to aid the injured? Please be as specific as
possible. If drugs were administered, say which.
7. Other relevant information, e.g. action needed immediately to prevent accident

occurring again.
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
8. Signature: ……………………………….Date/time: …../…./…..at ………….am/pm*
*Delete where not applicable
6.6.5 Application Forms

You will probably be all too familiar with application forms for jobs, as these are the most
common kinds of application forms which we all have to fill in. However, there are many
other kinds of form which have a similar purpose. They include public forms, such as
applications for driving licenses, passport applications, loan applications, credit cards
and other financial arrangements, and countless other similar kinds of form.
6.7.0 Notices
Notices are written to provide a large number of people the same information. They are
usually posted on notice boards or published in newspapers. They must be designed in
a way that captures the attention of the intended recipients. The following points must be
considered when designing a notice:
1. The message must be presented in simple and direct vocabulary.
2. A clear heading must be provided. The heading must capture the attention of an
onlooker.
3. Information must be laid out properly avoiding clutter so that it can be easily read.
4. Highlight important words or phrases using capitals, underling, bolding, italics, or
a different colour.
5. Use illustrations where appropriate to convey ideas.
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6. Display the notice properly on a notice board that is accessible to all relevant
people.
Example of a Safety Notice
Safety First
IN THIS AREA WEAR:
A HARD HAT,
EAR PLUGS,
AND A DUST MASK
BE SAFE BE SAFE BE SAFE BE SAFE BE SAFE BE SAFE
6.8.0 Press Releases

A press release provides an opportunity for the company itself to issue information which
a newspaper or other media may develop for public issue. Press releases are a good
way of publicising information such as:
• Relocation of business
• Expansion of business
• Introduction of new products
• Changes in top management
For a press release to be considered newsworthy it must have a broad general human
interest or a special journalistic angle making it appear striking and unusual. A major
advantage of a press release is that it allows the writer to present the story as he or she
wants it.
A press release must have the following:

1. Date of release. This can be a simple date at the top of the draft or a statement
such as “For immediate release” of “Not for release before 20 June 200-“.
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2. Contact details. Contact details of one or two people within the organisation must
be provided in case the reporter wants to visit the company and verify some
details or for further information on the copy.
Example of a Press Release
PRESS RELEASE
20 JUNE 200-
PUBLICATION DATE: FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE
TYPMAST INTRODUCES ONLINE CLIENT PORTAL
Typmast Machines Services officially revealed its redesigned client portal website at
www.typmast.net. This website allows customers to update vital information and remain
current while also providing an extra layer of security that keeps access and information
under control.
Gerlad Doment, Director of Administrative Services for Typmast Machines Services,

says, “It’s always exciting to provide new technology for our customers. The many new
features encompassed in http://www.typmast.net make it so much easier for customers
to maintain and update their account information with us. Purchases and a host of other
transactions are enabled online.” Gerlad has been with the company for fifteen years
and helps to set up customer accounts and maintain those accounts.
Typmast Machines Services, established in December of 1980, specializes in office

machinery. For nearly thirty years now, Typmast has been providing office automation
solution to customers across the globe.
CONTACT: Guigo Domingo, Public Relations Officer, Typmast Machine Services

Telephone: 01203 55546 45
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6.9.0 Advertisements
For organisations to create awareness, attract customers, attract the right personnel or
to be competitive they must advertise. Advertisements must be prepared in a way that
captures the attention of the public. Most organisations engage the service of advertising
agencies to develop their advertisements. However an organisation may develop their
routine advertisements such as classified advertisements, vacant jobs advertisements or
public announcements internally.
Classified advertisements are printed in columns under headings such as “Situations

Wanted”, “Business for Sale” or “Tuition Offered”. These adverts have no special layout
or large headings; the advertiser relies on the general column heading to draw the
attention of those interested.
Public announcements and vacant jobs adverts have a special layout and should have a
large heading to attract the attention of the public.
Example of a Job Advertisement
ELECTRICIAN
A leading company in the printing and publishing industry is inviting application for the
abovementioned position at one of its branches. The successful candidate will report to
the Head of Department. The key result areas of the Electrician are shown hereunder:
• Attending to all electrical breakdowns on machinery to minimize downtime.

• To carry out preventive maintenance on all machines.
• Installation of new equipment.
• Training of apprentices.
QUALIFICATIONS AND EXPERIENCE

• At least 5 O level passes including English language and Mathematics.
• National Certificate in Electrical Engineering.
• Extensive knowledge in Electronics.
• A minimum of 4 years post apprenticeship training experience.
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Hand written applications clearly marked “Electrician” with detailed curriculum vitae
and copies of certificates should be submitted not later than 20 June, 200- to:

P. O Box 12312313
Zimbabwe
6.10.0 Reports
A report is a document that gives an account of what has happened. The aim of
reporting is to record information and to provide objective facts. Formal report writing in
professional, technical and business contexts has evolved certain conventions regarding
format, style, referencing and other characteristics. Reports may vary between
organisations; however there are general guidelines which produce a good report in the
absence of specific requirements of the organisation.
6.10.1 Format of a Formal Report

The format of a report depends on the type and its purpose, its intended readers, and
the requirements of presentation and layout prescribed by the organisation. In general, a
formal report consists of the following components:
• Cover or Title Page

• Abstract
• Table of contents
• Introduction
• The body of the report
• Summary and conclusions
• Recommendations if applicable
• References / Bibliography
• Glossary (if needed)
• Appendices
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1. Cover or Title Page

The cover page must contain the title of the report, writer, organisation, and the date
when the report was produced.
2. Abstract
The abstract is a complete summary of the report. It informs the reader of the key points
in the report. An abstract must be brief and must no be more than one page.
3. Table of contents
The table of contents shows the location of each section of the report in terms of page
number. It must follow the section numbering system. List of figures and tables must be
provided if applicable.
4. Introduction
The introduction must be brief and must give background information about the report. It
gives the following information:
• necessary background information
• purpose of report
• scope of report
• method and sources used
• explanation of arrangement of report
• sections of the report
5. Body of the Report

This is the discussion and it is the longest section in the report. It contains all details and
an appropriate format must be used. Information should be organised under headings
and subheadings. All subheadings must be related to the section heading. There must
be a logical development of ideas in the body and within sections. The expression
should be clear and concise, formal and factual and correct. Relevant evidence should
be provided.
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6. Summary and Conclusion

The summary and conclusion section presents the main points and main findings.
Conclusions should be brief and what has been learnt from an occurrence. Conclusions
should arise from facts and from the basis for recommendations.
7. Recommendations
These are specific actions that must be taken in light of the summary and conclusions.
Recommendations must be practical, specific and well organised and presented.
8. References and Bibliography

These are particularly important in academic reports. References are sources of
information and should be presented using the Harvard system. Bibliographies are texts
consulted but not referred to directly in the report.
9. Glossary and Appendix

The glossary gives definitions of unfamiliar words or terms used in the report. It must be
presented in alphabetical order. The appendix is a section of supplementary information
not presented in the main body of the report. Appendices must be referenced in the
report.
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Oral
Chapter Seven Communication
Study Tip!
Choose your Place of Study
Carefully. Your place of study
can be a library, a room at home
or a free bench at a park.
Whatever it may be, it must be
free of distractions and
interruptions.
This chapter outlines the forms of oral communication including

meetings, interviews, telephone conversation, presentations and speeches.
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7.1.0 Introduction
Oral communication is a two way process involving interaction between two or more
people. Oral communication involves the use of spoken words, and therefore the basic
skills are speaking and listening.
7.2.0 Telephoning
A telephone is an electronic device used for transmitting speech. Compared with other
media for oral communication, the telephone is amongst the highly used in business.
This is because it has the following advantages.
1. It is quick in transmitting messages.
2. An immediate response can be generated.
3. It does not require special formalities, such as giving a notice.
4. It saves time and often overcomes the distance barrier.
However, it has some disadvantages.

1. Messages over the phone are generally impersonal, since facial expressions
such as smiles and gestures like handshakes can not be expressed.
2. The system fails where there are no connections, or where there are technical
faults, making unreliable.
Due to high telephone usage in business operations, it is important for an organisation to

develop and encourage proficient use of the telephone by its employees and executives.
To any call whether incoming or outgoing there three principal stages.
Stage 1: Making a call or receiving a call.

Stage 2: Conversation.
Stage 3: Ending the call.
The sections below review key points that will help in improving your proficiency on the
phone.
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7.2.1 Making a Call or Receiving a Call

Whenever making a call or receiving one, it is important to be courteous. Warm
greetings and efficient use of time go a long way in improving your courtesy. Go through
your message quickly, this saves time, hence money for everyone concerned.
1. When calling:
• Introduce yourself immediately, and ask politely to be put through to the person
you want to speak to. As an example,
“My name is… of… May I speak to … the Sales Manager”.
• If you are not sure about the person you should speak to, state the purpose of
your call. This enables the person receiving your call to help you efficiently. For
example,
“This is… of… I want to inquire about your typewriter that was advertised in
yesterday’s paper. May I talk with the right person about?”
• It is good practice to plan your calls by making notes of important points before
making the call. This ensures that you cover all necessary, important details of
the call, and that you do this in an organised and efficient way.
2. When receiving a call:

• Always be on the alert to pick up the telephone. Do not let the telephone ring for
a long time without picking it.
• If you are a secretary or receptionist, identify your company or department you
work in first. Never ask the caller to identify himself or herself except when
necessary. Offer your assistance in a friendly and cheerful way. For example,
“…company. May I help you?”
• If you are an executive and the call comes directly into your office, identify
yourself and offer assistance.
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“…company…. speaking. May I help you?”
3. The Conversation
• Use a polite tone; be friendly, pleasant and helpful. Avoid curtness, interrupting,
or dominating the conversation.
• Always speak clearly, using formal language and not slang. Do not shout or
whisper. To avoid monotony, vary the tone of your voice.
• Listen carefully and write down the message as it is spoken by the caller (never
try to remember the message later). Verify the message by reading it back to the
caller. Pass the message to the intended as soon as possible.
• Where it is desirable to place the caller on hold while you make a transfer, it is
important to check on your caller periodically, showing concern, and keeping him
informed.
• Avoid bad habits like chewing, eating, yawning, coughing, or sneezing on the
phone.
• Avoid talking with someone else while on the telephone, or having two
conversations at the same time.
• For the sake establishing your credibility, fulfill all your promises, so never
promise the caller a callback that will not be made.
4. Ending a call
• Always leave a good impression of your company by ending the call on a positive
note.
• Never hang up the telephone on someone or slam the telephone. Allow the caller
to end the call and put the receiver down. If you are the one making the call,
always press the end button before replacing the receiver. Placing the receiver
down without pressing the button produces a nasty sound that might sound as
slamming of the telephone. This is particularly important after calling to issue a
complaint.
7.2.2 Telephone Answering Machine and Voice Messages

Technological advances have led to the development of telephone answering machines
and electronic mailboxes. This is the case with most cellular phone technology, where
transfer to voicemail is automatic if number is not available or busy.
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It is disappointing, if not annoying to know that someone called but did not care to leave
a message on your voice mailbox or answering machine. Therefore you should always
be prepared to leave a message (concise and complete), if connected to the voice
mailbox. Voicemail techniques are similar to telephone techniques, except that there is
not immediate response to your message. However, most professional business people
always respond to your message at the time of getting them. By following the techniques
given below, you can be assured that your message gets the enthusiastic response you
desired at the time of leaving it.
• Start the message by identifying yourself in a polite and friendly way.
• Ensure that you leave your message in a concise, complete, and understandable
form.
• Speak clearly and slowly, especially when giving callback numbers.
• End the message politely.
7.3.0 Dictating Letters and Reports

To dictate is to say (letters, reports, speeches, etc.) aloud for transcription by another
person. The advantages of dictating are that it is faster than handwriting and typing, you
can dictate from a remote location through a telephone system. Although you speak the
message, the recipient will read it and expect it to meet writing standards.
7.3.1 Techniques of Dictating

• Prepare ahead by gathering all facts you would for the message, this enables
you to work without stopping or delays. This involves getting the letter you are
replying and any other reference documents, thinking before dictating, and
writing down important points for complicated message.
• Plan the message. Decide on its content and how you will present it.
• Give specific instructions and preliminary information to the typist. These include
page layout, enclosures, inside address, salutation, subject line and attention
line, and any other information that is not part of the message but is essential in
making the letter or report complete.
• Dictate the message slowly and clearly. Ensure that you:
1. Speak in an audible and clear voice. Do not mumble.
2. Keep dictation speed slow enough to separate words.
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3. Keep sentences and paragraphs short. Give paragraphing and punctuation

as required.
4. Spell personal names, brand names, and difficult words.
5. Avoid side comments, which are not part of the message (they confuse the
typist).
6. Have a read back at the end, or when you lose track of what you have
dictated.
7.4.0 Public Speaking

This is formal speech before a group of listeners. The topic of your presentation may be
assigned to you, or self selected. When selecting a topic consider your knowledge,
audience, and the occasion.
7.4.1 Stages of Public Speaking

The stages of public speaking and oral reporting are preparation, and delivery.
Stage 1: Preparation
This is an important part of public speaking, and in preparing your presentation you
should do the following:
1. Gather information and organise it.

The information you need for the speech can be collected from:
• Experience and background knowledge.
• Discussion and consultations with other people involved in your area of
interest.
• Research in the library for relevant documents, books and references.
Once all the necessary information is available, organise your speech in the order of
introduction, body, and conclusion.
a) Introduction
The greeting must come before the introduction. Although this is not a part of the
speech, it should fit the audience and the occasion. The introduction is meant to arouse
interest and prepare the audience to receive the message. Effective ways of gaining
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attention and generating interest include use of humour and quotations, asking rhetorical
questions, or even storytelling. The introduction should also give the theme and subject
of your speech.
b) Body
The body must be structured in a format similar to that of a report. However, the
presentation should be built around issues and questions that are subtopics of the
subject. The body is the part on which most of the presentation time is spent.
c) Conclusion
The ending must be carefully thought out. It can be a summary of important points, a
restatement of the subject, or a point that you want to leave with the audience.
2. Determine the presentation method

Three methods can be used in public speech presentation:
1. Reading. The easiest method of all, however, tends to make presentations boring
and dull. Reading from a carefully prepared speech is preferred by individuals
who are widely quoted, for example Heads of state, CEOs of major companies.
2. Recalling from memory. The most difficult method, it involves memorising the
entire speech or important passages and making use of short notes to assist in
the delivery of the presentation.
3. Planned presentation. The most effective method, it involves through preparation
of speech, use of notes, and rehearsing all parts of the speech without intending
to memorise.
3. Consider your personal attributes

As a speaker you are an important part of the message (the words and what they see in
you) that you communicate to your audience. The attributes that are important to any
public speaker are given below.
1. Having confidence in oneself. Confidence building techniques include:
• Preparing your presentation carefully and practicing it before the
presentation.
• Developing a presentable physical appearance. Hairstyle and dressing
should create a positive and favourable impression.
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• Speaking in a loud, strong, and clear voice.

2. Enthusiasm.
3. Sincerity and friendliness.
4. Thoroughness and originality.
4. Analyse the audience

The audience should be studied before and during the presentation. Before the speech
determine the size of your audience, and personal characteristics. Remember that for
small groups the speech can be informal, while large audiences require more formality of
speech. Personal characteristics of the audience such as age, sex, education, and
knowledge of the subject should also influence the composition of your speech.
During the presentation consider the reactions, facial expressions, movements, and
noises of the audience.
Stage 2: Delivery of the Speech

In the first few minutes you will obviously be nervous and self-conscious. Taking a few
deep breaths will help you calm down. Another way of reducing nervousness is going
straight to something of interest to the audience.
A good delivery entails good use of voice, facial expressions, physical movements, and
in some cases visuals.
7.4.2 Use of Voice

Good voice is an obvious requirement of good speaking (Lesikar, Pettit, Flatley, 1993).
In order to improve the quality of your voice the following points should be considered.
• Variation of pitch reduces monotones and enables you to hold the interest of the
audience, and draw their attention to key points.
• Variation of speed makes it easier for the audience to understand your speech.
Easy parts of the message should be presented at a faster speed and the difficult
parts at a slower speed. More generally, speak slowly enough for all your points
to have full impact.
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• Pauses emphasise the next point and can be used to gain attention. However,
long or frequent pauses irritate and break the concentration of the listeners.
• The volume of your voice should be adequate for the entire audience to hear.
(Do not shout at your audience.)
• Variation of speed, pitch, and volume of your voice is a good way of showing
emphasis on key points.
7.4.3 Facial Expressions and Physical Movements

Facial expressions such as smiles and frowns should be used effectively. Eye contact
shows interest in your audience. However, you should avoid fixing your eyes on any
particular face because some listeners detest being starred.
A good posture creates a good impression; keep your body upright with adequate poise
that shows confidence. It is important to keep still, avoid fidgeting, walking up and down,
twisting fingers; such movements distract the audience from the message.
Gestures should be used to emphasise points, show respect, etc. They are an important
part of the message you communicate.
7.4.4 Audiovisual Aids

Audiovisual aids can supply added impact and clarity to a presentation. Audiovisual aids
can be used to visually reinforce the points made verbally in a presentation, to
summarize the points made, and to visually clarify important concepts and analogies.
Audiovisual aids not only help the audience to follow the presentation, but also provide
support to the presenter by helping to keep him or her on track.
The key to preparing effective audiovisual aids is to remember that they are only aids.
Their role is to add a visual dimension to the points that are made orally. They cannot
make those points for the presenter; they can only reinforce them. When planning for
audiovisual aids, the guidelines listed below can be followed.
1. Use them to summarize or show the sequence of content.

2. Use them to visually interpret statistics by preparing charts and graphs that
illustrate the information.
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3. Use them to illustrate and reinforce statements.

4. Use them to add visual clarity to concepts and ideas.
5. Use them to focus the attention of the audience on key points.
6. Do not project copies of printed or written text. Instead, summarize the
information and show only the key points on the visual aids. If the group must
read every word, handouts must be used for reading, either before or after the
presentation.
7. Do not use charts, graphs, or tables that contain more information than needed.
The group will have difficulty focusing on the point that you're tying to make.
7.4.5 Types of Audiovisuals and their Uses

The presenter may combine different types of visual media in a single presentation in
order to aid the audience in understanding the information. The media used most often
are writing boards, overhead projection transparencies, flip charts, slides, blackboards,
videotapes or films, and handouts.
1. Writing Board
A writing board can display information written with chalk (chalkboard or blackboard) or
special pens (whiteboard). Although there usually are other more effective methods of
transmitting information, the writing board is still the most commonly used visual aid. It is
especially useful for impromptu discussions, spontaneous presentation, brainstorming
sessions, listing and note taking.
Advantages to using a Writing board

1. Writing boards do not require electricity.
2. Writing boards are easy to use and inexpensive.
3. Writing boards are suitable for use by both trainers and participants.
4. Writing boards are excellent for brainstorming, problem solving, making lists and
other participatory activities.
Disadvantages to using a Writing board

1. The board cannot hold large amounts of material and may require continual
erasing.
2. Writing on the board is time consuming.
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3. It is difficult to write on the board and talk to the audience at the same time.
4. The board can get messy.
5. There is no permanent record of information presented.
Tips for Using a Writing Board

1. Keep the board clean.
2. Use chalk or pens that contrast with the background of the board so that the
audience can see the information clearly.
3. Make text and drawings large enough to be seen in the back of the room.
4. Prepare complex drawings in advance.
5. Underline headings and important or unfamiliar words for emphasis.
6. Do not talk while facing the board.
7. Do not block the audience’s view of the board; stand aside when writing or
drawing is completed.
8. Allow sufficient time for audience to copy the information from the board.
2. Flipchart
A flipchart is a large tablet or pad of paper, usually on a tripod or stand. It can be used to
display previously prepared notes or drawings as well as for brainstorming and
impromptu discussions.
Advantages to using a Flipchart

1. Flipcharts are easy to move from room to room and do not require electricity.
2. Flipcharts are small enough that several may be used simultaneously (e.g., for
small group work).
3. Flipcharts are easy to use, inexpensive and available in most locations.
4. Flipcharts are excellent for brainstorming, problem solving, making lists and other
participatory activities.
5. Pages of information can be prepared in advance and revealed at appropriate
points in the presentation.
6. Pages can be removed from the pad and taped on the walls of the training room.
7. There is a permanent record of information presented.
Disadvantages to using a Flipchart
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1. The flipchart cannot hold large amounts of material on the same page.
2. Writing on the flipchart is time consuming.
3. It is difficult to write on the flipchart and talk to the audience at the same time.
Tips for Using a Flipchart

1. Use wide-tipped pens or markers; markers with narrow tips produce printing that
is difficult to read.
2. Print in block letters that are large enough to be read easily from the back of the
room.
3. Use different colored pens to provide contrast; this makes the pages visually
attractive and easier to read.
4. Use headings, boxes, cartoons and borders to improve the appearance of the
page.
5. Use bullets (•) to delineate items on the page.
6. Leave plenty of “white space” and avoid putting too much information on one
page (crowded and poorly arranged information is distracting and difficult to
read).
7. When pages are prepared in advance, use every other page. If every page is
used, colors will show through and make text difficult to read.
8. Have masking tape available to put pages up around the room during
brainstorming and problem-solving sessions.
3. Overhead Transparencies
The overhead projector is one of the most commonly used and most versatile pieces of
audiovisual equipment. This visual aid projects images onto a screen using transparency
film and silhouettes of opaque objects. A transparency is a plastic or acetate sheet (film)
containing written or drawn material.
Advantages to using Transparencies

1. The projector is simple to use and can be used in almost any room which has
electricity and is less sensitive to fluctuations in voltage than film and slide
projectors.
2. The projector can be used with the classroom lights on, allowing participants to
take notes.
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3. Use of transparencies saves time (writing on a board is slower than talking) and
allows the presenter more time for discussion with audience.
4. They are inexpensive and can be prepared quickly and easily.
5. They can be used repeatedly.
Disadvantages to using Transparencies

1. The projector requires electricity to run.
2. The trainer cannot project directly from the printed page.
3. Sometimes the presenter or projector can block the audience’s view of the
screen or the room arrangement makes it difficult to see the projected image.
Making Transparencies
There are three ways to produce transparencies:
1. Use permanent or non-permanent (water soluble) ink pens to create text or
drawings on plastic or acetate sheets.
2. Use a copy machine with transparency film designed for copiers. Any original
that produces a copy of acceptable quality on paper will produce an equivalent
copy on transparency film. The transparencies are loaded in the appropriate
copier paper tray and the transparency master is placed on the glass copy
surface and copied onto the transparency film.
3. Use a computer and laser or ink-jet printer. The information to appear on the
transparency is produced on the computer using word processing or graphics
software. The page is then printed on special transparency film. If an ink-jet
printer is used, a specific type of transparency film labeled for use with ink-jet
printers must be used to ensure that the ink adheres to the film.
Tips for Preparing Transparencies

1. Limit the information on each transparency to one main idea and about five to six
lines of large type.
2. Use large lettering or font size.
3. Ordinary typed materials or a page from a book are not suitable for
transparencies unless they are enlarged, which can be done on many photocopy
machines.
4. Print text. It is easier to read than script handwriting.
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5. Make graphics and drawings large enough to be seen easily in the back of the
room.
6. Mount transparencies in standard mounting frames or insert them in plastic
pockets with frames. These provide a more professional finish, make the
transparencies easier to handle and also protect them.
7. Number the transparencies to keep them in the correct order (numbers can be
written on the transparency itself or on its outside frame).
8. Store the transparencies in a box with a lid, in an envelope or a “pocket” made
from manila folders or sheets of clear plastic to protect them from dust and
scratches.
9. Some trainers use the paper copy of the transparency to write notes and
important points to highlight during presentations.
Tips for Using the Overhead Projector

1. Before the presentation begins, locate and check the operation of the on/off
switch.
2. Be sure that there is an extra projector bulb and that it is working. Some
overhead projectors have two bulbs so that if one burns out, a second is
available at the flick of a switch.
3. Focus the projector and check the position of the image on the screen using a
transparency before beginning the session.
4. Turn the projector on after the transparency is placed on the glass and turn it off
before removing the transparency.
5. Face the audience, not the screen, while talking.
6. Show one point at a time and control the pace of the discussion by covering
selected information with a piece of paper. (The paper can be placed either on
top of or beneath the transparency and moved down to reveal the next item.)
7. Use a pointer or pencil directly on the transparency to focus attention on a
specific area; this allows the presenter to maintain direct eye contact with the
audience.
8. Allow plenty of time for the audience to read what is on the screen and take
notes.
9. Turn the projector off when you are finished using the transparencies.
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4. Slides
The slide projector is a commonly used audiovisual aid which offers many of the same
advantages of the overhead projector. One important difference is that full color images
are easier to create using slides. Slides can be prepared by the presenter or purchased
commercially.
Advantages to using Slides

1. Slides are relatively inexpensive and easy to produce.
2. They can be made locally by the presenter.
3. Slides can be shown in a fairly light room which allows the participants to take
notes.
4. Slides can be used with audiotapes to produce a slide show with narration.
Disadvantages to using Slides

1. The slide projectors are much more expensive than overhead projectors.
2. The slide projectors are more fragile and do not tolerate voltage fluctuations as
well as overhead projectors.
3. Slides are not updated as easily or produced as inexpensively as transparencies.
Guidelines for Preparing Slides

1. Limit each slide to one main idea (detailed information should be put into a
handout, not on a slide).
2. Text slides should be short and concise. It is recommended that a slide contain
no more than 35 words (approximately five lines of text).
3. Legibility of the material on the slide is crucial. A good rule is that if a slide can be
read by the naked eye “without a projector” it will be legible to the audience in the
back of the room.
Tips for Using the Slide Projector

1. Arrange the room so that all participants can see the screen; make sure that
there is nothing between the projector and the screen.
2. Set up and test the slide projector before the audience arrives.
3. Make sure there is an extra projector bulb in working condition; practice replacing
the bulb.
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4. Locate the focus control and check the focus of the projector and position of the
image on the screen.
5. Run through all the slides in advance to ensure that they are in the correct
sequence and inserted properly in the slide tray (with the mark or number in the
upper right-hand corner).
6. Determine if all or some of the lights can be left on during the slide presentation;
this will make note taking easier for the audience.
7. During the presentation, avoid rushing through a series of slides. This can be
very frustrating for the audience. Take time to view and discuss each slide.
5. Videotapes
Videotapes are creative audiovisual aids. Using a single camera and recorder system,
audio and video signals are recorded on videotape which can be played back on a
videocassette machine and television screen or monitor.
Advantages to using videotapes

1. Videotapes provide better color and detail than traditional film.
2. Videotapes can be prepared by the presenter and audience to reflect local
conditions.
3. Commercially developed videotapes may be purchased or borrowed.
4. TV monitors, especially commercial grade, tolerate fluctuations in voltage much
better than either overhead projectors or slide projectors.
5. Video players are less expensive and easier to maintain than slide projectors.
Disadvantages to using Videotapes

1. Videotapes may not be totally consistent with the methods and tools presented.
2. The audience may be distracted by cultural differences such as accents,
appearance or communication customs.
Tips for Using Videotapes

1. Preview the videotape to ensure that it is appropriate for the audience and
consistent with the objectives of the presentation.
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2. Before the presentation, check to be sure that the videotape is compatible with
the videotape player. Run a few seconds of the tape to ensure that everything is
functioning properly.
3. Cue the videotape to the beginning of the program.
4. Arrange the room so that everyone in the audience can see the video monitor.
5. Discuss the videotape after it has been shown. Review the main points that the
audience was asked to watch for as they viewed the videotape.
6. Prepare test items based on the videotape content if appropriate.
6. Written Handouts
When providing written text, remember that you won't be there to explain or remind the
target group of what you mean. Written handouts should be as brief as possible, but they
must also be meaningful to the reader, whether they are read a week before your
presentation or a year after. They should always be:
1. Clear. Written in language that the target group can easily understand and follow.
2. Relevant. Do not simply provide data. Explain why the information should be
read and what it means. Explanations should not repeat your entire presentation,
but should capsulate it.
3. Specific. Do not give your target group a mass of reading material that they do
not need. Make sure that all documentation is absolutely necessary.
7.5.0 Meetings
A meeting is an assembly or gathering of people for a specific purpose. A meeting pools
the expertise and the ingenuity of various individuals in order to solve problems and plan
future events within an organization. There are many different kinds meetings that are
held in a business organization. These can be classified into four main categories as
shown in the following table.
Table 7.1: Types of Meetings and their Purposes

Type of Meeting Purpose
Board of Directors Meeting The board of directors is an executive
committee and must meet regularly to
discuss and pass resolutions on business
matters.
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Annual General Meeting This type of meeting is held once every

year to allow shareholders to receive the
chairman’s report and to elect directors.
Union Meeting This is a meeting held by unuionised or
professional bodies.
Staff Meeting Staff meetings are held to keep employees
informed and to discuss important issues.
7.5.1 Notice of a Meeting

This is an oral or written advance notification of a meeting. Adequate time should be
given to those who should attend so that they make the necessary arrangements for
them to attend. Notice period differ according to type of meeting and from one
organization to another. For routine staff meetings held regularly to discuss the same
issues a notice may not be necessary once the members are all aware of the scheduled
times of the meetings. Meetings such as Board of Directors Meetings, Annual General
Meetings and Council Meetings have a fixed notice period that can be 7 days, 14 days,
or 28 days depending on the committee’s constitution. A notice must give the following
information.
• Name of the organisation.
• Type of meeting.
• Place, date, and time of meeting.
• Date of notice.
• Signature and title of person convening the meeting.
A notice can also be given together with the agenda whereby the first part gives notice
and the second part the items to be discussed.
Example of a Notice to a Meeting
KLYT International
1000 Main Street
Bulawayo
15 October 2004
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Notice of the Annual General Meeting

______________________________________________________________________
Notice is hereby given that the tenth Annual General Meeting of Shareholders will be
held in the Board room, Key House, 100 Main Street, Bulawayo, on Friday, 23rd
November 2004 at 10.00am, to transact the following business:
1. To receive the report of the directors, statement of accounts and the report of the
auditors for the year ended 31st March 2004.
2. To elect directors.
3. To elect auditors for the ensuing year.
4. To consider Any Other Business which may be within the scope of the meeting.
By order of the Board
T. Thomas (B.Acc (Hons), MBA)
7.6.0 Agenda
The agenda is a list of items to be discussed during a meeting in the order in which they
will be taken. The purpose of the agenda is to guide the chairman through the meeting,
and to give prior notification of what is to be discussed at the meeting to those attending.
Therefore the agenda should be circulated with the notice or incorporated in the notice
as shown above. This enables participants to prepare their ideas in advance.
Items on the agenda should be presented as numbered headings in proper order. An

informative agenda is a detailed one, which gives brief notes under respective headings
(see the example after this section). The first four items on the agenda are chairperson’s
welcome, apologies for absence, minutes of previous meeting and matters arising. The
last two items are any other business and date of next meeting. These items are referred
to as fixed items and are always present on the agenda. Other items, that is, special
items constitute the main business of the meeting must be placed between the first four
and the last two and must follow a logical order. Such a structure ensures that meetings
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proceed in a formal and orderly manner. An example of an informative agenda is shown

below.
Example of an Agenda to a Meeting
KLYT International
10010 Main Street
Bulawayo
28 November 2004
______________________________________________________________________
Agenda of the 29th Board Meeting to be held in the Board room, Key House, 10010
Main Street, 10th December 2004, at 12 noon
______________________________________________________________________
1. Welcome by Chairperson
2. Apologies for absence
3. Minutes of the meeting held on 23rd October 2004
4. Matters arising from previous meeting
5. Apprenticeship training
It has been proposed that apprentice training be re-introduced next year.
6. Export orders
Decision is to be made on how to handle export orders.
7. 2005 to 2007 Strategic Plan
The proposed plan is to be presented for initial perusal by members.
8. Any other business
9. Date of next meeting
T. Thomas
Secretary
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7.6.1 The Chairperson’s Agenda

In order to perform the leading role, the chairperson should be more informed than all
the other participants are. The chairperson’s agenda gives additional information not
given to others. It allows the chairperson to direct the meeting effectively and make sure
that all items are discussed properly. The extra information on the chairperson’s agenda
must be clearly marked in a way that distinguishes it from the information given to
others. The chairperson usually prepares this agenda with the help of the secretary and
it can contain the following extra notes:
• the names of members who will introduce items and those with special interest in
them
• special issues and implications that need to come out in discussions
• the time to be spent on each item
Example of a Chairperson’s Agenda
______________________________________________________________________
Agenda of the 29th Board Meeting to be held in the Board room, Key House, 10010
Main Street, 10th December 2004, at 12 noon
______________________________________________________________________
1. Welcome by Chairperson
2. Apologies for absence OS is out of the country
3. Minutes of previous meeting
4. Matters arising Warehouse completion uncertain
5. Apprenticeship training Two trades to be reintroduced
6. Export orders RA will propose and EC will second
7. 2005 to 2007 Strategic Plan Capacity improvements required
8. Any other business None unless KS mentions salary review
9. Date of next meeting Must be within one month – suggest 2nd
of Jan 2005
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7.7.0 Agenda Papers

These are additional documents supplied with the agenda to supplement information.
Examples are financial statements, reports, and extension plans.
7.8.0 Quorum
This is the minimum number of members required to be present in a meeting before any
business can be transacted and for proceeding to be declared valid. This number is
stated in the company’s Articles of Association. If no quorum is present and notice has
been given properly, the meeting is postponed to a later date and new notice must be
given or the meeting proceeds according to the provisions in Articles of Association and
the resolutions passed will be binding even to those who did no attend.
7.9.0 Members of a Meeting

There are three principal roles that can be played by a member in a meeting. These are
chairman, participant, or secretary.
1. The Chairperson
The chairperson plays a leading role, and is the one in charge of the meeting. The
chairperson is either appointed for a fixed term of office (1 year, 2 years, etc.), or is
appointed for a specific meeting. The most important attributes of the chairperson are
that he should,
• be respectable
• respect other members of the meeting
• be impartial
• be able to think carefully and clearly in order to keep abreast of the discussion
• be tactful and diplomatic so as to move discussion from one item to another, and
to ensure that all discussion are relevant
• know the regulations of the company
2. Duties of the Chairperson

1. To plan the meeting properly by ensuring the following:
• adequate notice is given to those who should attend
• previous meetings have been circulated as prescribed in the procedures and
rules of the meeting
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• the agenda is developed and all important items to be discussed are

included, and that it is made available to those who should attend
2. To ensure that a quorum is present before the start of the meeting.
3. To welcome members and declare the meeting open.
4. To sign the minutes of the previous meeting when they have been passed as
accurate.
5. To follow the agenda item by item.
6. To keep discussion on track and ensure that only one item is under discussion at
any given time. If new items come up during the meeting, the chairperson can
either allow members to discuss them at the end or postpone them to a later
meeting.
7. To move the discussion along. When one item has been covered the chairperson
must bring up the next.
8. To ensure that discussion does not go off subject and to move it back on subject
when it goes off subject.
9. To permit complete discussion, avoid repetition, excessive detail, and useless
comments.
10. To give all members an equal opportunity by
• controlling those who talk too much, and
• encouraging participation from those who talk too little.
11. To stop private discussion, unnecessary interruption, and maintain order.
12. To announce the results of a vote.
13. To summarise what the group has covered where necessary.
14. To fix the date of the next meeting.
15. To declare the meeting closed.
3. The Participant
The participant in a meeting should:
1. Attend meetings regularly and be punctual.
2. Be prepared for the meeting and conduct research on items on the agenda
where necessary.
3. Consult other members of the department which he/she represents to ensure
that their views are considered.
4. Follow the agenda.
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5. Should not bring up items that are not on the agenda or comment on such items
if brought up by others.
6. Participate meaningfully so that the group makes the best decision.
7. Avoid talking too much and do more listening than talking.
8. Say nothing if he has no contribution on the item on discussion.
9. Cooperate with others.
10. Respect others, their rights to speak, and opinions.
4. The Secretary
The secretary does not participate in the discussion and has no voting rights. The
secretary should:
1. Prepare the notice and help the chairperson in preparing agenda of the meeting.
2. Circulate notices, agendas, and minutes before the meeting.
3. Ensure that the venue is available and seating arrangements are made before
the meeting.
4. Receive apologies and read them out at the start of the meeting.
5. Record minutes during the meeting
6. Assist the chairman during the meeting
7. Keep and updates the register of the members. Those present and those absent
7.10.0 Meeting Procedures

One of the main purposes of a meeting is to arrive at a favourable group decision and
this is achieved through communication and discussion. Meetings therefore use special
language and procedures to ensure that discussions proceed properly.
7.10.1 Starting the Meeting

It is the duty of the chairperson once all participants have gathered and to ensure that
there is order and everyone is attending. The chairperson will do this by:
1. Calling the meeting to order to gain the attention of participants.
2. Formally declaring the meeting is open to make it clear to everyone that formal
business of the meeting has commenced.
3. Stating the start time of the meeting so that the secretary can record it properly.
4. Welcoming all those present and formally introducing any specially invited
individuals.
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7.10.2 Apologies for Absence

The secretary will then read out the names of those that have sent in their apologies.
The names of those absent but did not send their apologies must also be noted and
recorded.
7.10.3 Minutes of Previous Meeting

A more appropriate and common procedure is that minutes of the previous meeting are
circulated soon after that meeting. This enables participants to follow up on any issues
discussed and to make any necessary correction while the discussions are still fresh in
their minds.
During the meeting the chairperson must take the participants through the minutes, page
by page so that any corrections are made. If there are no corrections or once everyone
is satisfied that all necessary corrections have been made, the chairperson will sign a
copy of the minutes to acknowledge it as a true and accurate record of the preceding of
the meeting.
7.10.4 Matters Arising

If there are any issues from the previous meeting that were left open or incomplete due
to lack of information or other reasons and are not included on the agenda they may be
discussed here. It is also possible for a member to ask the meeting to reopen a
discussion and consider new information or another point. It is however important to
keep discussions short to avoid repetition since they were discussed previously.
7.10.5 Business of the Meeting

It is here that the purpose of the meeting is intended to be fulfilled and this can involve
reviewing and discussing reports, and passing resolutions. The persons will ask the
persons who has a report to present it, after which discussions follow.
The discussions will follow certain procedures and use specific terminology or
expressions. Participants must speak through the chair and their remarks must be
addressed to the person directing the meeting to avoid personal issues. If a matter is on
the table, it means that it is currently under discussion. Also if a matter cannot be
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resolved, the chairperson may decide that the discussion be adjourned or postponed
until the next meeting when more information is available or when participants have had
time to consider the issue.
Sometimes the meeting can be closed to be resumed on a latter specified date without
completing the agenda due to inadequate time or other reasons. This is known as
adjournment. A meeting can also be adjourned without specifying and fixing a date to
resume the discussion. We say the meeting has been adjourned sine die.
7.10.6 Motions
Suggestions in a meeting are made through motions. A motion is introduced by an
individual who proposes the motion and they must be supported by another person who
seconds the motion. The procedure for motions is as follows:
1. A motion is proposed.
2. The motion is seconded.
3. If there is no seconder the motion is abandoned.
4. If seconded the matter is put to vote.
5. A motion can be amended before the vote. The amendment is an alteration of
the wording of the original motion. The amendment must be seconded. If it is
seconded it becomes a substantive motion. Members must then vote on this
new motion.
6. A motion can be:
• Passed unanimously whereby everyone present votes in favour of the motion
• Passed nem con whereby no one present votes against the motion
• Passed by majority whereby the largest group voted in favour of the motion
• Defeated whereby the majority voted against the motion
7. If the motion is passed, it is carried then a resolution on the motion is made.
7.10.7 Voting an a Motion

Voting on a motion is usually done when it is not clear how members feel about it. The
chairperson may ask members in favour and against to show their hands or use the
ballot system. A count of the votes is then done to determine the outcome and the
chairperson must announce the result.
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A member who is unable to attend a meeting may nominate another person present to
vote on his/her behalf. This is known as voting by proxy. In certain committees the
chairperson can in addition to the ordinary vote have an extra vote which is used as a
casting vote when the votes for and against are equal.
7.10.8 Any Other Business

This section of the meeting covers small insignificant matters. Major issues must not be
discussed here; they should be recorded for discussion at the next meeting.
7.10.9 Date of Next Meeting

The chairperson must ensure that the date of the next meeting has been fixed before
closure of the meeting taking into consideration the prescribed frequencies of the
meetings. This date must not clash with other important events or meetings.
7.10.10 Closing the Meeting

The chairperson will declare the meeting closed and the exact time of end of business
must be noted.
7.11.0 Structure of Minutes

Minutes are primarily a record of discussions and decision reached in a meeting. They
are legally binding, may not be altered, and may be submitted to court as evidence once
signed by the chairman. Minutes should be numbered and titled, accurate, clear and
unambiguous, brief, and self-explanatory.
Minutes should follow the agenda, and its order. They constitute the following items.
1. Heading. This contains the name of the body that held the meeting, type of
meeting, place, date, and time of meeting.
2. Names of those present. The chairperson’s name should be typed first and the
names of the other follow in alphabetic order or in order of seniority. If the
meeting is large, record the names of the board members, committee members,
officials, and then the number of those present. The names of those present by
special invitation must be listed separately.
3. Welcome remarks and any special introductions.
4. Apologies for absence. Record names only with no reasons.
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5. The name of the person in attendance or taking minutes.

6. Minutes of previous meeting. These are assumed read, having been circulated
after the previous meeting. They should be approved as correct before the
chairperson signs them. Any corrections should be made formally through
motions.
7. Matters arising from a previous meeting. Only minor items should be recorded
under this heading. Major items have separate records in the minutes.
8. Items of business transacted. Record the motion and the resolution passed.
9. Any other business. In a meeting this gives participants a chance to discuss
matters arising, and other minor details.
10. Date of next meeting. Members should agree on a convenient date for the next
meeting.
11. Closure of the meeting.
Example of Minutes to a Meeting
________________________________________________________________
MINUTES OF THE 29th MEETING OF THE BOARD HELD ON 10 DECEMBER
2004 IN THE BOARDROOM, KEY HOUSE, COMMENCING AT 1230 HOURS.
________________________________________________________________
Present
Mr. T Robbinns - Chairman
Mr. S Dube - Managing Director
Mr. M A Magwa - Non Executive Director
Mr. H. Mthethwa - Non Executive Director
Mrs. J Ncube - Non Executive Director
Mr. P. F Stone - Non Executive Director
Mrs. E Chidenga - Operations Manager, Sales Office, Harare
Mr. R Adamms - Group Production Manager
Mr. K Siyabonga - Workers Representative
Apologies
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Mr. O Shamu
In Attendance
Mr. T Thomas
1. PREMEABLE
The Chairman welcomed members to the 29th Board Meeting, and apologised for
the delay in the start of the meeting caused by a power failure.
2. MINUTES OF THE 28th BOARD MEETING HELD ON 3 OCTOBER 2004

Minutes of last meeting were circulated, read, and were subject to the following
changes:
2.1 To correct the date of the last meeting.
2.2 To indicate workers’ representatives under members

present.
2.3 Re minute 4.1 Strategic Plan for 2005 to 2007.

Departments should submit their proposals.
The minutes will be corrected as listed above.
3. MATTERS ARISING
3.1 Referring to Minute 5.2 The Chairman told the Board that
there is still uncertainty on the completion of the Harare
Warehouse.
3.2 The Community Outreach is to be discussed at the next
Board Meeting.
4. APPRENTICESHIP TRAINING
4.1 Members welcomed the reintroduction of Apprentice
Training and it was agreed that the intake should be in February
2005.
4.2 The members agreed on the following trades.
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Mechanical Engineering
Electrical Engineering
4.3 Mr. Mthethwa proposed that an advertisement be placed
before the end of the month to allow for thorough recruitment
exercise, the other members agreed.
5. EXPORT ORDERS
5.1 Mr. Adamms proposed that export orders be given to
priority in production, Mrs. Chidenga seconded the motion and it
was resolved that export orders be given second preference after
contract orders.
5.2 The members agreed that the Production Work Instruction
be amended as required.
6. 2005 TO 2007 STRATEGIC PLAN

6.1 Members of the Board perused the Strategic Plan proposal
and agreed that it was ambitious and optimistic.
6.2 Mr. Adamms stated that a 30% increase in production is
not possible because the plant is already producing at maximum
capacity. He proposed that new machinery be purchased to
increase the capacity of the plant.
6.3 After a debate the members of the Board agreed that the
company would subcontract to meet the target while in the
process of acquiring new machinery.
7. DATE OF NEXT MEETING

7.1 It was agreed that the next Board Meeting be held on 10
January 2005. The place and time will be advised on the notice.
8. ANY OTHER BUSINESS
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8.1 Mr. Siyabonga raised the issue of the cost of living

adjustment.
8.2 It was resolved that the issue be addressed after the
collective bargaining scheduled for January next year.
There being no further business, the chairman declared the meeting closed
at 1530 hours.
Chairman………………………….. Date…………………………..
7.11.1 Important Points on Producing Minutes

1. Minutes must be written in the past tense
2. Minutes must not use emotional language
3. Minutes must be simple, clear and factual
4. Minutes must use the items on the agenda as heading
5. Minutes must be accurate but concise
7.12.0 Interviews
According to the Collins Dictionary (1994) an interview is a formal discussion, especially
one in which an employer assesses a job applicant, or a conversation in which a well-
known person is asked about his views, career, etc., by a reporter.
In business interviews are conducted for the following reasons.
• To assess job applicants.
• To get information such as workers’ attitudes, progress, plans, working
conditions, etc.
• To give information such as warnings, promotions, etc.
• To give advice to employees.
• To assess the performance of employees.
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There are may types of interviews, the ones discussed here include, selection, appraisal,
reward, counseling, grievance, reprimand, dismissal, and termination interviews. The
selection interview will be discussed in detail after the others.
1. Appraisal Interview
This interview is conducted to appraise an employee’s performance in his job, and the
employee’s potential for development. Performance appraisals can also be conducted to
identify barriers to effective performance and to provide a basis of performance related
pay. An appraisal form is completed during this interview to act as a record of
assessment. The objectives of this interview are the following.
• To inform the employee of his present performance.
• To recognise good and efficient work.
• To identify problem areas and tell employee where improvement is needed.
• To develop the employee’s capability in his or her job.
The participation of the employee (appraisee) is important, the employee should be

asked to make the appraisal and to state achievements. The interviewer (appraiser)
should be calm, factual, concise, and avoid apportioning blame on the employee for
failures. The interview should result in an agreed plan of action.
2. Reward Interview
This is conducted when bonuses, increments or other forms of reward that depend on
the performance of the employee in his job during the review period are to be given. The
interviewer must
• Discuss with the individual what is likely to be given.
• Discuss the reasons for such a reward.
• Ensure that the employee is satisfied by the reward and not disgruntled.
3. Counseling Interview
An employee’s problems outside work or with other employees can have significant
effect on efficiency and productivity; therefore it is the manager’s duty counsel such an
employee. Such an interview can also improve commitment and working relationships.
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As a counselor the manager must

• Be sympathetic and listen to the employee.
• Help the employee to obtain practical advice by referring him or her to relevant
organisations.
• Give the employee time to settle the problem.
4. Grievance Interview
An employee who feels aggrieved has the right to express his or her grievance. The
manager as grievance handler should:
• Remember that there is a problem.
• Realise that the employee is probably annoyed, frustrated, or suspicious.
• Avoid arguing and criticising the employee.
• Listen carefully and show understanding.
• Suggest possible solutions to the problem.
5. Reprimand Interview
This interview is used to prevent repetition of mistakes by using warnings or some form
disciplinary action. It may be necessary for the employee to write a report that is kept as
a record.
The manager should:

• Use facts.
• Investigate the matter.
• Give the employee a chance to explain.
• Avoid arguing.
• Be exact about the offence committed by the employee.
• Give the reprimand in private.
6. Dismissal Interview
Managers should only consider dismissing an inefficient employee, one who is careless,
always late or absent. A dismissal should be considered as an option after a reprimand.
The manager must tell the employee the reasons for dismissal.
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7. Termination Interview
It is also known as a resignation interview or an exit interview. An organisation has to
know what makes its employee resign or leave a particular job. Employee changes
cause discontinuity and sometimes account for reduction productivity.
This type of interview can help management to know the changes it must make in
workings conditions, management, work content, or remuneration in order to retain
employees.
8. Selection Interview
This is the most common of all interviews. It requires a lot of preparatory work to be
done by both the interviewee and the interviewer. However the discussion in this section
is limited to the interview techniques that can be used by both parties. Job search
strategies and application documents are discussed in relevant sections.
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Non-
Non-Verbal
Chapter Eight Communication
Study Tip!
Use Past Exam Papers. These
help you to know the structure of
you exam. Practicing answering
pats exam papers helps you
work on your speed and skills on
answering questions.
This chapter outlines the various forms of non-verbal communication

including kinesics, proxemics, paralinguistics, dressing and appearance.
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8.1.0 Introduction
Non-verbal communication is communication without words it includes kinesics,
proxemics, posture, orientation, vocal signals, dress and appearance, and presentation.
In oral and written communication, non-verbal communication can greatly influence the
communication process and should be used in a way that supports the communication.
8.2.0 Kinesics
This is also referred to body language. It includes gestures, facial expression and eye
contact and movement. Body language must be understood and used properly because
the same gesture can have different meaning for people of different cultures and origins.
Consider the following examples:
1. Point at something in the room using index finger. It is impolite to point with the
index finger in the Middle and Far East. Use an open hand or your thumb (in
Indonesia)
2. Make a "V" sign. This means "Victory" in most of Europe when you make this
sign with your palm facing away from you. If you face your palm in, the same
gesture means "Shove it."
3. Smile. This gesture is universally understood. However, it various cultures there
are different reasons for smiling. The Japanese may smile when they are
confused or angry. In other parts of Asia, people may smile when they are
embarrassed. People in other cultures may not smile at everyone to indicate a
friendly greeting as we do in the United States. A smile may be reserved for
friends. It is important not to judge students or their parents because they do not
smile, or smile at what we would consider "inappropriate" times.
Gestures can be involuntary and voluntary. Involuntary gestures such as yawning,

scratching or sighing can be irritating and a sin of boredom. Voluntary gestures are
deliberately used to communicate a particular message.
Facial expressions show feeling and emotion. A smile reveals pleasure while a frown
may suggest anger. The eye can be used to influence the degree of interaction among
individuals. We tend to look directly at others as a sign that we are serious. It is also
141
generally accepted that a person who looks straight into your eyes is honest and
trustworthy.
Figure 8.1: Examples of Hand Gestures
8.3.0 Proxemics
This refers to the closeness of an individual to others. It is the study of how people use
space and movement. Space can be understood in terms of body space, home space
and neutral space.
Body space refers to the area we regard as our own. Body space is often reserved to
those people who are very close or with whom we are intimate. Home space is the area
one considers his or her home. It is important to respect other people’s home space and
not to invade it as it is often linked to privacy. Neutral space does not belong to any one.
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8.4.0 Posture
This expresses a person’s feeling or response. As an example sitting up straight and
looking forward at the speaker shows active involvement and interest while sitting back
looking at the floor indicates boredom.
8.5.0 Orientation
This refers to the direction which the body is facing. Orientation communicates the
attitude of and individual towards the speaker. As an example facing the speaker gives
the impression that you are listening to him.
8.6.0 Voice signals

Voice signals such as tone, volume, pitch and paralinguistics can affect the message
that is being communicated. If you speak clearly and calmly with reasonable volume and
pace you will give the impression of being in control. On the other hand speaking quickly
in a high pitched voice with frequent losses of breath indicates nervousness.
Paralinguistics refer to the noise that people make when they are listening to someone,
reading or observing something. For example grants such as “uh-huh”, “mmm” show
agreement.
8.7.0 Dress and Appearance

The way people dress says a lot about them and how they regard the people they are
meeting. Wearing dirty, untidy clothes may suggest that you are not concerned about the
other people or lack of efficiency and concern for work.
At the same time lack of preparation on a matter under discussion may suggest the
matter is not important to you.
The characteristics of the physical environment in which communication takes place can
have a significant effect on the way in which the encounter proceeds. In simple terms,
the design and the layout of the room and its contents can either help or hinder the
communication process. For example getting everyone to sit at the same table in a
meeting without specially allocating positions may indicate meeting as equals.
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Visual
Chapter Eight Communication
Study Tip!
Set Goals for yourself. Goals
concerning your studies help
you to become more focused
and motivated. Your goals
should have all the attributes of
SMART goals and you must
track your progress regularly.
This chapter outlines the various forms of visual communication

including tables, graphs, charts, pictures and colour.
144
8.1.0 Introduction
Visual communication can greatly enhance your communication. A simple diagram can
convey more information, more quickly and easily than hundreds of words. Images or
graphics can be easily used to explain relationship that would otherwise be difficult to
explain in words. Sometimes it is said a picture tells a story or a picture can paint a
thousand words, both sayings highlight the power of a picture as a communication
instrument. To learn more about the impact of visual communication consider the
following example.
Let us assume that I want to communicate with you the idea of a car. I can do this in
three different ways highlighted below.
Figure 8.1: Illustration of a Car
I can:
1. Say the word ‘car’ (Oral Communication)
2. Write the word ‘car’ (Written Communication)
3. Draw the picture of a ‘car’ (Visual Communication)
In the case of visual communication important attributes such a type of car, its colour,
model and passenger carrying capacity are immediately clear to you. All these attributes
are not obvious from the mere mention or writing of the word ‘car’. They have to be
described with words which could extend into a number of paragraphs. In this situation
visual communication has an advantage over the other two forms of communication.
However, let us consider another situation where an individual has no idea of what a car
is. Saying the word car, writing it or drawing a car would not help their knowledge and
understanding of what a car is. It might be more appropriate to combine all three forms
of communication as shown below.
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Car
Figure 8.2: Illustration of All Three Forms of Communication Used Together
The recipient can therefore attach meaning to the word ‘car’ and its picture, and in future
can identify, interpret and attach the appropriate meaning to those symbols. Generally,
visual communication is used in conjunction with oral or written communication. When
used this way clarity is ensured and deeper understanding is created.
8.1.1 Advantages of Visual Communication

Most of us find it easier to remember what we have seen than what we have heard or
read. This is largely because images can attract and retain our attention and interest. A
major advantage of visual communication is that there is a wide range of options to
choose from including picture, logos, icons, diagrams, graphs, charts and tables. Other
advantages re derived from the key characteristics of these individual options. Common
key characteristics include:
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1. A wide range of information can be conveyed in one image.

2. Images are good at showing relationships
3. Images can be quickly assimilated thereby making the information easy to
understand and remember
4. Images can be a solution to language barriers since they do not depend on any
particular language
5. Images can attract attention and encourage interest in the message being
communicated. This is especially important where the message is complicated
and long, and the recipient(s) has to remain engaged for a long time
8.2.0 Planning Visual Communication

From the above discussion it is clear that visual communication has a number of
advantages. However, it is always important for you to plan carefully on how you are
going to use them in your communication (oral or written). You should only use visual
methods if they improve your communication. In your plan you must consider the
purpose of the communication, and recipient.
8.2.1 Considering the Purpose

The purpose is the objective, the aim or intention f your communication. Two questions
that you must answer when considering your purpose of communication in relation to the
use of images are:
1. Would the communication be improved by using images to put across any of the
information in the message?
2. What would be the most appropriate format?
Do not ask yourself, what images should I sue? This question prompts you to use
images in your document or presentation even when it is not necessary. I have already
mentioned that images should be used only if they improve the communication. You
must select the appropriate option on the basis of their characteristics and the message
you want to communicate. As an example, if you want to show and emphasise the
fluctuations in sales figures a line graph might be appropriate. The up and down
movement of the line graph will emphasise these fluctuations and trends. Similarly, if you
want to show proportions a pie chart might be more appropriate.
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8.2.2 Considering your Recipient

Always bear in mind that the reasons for using visual communication is to enhance
communication and to help the recipient to understand your message. You must select
and use images that suit you audience or reader. A presentation to top management can
vary greatly from a presentation to shop floor employees on the same subject. This is
because their needs are different and they also have different uses for the same
information. Another example is the presentation of financial results by and organization
to its stakeholders. Management will be interested in a detailed analysis to help them in
decision making processes while shareholders will be interested in a simple, compact
and less detailed report. Their different interests will greatly influence the choice of
images for the reports.
It does not matter what type of images you use, the following 6 criteria must be met:
1. Select images which reflect the nature of communication and represent a
dimension of the subject under discussion. The image must naturally support the
communication rather than clash with it.
2. Where the image is used to convey information, make specific reference to it and
explain its meaning if necessary. Do not assume the recipient will understand it.
3. Ensure that the image is clear and large enough to be read easily do not use
words that are too small or difficult to read.
4. Opt for simplicity and clarity rather than complexity and confusion. Using different
colours to highlight area of particular relevance, especially on maps and charts,
or to distinguish between different types of information greatly increases clarity.
5. Do not use offensive images or those that upset your recipient.
6. Where images are used to stimulate interest, use them in situations and places
where the intended recipient needs to have their attention drawn to. As an
example, in an oral presentation use images to re-awaken interest in an oral
presentation at low attention periods, such as after lunch, before a break or
towards the end of a session.
8.3.0 Graphical Presentation of Statistical Data

Business information is often expressed in numbers. Important numerical data
(statistics) such as financial figures, sales figures, production levels etc. can be
summarized, analysed and presented visually using:
148
• Tables
• Bar charts
• Line graphs
• Area Chart
• Pie charts
• Histogram
• Pictograms
It is easier to generate graphs and charts with professional appearance on a computer

using spreadsheet or database software such as Microsoft Excel or Access.
8.3.1 Basic Principles for Using Graphical Methods

There are a number of guidelines that must be considered when using graphical
methods.
1. Graphs and charts must be given clear but brief titles. The titles must be
appropriate for the information being presented.
2. The axis of graphs and charts must be clearly labeled and the scales of axis
clearly marked.
3. diagrams should be accompanied by the original data or at least by a reference
to the source of the data
4. Avoid excessive detail as it defeats the objects of diagrams.
5. There should be a key or legend relating any shading or pattern used on a chart
to what it represents. In addition or in the place of a legend, labels can be used to
mark what each bar, segment or line represents.
6. All graphs and charts should display the source of information.
7. It is also advisable to cross reference all graphs and charts within text such as
see Figure 1.1 or refer to Chart 2.
Ensure that you dot produce graphical displays that distort the meaning of data by taking
note of the following:
1. You need to use the correct form of presentation for the type of data.
2. Information can be distorted if the axis on graphs and charts does not start from
zero.
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3. Distortion can also occur through varying the scale on the axis or comparing
diagrams which use different scales.
1. The Table
The table can be used as a source of information for other graphical forms; therefore it is
discussed first before the other forms. It is a commonly used form of visual
communication because it is simple and a convenient way of storing, summarizing and
presenting information. The information is presented in rows and columns identified by
appropriate titles. To learn more about the table consider the following example.
S & MS Associates sells two different products that can be identified as product A and
product B. The sales figures for the first half of the year 2009 were as follows:
• For product A: 200 units sold in January, 300 units sold in February,
800 units sold in March, 1000 units sold in April, 500 units sold in May
and 1200 units sold in June.
• For product B: 100 units sold in January, 400 units sold in February,
1000 units sold in March, 800 units sold in April, 300 units sold in May
and 50 units sold in June.
The selling price for each product is $100 per unit for product A and $80 for product B.
The targeted sales volumes for the period are 5000 units product A and 2000 units
product B.
The following are examples of tables that can be drawn from this information.
Table 8.1: Sales Volume for First Half 2009

Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
A 200 300 800 1000 500 1200
B 100 400 1000 800 300 50
Total 300 700 1800 1800 800 1250
Table 8.2: Sales Figures and Sales Revenue for First Half 2009
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Total SP/U $ SR $
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A 200 300 800 1000 500 1200 4000 100.00 400,000

B 100 400 1000 800 300 50 2650 80.00 212,000
Total 300 700 1800 1800 800 1250 6650 180.00 612,000
Table 8.3: Sales Variance Analysis for First Half 2009

Total Sales Planned Sales Variance % Variance
Volume Volume
A 4000 5000 -1000 -20%
B 2650 2000 650 32.5%
Total 6650 7000 350 12.5%
Important Features of the Table

1. Title of the table. The title of the table explains the function or the contents of the
table. It has to be clear and concise for it to help the reader to locate the right
table.
2. Items. The table can be used for comparison or it can be used to just show the
values of particular items. Tables can also be used to show descriptions of
events, things, places or people. The items in a table are presented in rows and
columns.
3. Totals for items. The value of the table is not dependant only on the quality of
information in the table but also on how easily the readers are able to understand
the table. Putting totals is one way of summarizing important values and ensuring
that readers quickly pick out the important values.
4. Units of measure for items. Items presented in the table must be accompanied by
units of measurement, for example $, tons, kg, etc.
Although the table can be used to present information in a summarized and compact
way it lacks visual impact of other forms of visual communication such as bar charts,
pictograms and pie charts.
2. Bar Chart
The bar chart consists of a series of bars which represent the values of the items
presented, a vertical and a horizontal axis. The bars can be presented vertically or
151
horizontally and can be stacked as in a component bar chart. Bar charts are useful for
showing data changes over a period of time or for illustrating comparisons among items.
The value of each bar is read off the scale on the axis. The following bar charts can be
drawn based on the information in our previous example.
3. Multiple Bar Chart

Where the bars are more than one the chart is known as a multiple bar chart. Here the
bars are presented side by side enabling comparisons of the totals to be made.
152
4. Component Bar Chart

The component bar chart consists of series of bars presented in two axes. The
component bar chart divides each bar into its components thereby allowing the reader to
see the composition of the overall quantity. The component bar chart can be drawn to
show the percentages of components.
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Important Features of the Bar Chart

1. Title of the chart. The title of the chart must be clear and concise. It explains the
items displayed in the chart.
2. Vertical axis and horizontal axis. The axes are used to show the values and the
categories of the items being displayed. Depending on the layout of the chart, the
values can be displayed on the vertical axis while the categories are shown on
the horizontal axis or vice versa. Both these axes have to be scaled and the
scales must be appropriate for data range. The most appropriate method for
scaling the value axis is to decide on the minimum and maximum value to be
displayed, calculate the range between the two values and then divide it into
equal parts. The category axis does not require such a method since the scale
154
depends on the categories being shown, in our example these are months. All
categories must be displayed.
3. Bars. The bars must be of equal width. The values of the items are shown by the
length of the bars. If there are many items under each category, the bars must be
distinguished by using different colours.
4. The legend. When there are many bars showing different items it is essential to
provide a legend to identify each bar. The legend is a key alongside the chart
that identifies the patterns or colours that are assigned to the items or categories
in the chart.
5. Values and data table. When the scale used does not show the values clearly it
is essential to put actual values at the top of each bar to help the reader. These
values can also be provided in a data table below the chart. The data table
shows legend keys and the value represented by each bar.
5. Line Graph
The line graph also known as the line chart is widely used to show trends and
fluctuations in figures over a period of time. Line graphs can display continuous data
over a period of time, set against a common scale, and are therefore ideal for showing
trends in data at equal intervals clearly. The line graph is presented on two axes just like
the bar chart, but unlike the bar chart the line graph consists of lines to show the values
of different items. One weakness of line graphs is that they become confusing to the
reader if a lot of lines are presented in one chart. Therefore it is recommended that the
number of lines must not exceed four. Line graph are very useful in showing
relationships between two variables. One variable is known as the independent variable
and the other is known as the dependent variable. The independent variable causes
changes in the other variable while the dependent variable changes according to
changes in the independent variable.
155
Important Features of the Line Graph

1. Features like, title, axes, legend and data tables are common and essential to all
charts.
2. Lines. The values of an item are shown by line. The line shows the movement of
the value of the item over time. If there are two or more items being displayed,
the lines must be distinguished by using different colours.
6. Area Chart
Data values can also be plotted in an area chart. Area charts emphasize the magnitude
of change over time, and can be used to draw attention to the total value across a trend.
156
Important Features of the Area Chart

1. Features like, title, axes, legend and data tables are common and essential to all
charts.
2. Area. The values of an item are shown the area. The area is the region below the
values of the item over time. If there is more than one item being displayed, the
areas must be distinguished by using different colours.
7. Radar Charts
Radar charts can be used to compare the aggregate values of a number of items.
157
8. Pie Chart
Pie charts are made up of a circular shape and information is divided into sectors of the
circle. Pie charts show the size of items in one data series, proportional to the sum of the
items. Since the pie chart uses a circular scale the sum of the items is equivalent to 360
degrees. The data points in a pie chart are displayed as a percentage of the whole pie.
To develop a pie chart you can follow these basic steps:

1. Add the data values of the items to find the total, this constitutes 100 percent.
2. Calculate the percentage share of each item by dividing the item data value by
the total and multiplying by 100%.
3. Calculate the angle of each sector by multiplying the percent of each item by 360
degrees.
4. Use the angles to draw the sectors.
5. Clearly label each sector by writing its percent value and its name. You can also
distinguish sectors by using different colours.
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Important Features of the Pie Chart

1. Title of the chart. The title must be concise and clearly state what is displayed.
2. Circular scale. The pie chart uses a circular scale. The total of the data values is
equivalent to 360 degrees.
3. Sector values. Percentage values of each sector must be shown clearly.
4. Each sector must be clearly identified usually using a different colour.
5. A legend must be provided to help the reader in identifying sectors.
9. Break Even Chart

The break even chart is useful tool for decision making and is used to show the
following:
1. The break-even point, that is, the point where revenues equals expenditure. At
this point the business makes neither loss nor profit.
2. The amount of profit or loss made at each level of output.
Through the break even analysis managers can decide on the price to be charged for
products and on the minimum sales volumes or production volumes per product. The
break even graph is drawn to show the following lines:
1. The fixed costs line
2. The variable costs line
3. The total costs line
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4. The total revenue line
Fixed costs are those cost that do not vary with quantity or level of activity. These
include rentals, and administrative expenses. Variable costs such as the cost of raw
material vary according to the quantity. The total cost is a sum of total fixed costs and
total variable cost. The total revenue is the calculated as the selling price multiplied by
the quantity sold.
8.4.0 Pictures
Pictures can be used as a medium of mass communication mostly in public signs,
advertisements, posters, labels and packages, and notices. The advantages of pictures
are that a lot of ideas can be communicated in one image, they are comprehensible to
the illiterate, easy to remember and that they overcome language barriers. They are
suitable where there is a need to show how something looks like, where something is
and how something relates to another. Pictures are however limited in the potential
applications. They are unsuitable for reasoned arguments, detailed instructions,
definitions, legal matters and recording discussions.
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Examples of pictures commonly used on freight packages are shown below. These
pictures communicate admirably especially considering that most people may not be
able to read instruction given in a particular language.
KEEP AWAY FROM HEAT FRAGILE THIS WAY UP
Figure 8.3: Examples of Pictograms used in Freight Packages
8.5.0 Use of Colour in Communication

The use of colour as a medium of communication is increasing, in particular in colour
coding of objects. A familiar example of this is the colour coding of insulation material on
the three wires of a three core electric cable; Brown for live, Blue for neutral, and Green
with Yellow stripes for earth. Gas canisters and pipelines are other examples where
colour coding is used for differentiation.
Colour choice is also essential on letterheads, logos, print and publicity material and
covers of handbooks. It is therefore critical for companies to select the best colours that
will capture the attention of the public, for example bright colours.
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8.6.0 Organisation Charts

Organisation charts are used extensively to show how the organisation is structured.
They show divisions, positions, hierarchical levels and reporting relationships between
different members of the organisation.
Production
Manager
Production Production Production Process Quality

planner Engineer Controller Engineer Controller
Production Production
Shift A Shift B
Supervisor Supervisor
Figure 8.4: Example of an Organisation Chart for a Production Department
8.7.0 Flow Charts

These are used to show the way in which steps or stages of a particular task are
connected to each other. A variation on the flow chart is the algorithm which shows
decision points and indicates the different routes which take place as a result of a
decision.
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Step 1 Review of Lean and Six Sigma Concepts
Value Stream Process Survey: Lean

Step 2 Mapping: Mapping: TFC six sigma
TFC application
Step 3 Identification of areas of application
Step 4 Implementation and Evaluation of

Benefits
Step 5 Recommendations and Conclusions
Figure 8.5: Example of a Flow Chart for a Research Project
8.8.0 Gantt Charts

Gantt charts are extensively used in production planning and control they show planned
(estimated) and actual times for all the tasks involved in a task or project.
Painting
Roofing
Activity
Superstructure
Foundation Laying
1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Estimated Time in Weeks
Figure 8.6: Example of a Gantt Chart
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Communication
Information
Chapter Nine Technology and
Communication
Exam Tips
1. Arrive on time.
2. Read directions carefully to avoid careless errors.
3. If there is time, quickly look through the exam for an
overview. Note key terms, jot down brief notes.
4. Answer questions in a strategic order. Always
budget you time accordingly.
5. Answer easy questions first to build confidence.
6. Answer difficult questions next.
7. Review your answers. Review your exam to make
sure that you have answered all questions.
8. Proofread your writing for spelling, grammar,
punctuation, decimal points, etc.
9. Change answers to questions to check if you have
answered correctly.
10. Use study strategies that worked best for you.
This chapter highlights some of the important issues in information

technology and how they impact on communication.
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9.1.0 Introduction
Over the past years computers have become more powerful, cheaper and easier to use.
They have become central to communication and have enabled large amounts of
information to be communicated easily and at great speeds. Computers enable us to
communicate more effectively and efficiently than in the past.
9.2.0 Computer Systems Overview

A computer system is just like any other system comprising of inputs, processing and
outputs. Inputs are a set of commands made through input devices such as the
keyboard, mouse, optical pen, barcode readers, scanner, etc. processing is undertaken
in the central processing unit (CPU). Output such as reports or results of processing are
displayed on monitors or produced by other devices such as a printer.
The computer system consists of hardware and software. Hardware are the physical
parts of the computer such as the monitor, keyboard, mouse, while software are a set of
program which enable the user to perform specific function on the computer.
9.2.1 Computer Hardware

Computer hardware can be classified into input devices, the central processing unit,
storage devices, and output devices.
1. Input Devices
The main input devices are the keyboard, mouse, optical and pressure pens, scanners
and video and audio input devices.
1. The keyboard is used to enter alphabetic and numerical data as well as issue
commands and queries. It consists of keys with letter, words, numbers, and
symbols written on top that are used to enter information. Pressing a key
produces the character labeled on the key on the monitor or executes the
command on the key. For one to use the keyboard properly some training on
keyboarding is required.
2. The mouse is a pointing device used to point and select icons on the screen.
Moving the mouse allows the pointer (cursor) to move and in this way the user
can position the cursor anywhere on the screen. Once the cursor has been
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accurately positioned the two buttons on the top of the mouse can be used for
selection. The left button is used to select while the right button brings out a
menu of options.
3. Optical or pressure pens are special types of pointing devices that allow the
user to select an item, write or draw on an optical or pressure sensitive screen.
4. Scanners are devices which can “read” printed material or magnetic data, and
convert it into electronic signals to be sent to an attached computer. Scanners
include image scanners, character recognition scanners and bar code readers.
5. Video and audio input devices are used to input images and sounds. Video
images can be inputted through video cameras while sounds can be inputted
through microphones.
2. Output Devices
Output devices include, monitors, printers, and sound output devices.
1. The monitor is a screen that enables the user to see the results of processing. It
is a TV like screen. The monitor is referred to as a visual display unit (VDU).
Monitors come in various sizes for 14” to 21”.
2. Printers enable documents to be printed on paper. Printed documents are

known as hard copies. There are various types of printers with different printing
capabilities including the dot matrix, inkjet, and laser jet.
3. A common example of sound output devices are speakers. These can be

inbuilt or peripheral.
3. The Central Processing Unit

The word CPU is often used to refer the part of the computer that contains the hard disk,
processor, floppy drives, DVD/CD drives, etc. In reality this is a tiny component that
carries out various computer processes. It also referred to as the heart of the computer.
Although not a part of the CPU, the computer’s main memory is usually thought to be a
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part of it because it is integral to its operation. The main memory consists of random
access memory (RAM). The RAM is a temporary store of data and instructions; once the
computer is switched off the contents of RAM are erased.
4. Storage Devices
Data in a computer can be stored in the primary memory or secondary memory.
Secondary storage devices include the hard disk, floppy disks, CD or DVD, flash or
memory sticks, etc.
1. The hard disk provides the computer’s main secondary storage facility. Data can
be stored, retrieved, edited or deleted from the hard disk. The storage capacity of
hard disks has increased over the years with some personal computers with hard
disks up to 140 GB. Hard disks with as much as one Terabyte capacity are
available on the market.
2. CDs and DVDs are also used to store programs and data, mainly for back up
purposes. Originally these were only read only devices but they now can be
provided as rewritable.
3. Floppy disks are also used to provide back up storage and to transfer data from
one computer to another in the same way as memory sticks. Floppy disks are
cheap, but their main disadvantage is their limited capacity (1.44 MB). Memory
sticks on the other hand provide more capacity, even up to 8 GB.
9.2.2 Software
Software is a set of programs performing specific functions. A program is a set of
instruction. Software can be classified into two main categories which are operating or
system software and application software.
1. Operating software controls and manages the operation and performance of the
computer itself. Examples are MS DOS and Windows.
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2. Application software enables the user to perform specific functions. These

include database, spreadsheet, word processing software, and drawing
packages.
9.3.0 Computer Networks

Networking enables computers to communicate and share data or information. A
computer network is a group of computers which are connected to each other and are
able to exchange data. A network can be just two computers or the world wide internet.
There are two main types of computer networks, namely local area networks (LANs) and
wide area networks (WANs).
A local area network links computers over small distances, usually in the same building
by using cables. Wide area networks link computers over long distance through
telephone or satellite links.
9.4.0 The Internet

This is a wide area network. Also referred to as the World Wide Web, the internet is a
global network of computers. Most companies have web sites that can be browsed by
other internet users. Web sites are a collection of linked web pages that allow
companies to give information about the product and services, and activities thereby
helping in their marketing.
The internet also supports the e-mail facility that allows individuals from across the globe
to communicate with one another. Recently online chat facilities have been introduced,
further enhancing communication amongst individuals. Another recent development is
the use of Voice over Internet Protocol (VoIP) which enables users to make phone calls
via the internet. Not only is one able to make phone calls but one is now able to the
person at the other end through the use of web cameras.
Companies have benefited immensely from the development of the internet through E-
Commerce which has seen more and more companies conducting business on the
internet. E-Commerce refers to doing business on the internet. Companies can sell their
products through the internet with payments being made through credit cards.
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9.5.0 Telephone Systems

The developments in computer technology have been mirrored in telephone systems.
Indeed, the technology is the same in many instances, particularly in respect of the
development of communications media with use if new forms of cabling, radio waves
and satellites. We can distinguish telephone systems according to whether they are
based on line lines for connection or use radio signal to facilitate mobile use.
1. Land line systems

There has been an explosion of new facilities available on telephone, originally through
the internal systems within organizations and, increasingly now, available within public
telephone systems. These include the following:
1. The ability to transfer calls direct to another phone on the same system.
2. The ability to hold one call whilst taking another on the same line, and to switch
between those calls.
3. The ability to divert calls to another phone.
4. The ability to leave messages using an answer phone or through voicemail
facilities.
2. Mobile phones
Mobile phones also known as cellular phones have experienced huge growth in recent
years. They enable all the benefits of telephone communication without the necessity of
bring tied to a land-based telephone. They can, therefore, be used anywhere. In addition
to all the facilities available through land line telephones, mobile phones offer two
additional facilities:
1. The ability to send text messages.
2. The ability to connect to the Internet. The latest mobile can connect to the
Internet and enable the user to access web pages as well as sending and
receiving e-mails.
3. Pagers
Pagers are small devices that certain people may carry with them in order to be alerted
about a need to do something or contact someone. Paging systems do not actually use
telephones as such. They enable individuals to be contacted by a central service. The
person receiving the message may be required to telephone someone immediately on
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receipt (as in hospitals where paging messages are used to contract particular doctors
as necessary).
4. Fax or facsimile
This system enables the user to send a hard (paper) copy of a document over the
telephone line. It allows letter type communication without the delay of actually
transporting the specific piece of paper from the communicator to the recipient. Fax
machines convert the document into electronic form for transmission via the telephone
system and the machine at the receiving end converts the signal back into text and
prints an exact copy of the original document. Fax machines may be dedicated piece of
equipments or they may be dual propose, also, being normal telephones.
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Sample
Appendices Questions &
Answers
Question 1
Business communicators have come to realise that improving their listening skills is very
important. Briefly, explain the importance of listening skills.
Suggested Solution
1. Improved relationships:
There is no doubt that good listeners attract other people to them and this will deepen
relationships.
2. Better understanding of those with whom we communicate:

The more time people spend talking and especially listening to each other, the better
understanding of each other they will have which will create benefits for all. Conversely,
not listening can result in many misunderstandings, particularly if a message has then to
be conveyed to others. Individuals may miss appointments, fail to grasp the salient facts
of a communication, or fail to hear the name of the person they are speaking to.
3. Possession of all the information:

It is only good listening that will enable a business employee, such as a manager, to
gather all the information needed from the communicator as well as stimulate new ideas.
4. The motivation of others:

Other people feel more motivated to talk and discuss matters if they feel that they are
being listened too.
5. Resolution of problems:
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Only good listening and therefore appropriate dialogue can enable problems to be
resolved. In a customer –oriented environment, not listening to internal and external
individuals, groups or markets could prove fatal to the development or existence of that
business.
Question 2
Logos and letterheads play a significant role in business communication as well as in
marketing. Describe the role played by these visual aides in communication.
Suggested Solution
1. Creating awareness
2. Encouraging interest
3. Retaining involvement
4. Achieving instant results /responses
5. Describing in one image an entire proposal or concept
6. Being memorable
7. Complementing the spoken word
8. Reinforcing corporate identity
9. Adding variety to your presentation
10. Illustrate the point or concept you are making/introducing
11. Reveal a product or image rather than describe it
Question 3
All good business communication must have a beginning, middle and end. There are
four key aspects considered in structuring communication. Clarity is also essential in
conveying messages
a) Discuss the 7C’s that enhance clarity of messages communicate
Suggested Solution
This approach sets out a range of practical points, which assist the need for clarity in
respect of conveying the content of messages.
1. Clear
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If the message is ambiguous or otherwise unclear, then the communication itself will be
a waste of time and effort. Careful thought needs to be given to the composition of the
communication, so that the ideas are ordered and the words and phrases used are clear
in expression and meaning. This may mean defining particular technical terms or lesser
known concepts or procedures. Short, simple and structured sentences help, as does
the use of headings (particularly in reports and memorandum).
2. Concise
Sometimes it will be necessary to spend time explaining a particularly important issue,
but brevity – compatible with the complexity of the information being conveyed – will help
to the message home. This does not mean that you should cut corners in conveying the
information. It means that you should give careful though to the most effective and most
economical way in which you can express your ideas. Often, we are tempted to dress up
our language to make it sound “important”. If we can resist this, we will still be able to
produce professional and appropriate communications, which are not full of “verbal
padding”.
3. Correct
In most business communication, accuracy is of paramount importance. The implications
of inaccuracies can be very serious indeed, particularly when recorded in official
documents. It is, therefore, vital that all facts and figures should be checked. And, do not
lose sight of the need to check the text for errors, especially in figures, names and
addresses.
4. Courteous
In any form of communication, it pays to consider it as a personal address to the
recipient(s). This applies to communication across the board, to customers or clients, to
colleagues, or to subordinates alike.
5. Complete
It can be very frustrating to be on the receiving end of communication, perhaps
something which you have been awaiting with some eagerness, only to find that it gives
only half the picture, or half the answers to your questions. It is important, therefore, to
ensure that you deal with each piece of information fully.
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There may, of course, be occasions when it is impossible to give a complete answer, for
example, if you are awaiting information yourself. If this is the case, you need to state
that clearly, so that the recipient knows when and how to expect a full response. Being
complete may mean beyond what were your original terms of reference for the
communication. Other information may need to be brought in, in order for the complete
picture to be presented.
6. Consistent
The flow of language is considerably aided by consistency in its use, such as
standardizing the person and tense used, and sticking to a particular style and tone
throughout.
7. Convincing
It is very important to show confidence and commitment in what you communicate, even
though there may be times when you do not actually feel that in what you have to do at
work. Doubt, ambiguity and vagueness come through very clearly in all forms of
communication. Message need to be conveyed with conviction or they will not be taken
seriously.
(b) Deliberate on the four key aspects considered in structuring communication.
The structure of any communication whether long or short, simple or complex, formal or
informal exists to guide the reader or listener through what you have to say. It helps to
make the information and arguments being presented more accessible and clear.
Therefore, the structure must be inviting to the reader, and help them to follow the
discussion throughout.
There are four key aspects to consider here:

1. The flow and development of points;
2. Headings;
3. Numbering; and
4. Layout.
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a) Flow and the development of points

All communications need to have a logical flow from one point to the next. This does not
necessarily have to be linear, in that point A follows directly after point B which is then
followed by point C. Structure your work into clear and intelligible paragraphs, easy with
a coherent theme. Each new line of argument needs a new paragraph, and there should
be a clear progression form one paragraph to the next
b) Headings
The use of headings and sub-headings act as signpost to the reader. They orientate the
reader to the specific subject under discussion, but they also indicate the relationships
between different topics by the way in which they are brought together under particular
headings. Sub-headings bring out the hierarchical relationships between information
c) Numbering
Numbering has two purposes:
1. It helps to show the relationship between information – so, for example, sections
numbered 1.1, 1.2, etc. are clearly subsidiary to section numbered 1; and
2. If facilities reference to particular parts of the communication, either internally
within the text or by readers in discussions of it – as in, for example, “ see
paragraph 4”
d) Lay-out
The way in which information is set out on the page can be a considerable aid to the
structuring of a document, as well as assisting readability and emphasizing meaning.
Question 4
Meetings have always been an arena for discussion and solving problems via
consensus among members. Supposing you were a chairperson, how would you ensure
optimal participation of members?
Suggested Solution
Issue a notice inviting participants to attend and prepare an agenda and have it
circulated. It might also be suitable to attach minutes of a previous meeting if one had
taken place and (more or less) the same participants are attending the one forthcoming.
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These documents ensure all members are adequately prepared for the meeting. Also a
logical and structured agenda ensures all members focus attention on one subject,
which means there will be minimal divergence. The meeting room should be devoid of
noise as well as other distractions. Participants should be made aware of their behaviour
towards each other, otherwise will be mitigation against successful meeting. This
eliminates such behaviours as stereotyping of participants or self stereotyping. This can
be done through enforcing codes of conduct. Give opportunity to all so that different
perspectives and interpretations can be identified.
Question 5
Modern technology has brought about dynamic changes in communication systems.
Explain why e-mail has become a popular channel of communication in today’s
business.
Suggested Solution
1. It is relatively quick, usually only taking a few minutes to communicate with
others anywhere in the organization or, indeed, the word.
2. It is relatively low-cost – using the Internet, it is about the same as the cost of a
local telephone call to send a message anywhere in the world.
3. It is easy to copy a message to many people at the same time for no extra cost.
4. It is easy to distribute information such as reports, spreadsheets and other
documents by attaching them as electronic files to the messages that you send.
5. It is available around the clock, every day of the week.
Question 6
Often school administrations draft report forms in order to convey the student’s
academic performance to their parents or guardians. Elaborate on the types of forms
used in business communication.
Suggested Solution
1. Routine business forms
Many forms are used for recording routine events in a company. They are usually short,
and include no unnecessary information. An example of the most common sort is the
telephone message form
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2. Report forms
These are forms on which an occurrence of a routine nature is reported. Some forms of
this kind, such as accident report forms, are legal obligations. Clarity of design and
layout is, therefore, very important.
3. Application forms
You will probably be all too familiar with application forms for jobs, as these are the most
common kinds of application forms which we all have to fill in. However, there are many
other kinds of form which have a similar purpose. They include public forms, such as
applications for driving licenses, passport applications, applications for loans, credit
cards and other financial arrangements, and countless other similar kind of form.
4. Questionnaires
Questionnaires are forms directed at gaining information about people’s habits and
opinions. In business, their main use is in market research.
Question 7
An urgent meeting is to be held in the afternoon. You are required to draft a notice to
that effect. Discuss the requirements you will put in mind in designing the notice.
Suggested Solution
a) Use a simple message
In general terms, there are three rules to remember when you are developing the
content of the message.
1. Use a simple and direct vocabulary. You’re expecting a larger number of people
to read the notice so you must make sure they will all understand the message.
2. Keep the notice as short as possible.
3. Avoid giving offence. Don’t talk down or sound authoritarian because you will
create resentment.
4. Use a direct style and think carefully about the wording.
5. Note that, in notice, you don’t need to write in full sentences as long as you make
your point clearly.
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b) Use a clear heading

Any notice you write should have a clear, precise heading which no one can
misunderstand and which captures the attention of an onlooker. There’s no point in
having the word NOTICE in large capital letters, a five or six word heading is far more
effective and shouldn’t be too difficult to think up on once you’ve decided on the
message.
c) Use plenty of space

Advertisers and designers use the term “white space” for the amount of blank paper in a
notice or advertisement. Remember that notices may be read by people at some
distance from the notice-board – the clearer they are, the easier it will be for people to
read them at a distance, which will help to ensure that your message reaches everyone
who should be aware of it.
1. Always leave plenty of space between lines – the equivalent of missing out one
or even two lines of writing in a letter.
2. Leave wide margins at both sides, and at the top and bottom.
3. Make one or two drafts in which you experiment with putting the main points in
different orders.
4. Try putting important pieces of information, such as dates, times, places of
meetings and similar vital details on separate lines, which plenty of space around
them.
d) Highlight important words or phrases

We have already suggested tat you should stress key words or phrases by placing them
on separate lines. Other ways of making them stand out include:
1. Using capitals
2. Underlining them
3. Using different coloured inks
4. Placing lines around them.
e) Use illustrations
Illustrations can often be useful in conveying an idea – although they need to be fairly
professional if they are to be really effective. Keep them simple though; your aim is to
illustrate a point in the text, not dominate all the space available. Like highlighting, you
178
should use illustrations sparingly to emphasise only the most important points of your
notice.
f) Display and Sitting

However well you design your notice, it won’t achieve its purpose unless you also
display it properly. This means having notice-boards in good positions, and arranging
notices on them clearly. The following points are relevant.
1. Notice-boards should be sited in areas where all the relevant people will see
them. Avoid putting them in narrow corridors or on walls next to door so that they
disappear when doors open.
2. They should be set at a height where the average person can read them.
Remember that men and women have different average height and take both
into account.
3. The board should be divided clearly so that notices about different topics each
have their own areas – for example, health and safety, union, staff
announcements, urgent and social.
4. Make someone responsible for clearing notice-boards regularly so that old
notices don’t remain for months and obscure new material. Some firms date-
stamp notices when they are put up, and make a point of removing them within a
certain period
Question 8
Statistical information can be displayed via various tools and techniques. Supposing, you
were dealing with statistical data, elucidate the tools you would deploy in communicating
the information?
Suggested Solution
1. Histograms
Histograms should not be confused with bar charts. Bar charts are used for discrete or
non-continuous data and so are best drawn using a separate bar for each item that is
being represented. Histograms are used to display continuous data such as earnings,
mileage, examination marks, heights of people etc. and as such, to indicate the
continuous nature of the data, there is usually no gap between the bars. For example, if
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you were to show the monthly gross earnings of employees in a histogram, you would
first group the information together to produce a frequency table.
2. Line Graphs
These are used to show how one variable changes in relation to changes in another.
The second variable is known as the independent variable – i.e. the variable which
causes change in the other variable. That other variable is the dependent variable – i.e.
the variable which changes according to changes in the other. The independent variable
is shown on the X axis and the dependent variable is on the y-axis.
Lines graphs are very effective at showing movements over time or against other varying
circumstances, such as changing price or different production quantities. They can
illustrate trend very clearly and, by showing data from a number of different situations on
the same graph, allow comparisons to be drawn. Line graphs should, though, have not
more than four lines types; otherwise they become confusing for the reader.
3. Bar Charts
Bar charts are most common method of presenting information in a visual way. They
consist of one more bars in which the bar length indicates the quantity of the item it
relates to (as specified on the y axis).
There are different types of bar chart. The bars can be presented vertically or
horizontally, but can also be stacked in component bar charts and grouped in multiple
bar charts. Bar charts should not usually have more than 12 bars or the chart can
become confusing.
4. Pie Charts
Pie charts are used to show the relative size of different items making up an overall total
(of 100%). It is a very effective means of illustrating proportions of a whole where there
is no necessary to compare that whole with another. If you wish to emphasize a
particular segment, it can be exploded. Ideally, pie charts should have no more than
eight sections, with the largest segment usually shown running clockwise from the top of
the pie. Each segment should be labeled, sometimes including a value and a percentage
share. The overall total is also usually stated.
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5. Tables
Tables can be used for recording and displaying a wide range of numerical data. The
use of tables to summarise information in terms of relationships or under headings,
comes from the fact that, in tables, you do not need to use full sentences. The
information is presented in truncated form and is likely to be more easily absorbed,
although it is important to remember that this is a summary device and fuller discussion
of the issues raised will probably be necessary elsewhere
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Appendices Bibliography
Students are encouraged to consult the following texts for further reading:
182
Sample
Appendices Quetionairre
Questionnaire for Competitive Advantage and Manufacturing Process

Improvement through Lean Six Sigma Concepts Dissertation
______________________________________________________________________
Questionnaire for completion by production, engineering and technical managers
or supervisors
______________________________________________________________________
May I request you to take a few minutes of your busy schedule to complete this
questionnaire whose purpose is to collect primary data on how companies can improve
manufacturing processes and gain a competitive advantage through the use of lean six
sigma concepts.
Please return the completed questionnaire to Takawira Robin Chikowore.
Thank you for taking part in this survey.
Section 1: Research Aim and Objectives
Aim of Research:
The aim of the research is to identify areas were six sigma and lean manufacturing
principles can be applied within process and discrete environments in Zimbabwe so as
to achieve efficient utilisation and management of resources
Objectives of the Research:
183
• To identify major challenges in application of lean six sigma in process and

discrete industries in Zimbabwe.
• To understand fully the impact of these concepts on manufacturing cost and
business performance.
• To determine ways in which these concepts can be applied
• To demonstrate fully how companies in Zimbabwe can use these techniques:
1. Achieve efficient utilisation and management of resources
2. Reduce order lead times and manufacturing cycle times
3. Ensure that work methods are not wasteful of human effort though
standardisation and improvement of methods of operation
4. Reduce the level of defects to minimum levels
Section 2: Definition of Lean Six Sigma

Lean and six sigma are both concepts based on cultural change. Lean manufacturing
requires a complete change of traditional management and thinking patterns. The lean
concept is based on flow of value and identification and removal of waste. Six sigma is
again a system where the cultural change is a must, however this time focusing on
quality and bringing processes under control. Merging lean manufacturing with six sigma
has the advantages of both lean and six sigma. Chief among them is that lean can
deliver results quicker and more efficiently while six sigma can bring the process under
statistical control. So the end result would be a controlled and measurable system with
quick and efficient ways of process improvements. Thus lean six sigma involves
delighting customers with speed and quality, and improving process flow and speed. It
emphasises that speed is directly tied to excellence.
Lean six sigma tools and techniques include:

• 5S and Visual factory management (VFM)
• Standardized work
• Waste identification and elimination
• Value-stream mapping
• Kaizen or continuous improvement
• Error proofing or poka yoke
• Just in time (JIT)
• Total productive maintenance (TPM)
184
• Cellular manufacturing
• Set up reduction (SMED)
• Single piece flow or takt time
• Kanban system
• DMAIC
• Project charters
• Suppliers’ inputs process output and customers (SIPOC) process map
• Prioritization matrix and Pareto analysis
• Statistical process control (SPC)
• Failure modes and effect analysis (FMEA)
• Root cause analysis and hypothesis tests
• Design of Experiments (DOE)
• Regression analysis and analysis of variance (ANOVA)
Section 3: Questions
Part 1 – Company Profile
Name of Company Business………………………………...
City……………………………… Age of Company…………………….
Number of Employees ……….. Number of suppliers…………………..

Sector Types: Manufacturing Service Food Processing
Other (Define) …………………………………………………………
Industry ………………………………………………………………
Products: ……………………………………………………………..
Market: Export? Local? Both?
185
Part 2: Lean Six Sigma Status
1. Has your company started implementing lean or six sigma? (Tick one that
applies)
Yes No
2. To what extent has you company implemented lean six sigma? (Tick one that
applies)
0-25% 26-50% 51-75% 76-100%
3. Which of the following lean and six sigma initiatives are you currently
implementing? (Tick all that apply)
Lean Six Sigma Tool Yes No

1 5S
2 Kaizen or continuous improvement
3 Total productive maintenance (TPM)
4 Value steam mapping
5 Just in time (JIT) purchasing
6 Set up reduction (SMED)
7 Cellular manufacturing
8 Error proofing
9 Visual Factory Management
10 Standardised work
11 Waste identification and elimination
12 Kanban system
13 DMAIC
14 Project charters
15 SIPOC process map
186
16 Statistical process control (SPC)

17 Failure mode and effect analysis (FMEA)
18 Root cause analysis
19 Design of Experiments (DOE)
4. How much progress have you made in implementing each of the tools?
(Tick where appropriate)
Lean Six Sigma Tool Good Getting None as

Progress Going yet
1 5S
2 Kaizen or continuous improvement
3 Total productive maintenance (TPM)
8 Error proofing
11 Waste identification and elimination
12 Kanban system
13 DMAIC
14 Project charters
17 Failure mode and effect analysis
187
5. How effective has been each of the initiatives you have implemented?
(Tick that applies)
Lean Six Sigma Tool Very Effective Ineffective N/A

Effective
1 5S
2 Kaizen or continuous
improvement
3 Total productive maintenance
(TPM)
8 Error proofing
11 Waste identification and
elimination
12 Kanban system
13 DMAIC
14 Project charters
17 Failure mode and effect analysis
(FMEA)
188
Part 3: Benefits of Implementation
1. Which of these benefits have you begun achieving since implementation of lean
six sigma? (Tick all that apply)
Benefit Yes No
1 Improved product quality
2 Increased staff morale
3 Reduced inventory
4 Reduced waste
5 Improved efficiency
6 Reduced costs
7 Shorter lead times
8 Increased customer satisfaction
9 Increased profitability
10 Increased competitiveness
11 Other 1 (specify)
12 Other 2 (specify)
2. What cost saving have you realized from the initiatives you have implemented?
(Tick one that applies)
0-10% 11-20% 21-30% 30+%
Part 4: Barrier and Challenges during implementation
1. What barriers have you faced during implementation? (Tick all that apply)
Barrier Yes No
1 High Investment costs
189
2 Nature of manufacturing facility

3 Lack of understanding of the principles
4 Attitude of employees
5 Attitude of management
6 Lack of commitment of top management
7 Other 1 (specify)
8 Other 2 (specify)
2. What has been the biggest challenge your company faced in implementing these
initiatives?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
3. What is the driving force towards implementation of lean six sigma?
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
Part 5: Other Business Systems
1. Which of the following business systems is you company using? (Tick all that
apply)
Business System Yes No

1 ISO systems
190
2 Business excellence system

3 Balanced Scorecard
4 Other 1 (specify)
5 Other 2 (specify)
2. Does your company use overall equipment effectiveness (OEE) as a measure of

performance? (Tick one that applies)
Yes No
3. What is the current OEE of the key equipment in your company? (Tick one that
applies)
<60% 60-80% >80%
4. At what level was the OEE before implementing lean six sigma? (Tick one that
applies)
<60% 60-80% >80%
______________________________________________________________________
Q. Thank you once again for your time. Would you like a copy of the survey results?
Yes No
________________________________________
N.B- Questionnaire reproduced with permission
191

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G.S.

S Get Set for Success Series

Marketing Training Academy

Business Communication Study Pack

© 2009, Marketing Training Academy

Typeset, printed and bound by the Marketing Training Academy.

Marketing Training Academy

Marketing Training Academy

About Marketing Training Academy

About the Communication Study Pack

About the Authors

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION TO COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER TWO: COMMUNICATION MEDIA AND CHANNELS

2.6.0 Importance of Non-Verbal Communication .................................................... 20

CHAPTER THREE: PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

CHAPTER FOUR: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION SKILLS

CHAPTER FIVE: COMMUNICATION IN ORGANISATIONS

5.2.1 Interpersonal Communication ........................................................................ 42

CHAPTER SIX: WRITTEN COMMUNICATION

6.4.0 The Memorandum ......................................................................................... 87

CHAPTER SEVEN: ORAL COMMUNICATION

7.5.0 Meetings ...................................................................................................... 122

CHAPTER EIGHT: NON-VERBAL COMMUNICATION

8.2.2 Considering your Recipient .......................................................................... 148

CHAPTER NINE: INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND COMMUNICATION

APPENDICES SECTION from page 171

This chapter provides a working definition of communication, outlines

1.1.0 Introduction and Definition of Communication

Communication is something we do every time, deliberately, or accidentally without even

Communication involves people. In business, communication happens between workers,

1.2.0 The Purpose of Communication

1.3.0 The Process of Communication

Sender Encode Message Channel Decode Recipient

Figure 1.1: Communication Process

1.3.1 The Sender

1.3.3 The Message

1.3.4 The Channel

1.3.6 The Recipient

1.4.0 One-Way and Two-Way Communication

Examples of one-way communication include advertisements and public speeches. In

1.5.0 Barriers to Effective Communication

2. Poor Communication Skills

6. Experience and Background

10. Inconsistent Verbal and Non Verbal Communication

1.6.0 Strategies for Overcoming Barriers

2. Overcoming Poor Communication Skills

5. Overcoming Language Differences and Jargon

6. Overcoming Information Overload

7. Overcoming Inconsistent Verbal and Non Verbal Communication

This chapter outlines the various communication forms, their advantages

2.2.0 Written Communication

Table 2.1: Examples of Written Communication

4. Forms and Questionnaires

10. Written Telephone Message

2.2.1 Advantages of Written Communication

2.2.2 Disadvantages of Written Communication

2.3.0 Oral Communication

Table 2.2: Examples of Oral Communication

4. Group / Committee Meeting

2.3.1 Advantages of Oral Communication

2.3.2 Disadvantages of Oral Communication

2.4.0 Visual Communication

Table 2.3: Examples of Visual Communication