The definition of sound

David Topping, January 1999

Our knowledge can only be finite, while our ignorance must necessarily be infinite.
Karl Popper, Conjectures and Refutations

I keep six honest serving-men

(They taught me all I knew);
Their names are What and Why and When
And How and Where and Who.
Rudyard Kipling
he purpose of this paper is to define the terms under which the process of my study will proceed. After some careful reflection, this statement seems a trifle
bold for what, at this early stage in the proceedings, is a rather ‘woolly’ and increasingly qualified, understanding of the concept of both the subject at hand
and the nature of definition itself. In preparation for writing this paper I consulted the previous papers and statement’s that I’d produced during my MA Fine
Art degree and while formulating the points that formed the basis of my M.Phil./Ph.D. application. One quote struck me as relevant in the formation of this
new paper; "As I started to reread the course of study I wrote at the beginning of the first year, what struck me most in retrospect, was that a document
intended as speculation on the future was in fact no more than a summary of the past." Consequently, my intention here is to provide a signpost for future
artistic speculation on themes relating to the use, definition and understanding of three words. Not ‘No New Taxes’ as American Ex-President George Bush
would have it when advising the American public to read his lips, but data, information and knowledge. These are constant themes that I find running
through most, if not all, of my work from undergraduate level onwards.

Along with reviewing my own written work, I also found some notes I’d made while looking at publications relating to ‘doing’ a Ph.D. Three points I‘d
noted stood out, not only because they seemed to be logical in the sense of academic study, but also because they seemed to encapsulate my understanding of
my own artistic practice. They were:
Reorient our thinking – finding out that you don’t know something
To make us question what we think we do know
Focus on new aspects of our complex nature
As mentioned above, my starting point for this process is in a definition…

Some Other Kind of Information

Informational Relationships and (within) Art (as) System(s)

The original title for this course of study grew out of a desire to understand the nature of relationships. How one can sense patterns, and how we gain
understanding of one thing from looking at something else. In my application statement I quoted David Weinberger and his ideas of informational links,
which is an area also examined by McKenzie Wark.

"There is, however, an art of information. It consists not only in styling something so that, despite the serendipity of interpretation, it will make a difference
for someone somewhere…It appear less a ‘thing’ and more and more a ‘relation.’…If there is an art of information, might it not also be that information is
the matter of art? This may be the way art increasingly appears in these times. It is not the sensuous physical properties that we take to be the matter of art. It
is not even the qualities of image. It is the qualities of relation those properties and images support."

However this may be jumping the gun somewhat, and perhaps I need to ‘question what I think I do know.’ Researching various areas in preparation for
defining my terms has also made me re-evaluate the title of this course of study. The current and no doubt fluid title is becoming The Artist as Information
Architect, and it’s from here that the definition of the terms, data, information and knowledge will revolve.

Currently, these terms are used somewhat interchangeably and with what appears unproblematic abandon. Prominent authors discussing an Information or
Knowledge Society fair no better. Toffler (1990) uses the word’s "data", "information", and "knowledge" interchangeably throughout his book merely "to
avoid tedious repetition". While the new tools we use in our search for definition, provide just as confused a picture. In a small-scale study conducted for this
paper, the three terms were entered into two popular World Wide Web search engines, Alta Vista and Excite. Alta Vista returned 28,395,838 pages on the
term data, 64,069,611 on the term information, 5,892,945 on the term knowledge and when all three terms were searched together 2,724,489 pages were
returned. Quantity of course is only one measure and ranking in relevance is usually more of a telling key. Alta Vista returned the computing company
Internet Data Solutions as the most relevant response to the term data, It ignored the term information as 64,069,611 pages was too many to process and
knowledge brought us ‘developping knowledge/rule based, object oriented applications with orisa’, hardly a metaphysical response. The results were similar
with Excite. Is it logical though, to expect a technological approach to furnish us with a technologically orientated response? More importantly could we
draw the inference that the nature and scope of the ‘Information Super-Highway’ renders these, and probably most terms obsolete for any serious study, as
for most Internet users these and similar search engines provide the access and reference points for any exploration into cyberspace. Or are we at a stage
when anecdotal evidence would suggest that quite often the response, as in this case, is primarily commercial. Search engines claim to use their automated
computer programs to ‘index’ the World Wide Web. UNESCO has defined an index as a "systematically arranged list giving enough information about each
item to enable it to be identified and traced." So maybe we are being unfair to expect more and need to seek an element of human intervention and
interpretation in cataloging.

In his exploration of these three terms in his book The Information Society, William Martin draws together the opinions by Forest Horton, Fitz Machlup, and
Nicolas Jequier amongst others. From his exploration he concludes the following; there is no strict hierarchical form, with data at the bottom and knowledge
at the top; the difference between information and knowledge is greater than that between data and information; information has distinct popular and
technical concepts and that knowledge "is universally regarded as a much wider concept than information."

Would it help to consider these terms in an essentially artistic framework? As a response to the use of a generalised search, I also undertook a study of the
Art Abstracts database. Doubtless the results provide little in furthering our understanding but make interesting reading nonetheless. The term Data provided
939 responses and the top ten matches included articles in Animation Magazine (2), The Archaeological Journal, Crafts Report (2), L’Architettura,
Blueprint, Museums Journal, Landscape Architecture and World Archaeology. Information provided 3521 responses with articles from Fine Woodworking,
Animation Magazine, Crafts Report (6) and Art Papers (2) in the top ten. Knowledge provided a similar response with 1175 results returned including
articles in Print, Inuit Art Quarterly, Art Papers (2), The Archaeological Journal, Art Newspaper, Crafts Report, L’Architettura, Sculpture and the Museums
Journal. If we were to attempt to draw any conclusion from this could we say that while data and information are primarily craft-based, knowledge is a
matter for the arts? Or that this whole study is more suited to a craftsperson than an artist, providing of course such distinctions still hold true. It would of
course be rather remiss of us if we did.
If the new tools of our age prove to be of little help in this matter, then perhaps we have a legitimate right in providing our own definition. To restore a sense
of separation and hopefully meaning to the terminology the following sections look at each term individually. For the most part my exploration focuses on
my desire to find a meaning that suits my purpose for artistic investigation, and in that sense can be seen as nothing but biased. However, that in itself is no
cause for rejection. My basic understanding (or should that be interpretation) as shall be seen, provides for the following reading: that data is primarily
technical in nature, that information is primarily social and knowledge is ultimately a matter of personal religion. The practical application of this will
hopefully become apparent in my continuing art practice, and is examined further in my companion paper Data Trading: Questionnaire’s vs. Application
Forms.

One last thing regarding my proposed change of title before we move on, revolves around three questions that need to be addressed. What is it I actually
want or intend to explore as part of this study? What is it I’m looking for and how will I recognise it when I find it? What’s the compelling argument? The
following definition of architecture obscures as much as enlightens, but then again maybe that’s the point.

"By the simplest definition, architecture is the design of buildings, executed by architects. However, it is more. It is the expression of thought in building. It
is not simply construction, the piling of stones or the spanning of spaces with steel girders. It is the intelligent creation of forms and spaces that in themselves
express an idea.

Construction becomes intelligent and thus architectural when it is efficient and immediately appears so. If it is the simplest and most advanced type of
structure, solving the task set for it, and conceivable in its age, construction will have the quality of perfect appropriateness and will also be the expression of
the mechanical knowledge of a culture. It becomes intelligent also when it is made to emphasize its simplicity and to express its system of support so that
both can be immediately understood."
data
Datum A thing given or granted; something known or assumed as fact, and made the basis of reasoning or calculation; an assumption or premise from which
inferences are drawn.
Oxford English Dictionary, 1932
In some respects data is the hardest of the terms to reach a definition for, simply because it seems so straightforward and obvious, at least in this definition
from a pre-computer age. It’s about facts, and facts are about knowing what is true. This of course merely leads to rather tricky questions about the nature of
truth. Some supposedly infallible or truthful processes are generally arrived at through a mixture of experience and conjecture. Fingerprint analysis is widely
regarded as a totally accurate way to identify an individual, as it is generally understood that everyone in the world has unique fingerprint patterns. In
practice no two fingerprints even taken from the same person are ever the same. When taken from a crime scene they are often smudged or contaminated
with dirt, which adds to the problems of identification. A perfect match is unobtainable, only the similarities between two samples can be highlighted. The
final say as to whether they match is left to the judgement of an individual. So in this case to know has more to do with belief than with an immutable
absolute. As a man with more experience in this area than I once said, "… any person, man or woman, may speak his own "truth", as either a tactical move
or a "truth" he needs to explain, or even live, his own life. But truth and lies, however uncomfortable or, seen in retrospect, even offensive they may be, can
serve our purpose of gaining understanding."

Does data aid our understanding? It certainly adds to the quantity of facts (truths beyond our understanding?) we have access to. As I stated in the first
section of this paper, my own interpretation of this term is technical, that it’s basis is in the application of a science or craft. This seems reasonable
considering how the term has come to be identified with the modern definition of computing even in general reference works. In the computer age data has
moved from being fact, to being anything stored as either a positive or negative charge on a magnetic platter. (particles beyond our understanding?)

The key question of course concerns the creative practice of art and design and for this we can’t yet leave data behind. Increasingly as artists use the
computer as a medium and tool for their own artistic practice they have to come to terms with understanding data. If we accept the following, that
"Programmers make a distinction between instructions and the data they operate on; however, in the usual sense of the word, data includes programs and
program instructions", then data is the key term for all computer art. Consequently how does one who uses a computer become an ‘Information’ rather than
‘Data Artist’? Do such terms narrow rather than expand our understanding? If one produces work that deals with facts (truths beyond our understanding) that
aren’t computerised then can we leave this particular term behind?

In Martin’s definition this wouldn’t be a problem as the distinction between the terms is slight. Though if we wish to co-opt the term information as enabling
us to leave the essential import of the computer behind we need to examine further as many see these as defining terms. As Beardon says, "…it should be
clear that any new concept of computing and communications technologies that it closely embodied within the practices and ethos of creative art and design
must come to terms with the key concept of ‘information’."
information
"Information consists of differences that make a difference." Gregory Bateson, Mind and Nature, 1979

"The era we are living in is sometimes called the age of information. But what is information, and how much of it is in any message? Let's look at two
situations to determine their information content. Suppose you planned to play tennis with a friend at a nearby park but a heavy rain prevents you from
leaving the house. Then the telephone rings and your friend tells you the game is off because it is raining. This message holds no information because you
already know it is raining. Suppose you planned to play, however, at a park by your friend's house several miles away, the sky was overcast, and the
weatherman the night before had said that the chance of rain in the morning was high. Then your friend calls and says the game is off because it is raining
there. This message contains information because prior to it you were not certain whether or not it was raining at the park. Information, therefore, is anything
that resolves uncertainty."

Well I’d have to disagree. Which is strange really considering that this is pretty close to the description of Wurman’s (1997) Information Architect.
According to the OED (1932), Information is the action or process of informing, yet when we use this term it takes on the tactile, physical quality of the
object. A thing rooted in the absolute. There is however nothing static about information.

Can we, as with data, consider information as a primarily technical issue? Certainly Information Technology has become a pervasive force in society. An
Information System is a broad, generic class of systems that create, process, store, and disseminate information and formal information systems facilitate
organisational decision-making. They are guided by sets of policies, principles, procedures, and resources. Various social, technical, and environmental
factors influence the design and development of such systems. Information Technologies on the other hand are tools and techniques that support the design
and development of information systems, including the hardware, software and communication technology. (Gupta, 1996) As the role of paper changes from
a means of storing information to medium for displaying information, the status of both newspapers and books as the knowledge base for society has eroded
and has been taken on by computers. Much as the use of verbal storytelling as a vessel for historical remembrance was supplemented by the introduction of
the printing press. Stories are always changing. Before they were written down, stories changed as they were passed on from one generation to another. And
stories are still changing even today, long after they have been recorded. Each storyteller, each writer tells a favorite story in his own particular way. What
we have to be careful of is that computers don’t erode this process of change. That’s the key to information, the process of informing, the changed state, the
personal and particular. Beardon states that the term information "is a weak basis upon which to found a discourse about such an important technology as
computers and communications" because it suggests the computer "only as a producer of products." But we can see a computer as an information device and
the computer artist as "a person who creates the structure or map of information which allows others to find their personal paths to knowledge." An
information society however, has more than computing on the brain; it’s also about control.

The control of information has always been about societal control and though computers are used increasingly in this role my intention is to caste a wider
net. Rumor’s and gossip have no objective claim to truth or fact, and no doubt some would claim that such concepts actually hinder the development of a
juicy item. Gossip is however a social act, which allows the feeling of power through the acquisition of information. We seek information, leaving us as
individuals and as a society, in the constant process of information. Certainly defining information isn’t about facts or objects. If I can make a case, then it
would be for information as a matter of ethics. Ethics is often called practical philosophy as it attempts to arrive at guidelines for behaviour based on what is
the best outcome for individuals or for society. Is information the process of finding patterns in individuals that help us understand what it means to have a
society? Is information primarily social? Is it, as stated below, about animating, giving life, or imparting quality?

As an extra twist the military have, of course, their own inimitable interpretation. According to Jeffery Cooper: "Some propose information itself as the
target in warfare; others treat information as the weapon; some see information as a critical resource; and still others see information as a realm (like space)
or an environment (the ‘infosphere’), as a medium for military operations (like air power). Information could also be considered a catalyst or as a control
parameter in a process; and in both these cases, information is neither transformed or spent."

That perhaps is a discussion for the future, and for now the following is an adequate definition to leave this section with. The verb to inform, as the process
of informing suits my purpose well.

inform, in-förm’, v.t. to give form to (obs.): animate or give life to: to impart a quality to: to impart knowledge to: to tell: to direct (Milt.).—v.i. to take shape
or form (Shak.): to give information, make an accusation (with against or on).—ns. Inform’ant, one who informs or gives intelligence; information (in-fer-
mª’shen), intelligence given: knowledge: an accusation given to a magistrate or court.
knowledge
The Clever men at Oxford
Know all that there is to be knowed.
But they none of them know one half as much
As intelligent Mr Toad.
Kenneth Grahame The Wind in the Willows

In my introduction I asserted my definition that knowledge is ultimately a matter of personal religion. As a word religion is difficult to define, but as a
human experience it seems to be universal. The 20th-century German-born American theologian Paul Tillich gave a simple and basic definition of the word:
"Religion is ultimate concern." This means that religion encompasses that to which people are most devoted or that from which they expect to get the most
fundamental satisfaction in life. One view of knowledge is of something explicit or formal. As expressed in The Knowledge-Creating Company, "Explicit
knowledge can be expressed in words and numbers, and easily communicated and shared in the form of hard data, scientific formulae, codified procedures,
or universal principles. Thus knowledge is viewed synonymously with computer code, a chemical formula, or a set of general rules." It goes on to say that
Japanese companies view knowledge as being primarily "tacit"; this being highly personal knowledge, hard to formalise and consisting of subjective
insights, intuitions and hunches. Tacit knowledge "is deeply rooted in an individual’s action and experience, as well as in the ideals, values, or emotions he
or she embraces." This definition would suit most art and design practitioners well. They sum up by considering knowledge as "a dynamic human process of
justifying personal belief".

According to The Oxford Dictionary of World Religions in Indian religions "Ignorance (avidya) is the deepest fault and impediment which has to be dealt
with if any progress is to be made towards a higher goal" (1997:552). There are six ways through which knowledge can be obtained and secured: perception,
inference, authority, analogy, implication and negation. To the Gnostics there were different types of knowledge. The knowledge they claimed to have was
not derived from ordinary sources; it was a special knowledge that came only from a divine revelation. It came only to a select number of people, and Jesus
Christ was the main source of revelation. David Hume maintained that knowledge came from observation and experience. These, however, were purely
individual. A person's perceptions of objects were just that — perceptions. No underlying reality could ever be proved, because every individual's
perceptions are his alone — even if they agree with someone else's. The "someone else" is also only a perception of the senses.

Possessing knowledge in the sense of personal ideals, values, or emotions is an idea most would embrace. Most rational people would set knowledge as a
goal if it equates to fundamental satisfaction in life. Hume’s view has knowledge as something that one must attain and can’t be a gift from the Gnostics’
higher being. Indeed, the notion of giving knowledge has darker implications. If we examine a historical notion of giving then perhaps we may gain some
clarity. The spirit of gift giving as Columbus understood it was not reciprocal: the native Indians gave out of an unconstrained openness of heart; the Spanish
in return gave out of a sense of what was right, a sense of obligation. For Christian imperialism, naming (the gift of a name) links assertion of possession
with the giving of a precious gift. The giving of the gift is in turn bound up with superior knowledge, the knowledge of the truth. Adam names the animals
and therefore gains domain over them (The quest for knowing was of course the downfall of Adam and Eve). The founding action of Christian imperialism
is christening. The first thing people do with something new is to name it, enabling them to start a process of knowing as nothing scares people as much as
the unknown. How can you have power over something unknown?

So does knowing or the desire to know actually have fascistic overtones? Certainly ‘justifying personal belief’ might be a rallying banner for many right-
wingers. Let’s for moment seek refuge in the technical. In computing terms knowledge is generally ascribed to the field of artificial intelligence. This would
suggest a set of explicit rule based behaviours and procedures as Nonaka & Takeuchi pointed out earlier.

My contention when all is said and done is that knowledge, either knowing how or knowing that, is about belief and where that leaves us, god only knows.
Conclusion
This is not a matter of addition; data + information = knowledge, but of reduction. Carving is the process of reducing substances such as stone, wood, or
ivory to a desired shape by cutting or chipping away unnecessary parts. Does an Information sculptor engage in the process of reducing substances such as
information to a desired shape, by cutting or chipping away unnecessary data? Or does one remove information to be left with knowledge?

Another tripartite, energy, matter and information, is discussed by Jennifer Cobb in her book Cybergrace. In discussing experiments by Robert Jahn of the
PEAR lab at Princeton’s School of Engineering, Cobb talks about their ‘fungibility’. As Jahn points out if information has two obvious distinct categories,
the objective, quantifiable and the subjective, perceptual or spiritual, then this fungibility challenges the core of science, as there must also exist subjective
aspects to energy and matter. The subjective aspects of energy are likely to include emotion, creativity and the spiritual. This would seem to strengthen a
case for the interchangeability of our terms, that data, information and knowledge are concomitantly scientific and creative, artistic acts of consciousness.

In an effort to find at least a temporary resolution, I used the 1972 edition of Chambers Twentieth Century Dictionary (owned from new, and responsible for
my lack of linguistic dexterity) to unpack the title The Artist as Information Architect:
artist, ärt’ist, n. one who practices or is skilled in an art, now esp. a fine art: one who has the qualities of imagination and taste required in art: a painter or
draughtsman: a learned man (obs.): one who professes magic, astrology, alchemy, etc., or chemistry (obs.): a performer, esp. in music.
inform, in-förm’, v.t. to give form to (obs.): animate or give life to: to impart a quality to: to impart knowledge to: to tell: to direct (Milt.).—v.i. to take shape
or form (Shak.): to give information, make an accusation (with against or on).—ns. Inform’ant, one who informs or gives intelligence; information (in-fer-
mª’shen), intelligence given: knowledge: an accusation given to a magistrate or court.
architect, ärk’i-tekt, n. a designer of buildings: a designer of ships (naval architect): a maker: a contriver.
contrive, ken-trÌv’, v.t. to plan: to invent: to bring about or effect: to manage, arrange: to plot: to conceive, understand (Spens.).

In this reading the artist, (one who has qualities of imagination or one who practices or is skilled in an art) is an architect (a contriver – one who conceives or
understands) how to animate or give life to, to impart a quality. This links closely with the description provided by Saul Wurman. In his description of an
Information Architect, Wurman isn’t describing a type of art only it’s creator’s intent:
the individual who organises the patterns inherent in data, making the complex clear.
a person who creates the structure or map of information which allows others to find their personal paths to knowledge.

My original title came about through the idea of finding patterns of data that led to some other kind of understanding. One not based on truth or fact, but on
what we can know about ourselves from the information we connect with and more importantly what kind of art this could lead to. Previously I saw this
process as personal rather than social, but I don’t think such distinctions are quite that arbitrary. As with data, information and knowledge, these distinctions
are of more than mere semantic significance. I have in the past equated my artwork with humanist thought, and do see information as essentially human
rather than godly. Though it sounds rather grandiose when it reads as a person who creates the structure or map of humanity which allows others to find their
personal paths to the divine. Still, my mother always said I should have ambition. The one thing that strikes me having written this paper is that the answer
can only lay in the making of the art. I don’t want to make art based on a concept I can’t yet define to my own and no doubt my peers satisfaction, in that my
intent is clear.
appendix I
AltaVista found about 28,395,838 Web pages for Data
1. Internet Data Solutions URL: www.ids.it/
2. DigiLock - Industrial Strength Data Encryption URL: www.digilock.com/
3. MrSID Bay Area Orthophoto Data URL: www.c3.lanl.gov/~bradley/mrsid/bay_area/
4. MM DATA URL: www.mm-data.dk/
5. MICRO DATA DESIGN Internet-Dienstleistungen Troisdorf URL: www.micro-data-design.de/
6. Whitehead Institute/MIT Genome Sequencing Center Data Pages URL: www.seq.wi.mit.edu/public_release/human9.shtml
7. Data Storage Products Division - CD-532 URL: www.teac.com/dsp/cd/cd532.html
8. Surface Data Details URL: wxp.atms.purdue.edu/surface_det.html
9. TechExpo Technology Data Center URL: www.techexpo.com/techdata/techcntr.html
10. Welcome to the Texas Minimum Data Set 2.0 (MDS 2.0) Web Page URL: www.dhs.state.tx.us/proj/mds.html
AltaVista found no document matching your query information
Ignored: information: 64069611
AltaVista found about 5,892,945 Web pages for knowledge
1. developping knowledge/rule based, object oriented applications with URL: www.orisa.de/
2. OBGYN.net - Knowledge Finder¨ Medline URL: www.obgyn.net/medline.htm
3. City Knowledge Directory Links URL: www.cityknowledge.com/directory_links.htm
4. KnowledgeNet(TM) Knowledge Management URL: www.imservice.com/ims/intra-sol/kn/
5. AI Applications in Knowledge Navigation URL: cs-www.uchicago.edu/~burke/aiakn.html
6. The Realm of Untold Knowledge URL: www.bayside.net/users/demon/realm.htm
7. Knowledge-Domain Interoperability and an OHS URL: www.bootstrap.org/augment-132082.htm
8. Creative Networks, Inc., Knowledge Base URL: 205.181.128.164/cis/
9. Knowledge Engineering and Machine Learning Group URL: www-lsi.upc.es/~webia/gr-SBC/grupo.html
10. 6.871: Knowledge Based Application Systems URL: www.ai.mit.edu/courses/6.871/
Excite
You searched for Data
Top 10 matches. [2345257 hits. About Your Results]
62% NSSDC OMNIWeb http://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/omniweb/ow.html
62% Matisse's Glossary of Internet Terms http://www.matisse.net/files/glossary.html
62% LBL ITG Whole Frog Project - Computer-Enhanced Science Education http://george.lbl.gov/ITG.hm.pg.docs/Whole.Frog/Whole.Frog.h...
62% The Goddard DAAC - The Goddard Distributed Active Archive Center (DAAC) http://daac.gsfc.nasa.gov/DAAC_DOCS/gdaac_home.html
61% The Financial Data Finder A - G - Advanced Portfolio Technologies http://www.cob.ohio-state.edu/dept/fin/osudata.htm
61% Seismo-surfing the Internet http://www.geophys.washington.edu/seismosurfing.html
61% Meta-Data and Data Management Info Page http://www.llnl.gov/liv_comp/metadata/metadata.html
61% UARS PROJECT http://daac.gsfc.nasa.gov/CAMPAIGN_DOCS/UARS_project.html
60% INFO-MINE - Robertson Info-Data Inc. http://www.info-mine.com/rgroup/rid.html
60% The Office Of Data Protection http://www.open.gov.uk/dpr/dprhome.htm
You searched for Information
Top 5 matches. [8088 hits. About Your Results]
41% Accused driver appears in court, Tuesday 12 January 1999. City, Ottaw... (Ottawa Citizen
41% NLM revamps Medline for lay audience Federal Computer Week, free registration)
40% FO asked murdered engineers to gathering information in Chechnya (ITNOnline) (Related Articles)
40% Texcel International Announces New Release of Information Manager Web... (Business Wire)
40% Stillman to resign from FGIPC Federal Computer Week, free registration)
You searched for Knowledge
Top 10 matches. [958075 hits. About Your Results]
58% Copyright Notice -- SuperKids Educational Software Review http://www.superkids.com/aweb/pages/copyrit.html
 58% Knowledge Finder/Server/Host und Euro Knowledge Web - http://www.kfinder.de/Service/index.html
58% Untitled - Knowledge Management Resources Knowledge Management CIO http://www.tpreston.com/site/webcontent.nsf/home/knowledge+m
58% Core concepts of knowledge management - Philip C. Murray http://www.ktic.com/TOPIC6/13_TERM2.HTM
58% Untitled - What is Knowledge Management? http://www.lg.co.kr/21cic/e/98/team1/mission/index.html
58% Knowledge Management http://alpha.lmi.org/lmi/Library/knowmang.html
58% Knowledge Management http://www.mccmedia.com/html/knowledge_management.html
57% A Knowledge-Based Agent http://aif.wu-wien.ac.at/usr/geyers/archive/iagents/vo/u7/un...
57% Knowledge Based Systems http://busfa.vut.edu.au/awenn/kbs/week2/knowacq.html
57% Knowledge Management vs Knowledge Engineering. http://revolution.3-cities.com/~bonewman/kmvske.htm
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