1

Abstract

This study looked into the production and sensory evaluation of biscuit made from
composite flour of African yam bean and wheat flour. The objective of the study includes
to produce yam bean and wheat flour, produce biscuits from the mentioned flour, carry out
proximate analysis from the biscuits, and carry out sensory evaluation from the biscuits.
The major raw materials used in this study are the African yam bean and wheat (Triticum
aestivum) flour gotten from both whole grains purchased from Eke market, Ivo local
government area, Ebonyi state. The results obtained in this study indicate viability in
producing biscuits from cassava and rice flours from technological, nutritional and sensory
standpoints because the biscuits’ acceptance was satisfactory given a considerable sample
(n=20). Incorporation of rice flour in biscuits production could help to substantially reduce
foreign exchange on wheat importation and reduce wastage of the by-product, while
improving the nutritional status of consumers.
 2

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of the Study

Biscuits are nutritive snacks produced from unpalatable dough that is transformed into

appetizing product through the application of heat in an oven Anozie, China, and Beleya

(2014). They are ready-to-eat, conveniences and inexpensive food product, containing

digestive and dietary principle of vital importance. Biscuits contribute valuable quantities

of iron, calcium, protein, calorie, fibre and some of the B-vitamins to our diet and daily

food requirement.

Biscuits are important baked product in human diet, which are usually consumed with

beverage and also used as weaning foods for infants (Ferial & Azza, 2011). The major

ingredients are flour, fat, sugar, salt and water. These are mixed together with other minor

ingredients (baking powder, skimmed milk, emulsifier and sodium meta-bisulphite) to

form dough containing a gluten network. Soft wheat flour has been the major ingredient

used in the production of biscuit and other pastry products, but they can also be made with

non-wheat flours such as sorghum, maize, pearl millet, plantain, acha grain, bambara-nuts

etc. Unfortunately, biscuits, because they are generally made from wheat flour and fat, are

also high-energy easily digestible foods. This can negatively impact on health if they are

consumed regularly, particularly in excess (Caleja et al, 2017). Marketing forecasts

suggest that global biscuit sales will grow significantly by 2020, and healthy biscuits are

expected to perform well in this sector (Świeca et al, 2017). Fortification of food products

plays an important role in increasing health-promoting functional components in bakery

 3

products to provide additional benefits to meet consumers’ demands. There is also a good

possibility of improving the overall nutritional contribution of biscuits by reducing the

content of wheat flour. One such locally available resource is cassava and rice.

Supplementation of wheat flour could therefore enhance the nutritional quality of baked

products and makes more varieties to be available in the market.

The need for strategic development in the use of inexpensive local resources in the

production of staple foods has been promoted by organizations, such as; Food and

Agricultural Organization (FAO) and the United Nations Refugee feeding programs

(Awogbenja & Ndife, 2012; FAO⁄WHO, 1994). However, this resulted to the initiation of

the composite flour program, the aim of which was to seek ways of substituting flours,

starches and protein concentrates from indigenous crops, for as much wheat as possible in

baked products (FAO⁄WHO⁄UNU Expert Consultation, 1994)

1.2 Statement of Problem

In Nigeria, reliance on wheat flour in the bakery industries has over the years restricted the

use of other cereals and tuber crops available for domestic use. In recent years,

government has through intensive collaboration with research institutes encouraged the

use of composite flours in the production of bread and related food products such as

biscuits. This initiative enhanced the use of flours from roots and tubers (cassava, sweet

potato, cocoyam), bread-fruit, plantains oilseeds (soybeans), legumes (bambara

groundnut), fluted pumpkin seeds, maize, amaranth seeds and other underutilized crops

that are good sources of flour. The adoption of these locally produced flours in the bakery

industry increased the utilization of indigenous crops cultivated in Nigeria and also

reduces the cost of bakery products (Ayo & Gaffa, 2012).

 4

However, the increasing phenomenon of urbanization coupled with growing number of

working mothers, have profoundly contributed to the popularity and increased

consumption of snack foods Gernah, Senger, and Audu (2010). In addition, the

consumption of baked products by human coupled with the escalating cost of wheat

importation and difficulty in cultivating wheat in the tropics has focused attention on the

need to explore the use of alternative local flours as supplements or substitutes for wheat

flour in the baking industry. Many researchers have worked extensively on composite

flour for the production of biscuits, buns, cakes and bread.

Wheat flour is the main ingredient for biscuit production, though imported, it is a

carbohydrate based food and lack some nutrient. Composite flour refers to the mixture of

different concentrations of non-wheat flours from cereals, legumes, roots and tubers or

mixture of flours other than wheat flour. Composite flours are advantageous, owing to the

fact that the inherent deficiencies of essential amino acids in wheat flour (lysine,

tryptophan and threonine) are supplemented from other sources.

Composite flour are better utilized for biscuits production rather than for bread because of

their ready-to eat form, relatively prolonged shelf-life, wide consumption and good eating

quality. Biscuits based on rye, barley, rice, maize, acha, amaranth and oat flour have been

reported by several researchers. Protein enrichment studies on biscuits have been carried

out using brewer’s spent grain (Gernah et al., 2010) and some legumes, which are

generally good source of proteins. Supplementation of wheat flour with different

proportions of bambara groundnut flour for biscuit production had also been investigated

(Ferial & Azza, 2011). Despite the inherent potentials of malted barley bran, there is

paucity of information on its incorporation in many food formulations.

 5

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The broad objective of this study is to produce biscuits from the composite flours of

African yam bean and wheat.

The specific objectives of the study are to:

i. produce yam bean and wheat flour.

ii. produce biscuits from the mentioned flour.

iii. carry out proximate analysis from the biscuits.

iv. carry out sensory evaluation from the biscuits.

1.4 Significance of the Study

i. This study will help solve the problem in developing countries to meet the high demand

for functional foods with health benefits as well as decreasing the demand for imported

wheat and stimulating production and use of locally grown non-wheat agricultural

products.

ii. This study will also serve as a literature material for researchers who will explore further

research in this field of study.

iii. This study will also help to solve the problem facing the people with gluten intolerance as

the flour used in the production of the biscuits is low on gluten.

 6

CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 BISCUITS

A biscuit is a baked or cooked food that is small, flat and sweet. It usually

contains flour, sugar and some type of oil or fat. It may include other ingredients such

as raisins, oats, chocolate chips, nuts, etc. In most English-speaking countries except for

the United States and Canada, crisp biscuits are called biscuits. Chewier biscuits are

sometimes called biscuits even in the United Kingdom. Some biscuits may also be named

by their shape, such as date squares or bars (Wikipedia, 2019).

Biscuits may be mass-produced in factories, made in small bakeries or homemade. Biscuit

variants include sandwich biscuits, such as custard creams, Jammie

Dodgers, Bourbons and Oreos, with marshmallow or jam filling and sometimes dipped in

chocolate or another sweet coating. Biscuits are often served with beverages such

as milk, coffee or tea. Factory-made biscuits are sold in grocery stores, convenience

stores and vending machines. Fresh-baked biscuits are sold at bakeries and coffeehouses,

with the latter ranging from small business-sized establishments to multinational

corporations such as Starbucks. Its American name derives from the Dutch word koekje or

more precisely its informal, dialect variant koekie which means little cake, and arrived

in American English with the Dutch settlement of New Netherland, in the early 1600s.

(Wikipedia, 2019).
 7

According to the Scottish National Dictionary, its Scottish name derives from

the diminutive form (+ suffix -ie) of the word cook, giving the Middle

Scots biscuit, cooky or cu(c)kie. It also gives an alternative etymology: like the American

word, from the Dutch koekje, the diminutive of koek, a cake. There was much trade and

cultural contact across the North Sea between the Low Countries and Scotland during

the Middle Ages, which can also be seen in the history of curling and, perhaps, golf.

(Wikipedia, 2019).

Biscuits are most commonly baked until crisp or just long enough that they remain soft,

but some kinds of biscuits are not baked at all. Biscuits are made in a wide variety of

styles, using an array of ingredients including sugars, spices, chocolate, butter, peanut

butter, nuts, or dried fruits. The softness of the biscuit may depend on how long it is

baked.

A general theory of biscuits may be formulated this way. Despite its descent from cakes

and other sweetened breads, the biscuit in almost all its forms has abandoned water as a

medium for cohesion. Water in cakes serves to make the base (in the case of cakes called

"batter") as thin as possible, which allows the bubbles – responsible for a cake's fluffiness

– to better form. In the biscuit, the agent of cohesion has become some form of oil. Oils,

whether they be in the form of butter, vegetable oils, or lard, are much more viscous than

water and evaporate freely at a much higher temperature than water. Thus a cake made

with butter or eggs instead of water is far denser after removal from the oven.

Oils in baked cakes do not behave as soda tends to in the finished result. Rather than

evaporating and thickening the mixture, they remain, saturating the bubbles of escaped
 8

gases from what little water there might have been in the eggs, if added, and the carbon

dioxide released by heating the baking powder. This saturation produces the most

texturally attractive feature of the biscuit, and indeed all fried foods: crispness saturated

with a moisture (namely oil) that does not sink into it

 9

2.1.1 History of Biscuits

Biscuit-like hard wafers have existed for as long as baking is documented, in part because

they deal with travel very well, but they were usually not sweet enough to be considered

biscuits by modern standards.

Biscuits appear to have their origins in 7th century AD Persia, shortly after the use of

sugar became relatively common in the region. They spread to Europe through the Muslim

conquest of Spain. By the 14th century, they were common in all levels of society

throughout Europe, from royal cuisine to street vendors.

With global travel becoming widespread at that time, biscuits made a natural travel

companion, a modernized equivalent of the travel cakes used throughout history. One of

the most popular early biscuits, which traveled especially well and became known on

every continent by similar names, was the jumble, a relatively hard biscuit made largely

from nuts, sweetener, and water.

Biscuits came to America through the Dutch in New Amsterdam in the late 1620s. The

Dutch word "koekje" was Anglicized to "biscuit" or cooky. The earliest reference to

biscuits in America is in 1703, when "The Dutch in New York provided...'in 1703...at a

funeral 800 biscuits...'" The most common modern biscuit, given its style by the creaming

of butter and sugar, was not common until the 18th century. (Wikipedia, 2019).

2.1.2 Classification of Biscuits

 10

Biscuits are broadly classified according to how they are formed, including at least these

categories:

 Bar biscuits consist of batter or other ingredients that are poured or pressed into a

pan (sometimes in multiple layers) and cut into biscuit-sized pieces after baking. In British

English, bar biscuits are known as "tray bakes".[2] Examples include brownies, fruit

squares, and bars such as date squares.

 Drop biscuits are made from a relatively soft dough that is dropped by spoonfuls

onto the baking sheet. During baking, the mounds of dough spread and flatten. Chocolate

chip biscuits (Toll House biscuits), oatmeal raisin (or other oatmeal-based) biscuits,

and rock cakes are popular examples of drop biscuits. This may also include thumbprint

biscuits, for which a small central depression is created with a thumb or small spoon

before baking to contain a filling, such as jam or a chocolate chip.[9] In the UK, the term

"biscuit" often refers only to this particular type of product.

 Filled biscuits are made from a rolled biscuit dough filled with a fruit or

confectionery filling before baking. Hamantashen are a filled biscuit.

 Molded biscuits are also made from a stiffer dough that is molded into balls or

biscuit shapes by hand before baking. Snickerdoodles and peanut butter biscuits are

examples of molded biscuits. Some biscuits, such as hermits or biscotti, are molded into

large flattened loaves that are later cut into smaller biscuits.
 11

 No-bake biscuits are made by mixing a filler, such as cereal or nuts, into a melted

confectionery binder, shaping into biscuits or bars, and allowing to cool or

harden. Oatmeal clusters and Rum balls are no-bake biscuits.

 Pressed biscuits are made from a soft dough that is extruded from a biscuit

pressinto various decorative shapes before baking. Spritzgebäck are an example of a

pressed biscuit.

 Refrigerator biscuits (also known as icebox biscuits) are made from a stiff dough

that is refrigerated to make the raw dough even stiffer before cutting and baking. The

dough is typically shaped into cylinders which are sliced into round biscuits before

baking. Pinwheel biscuits and those made by Pillsbury are representative.

 Rolled biscuits are made from a stiffer dough that is rolled out and cut into shapes

with a biscuit cutter. Gingerbread men are an example.

 Sandwich biscuits are rolled or pressed biscuits that are assembled as

a sandwichwith a sweet filling. Fillings include marshmallow, jam, and icing.

The Oreo biscuit, made of two chocolate biscuits with a vanilla icing filling, is an

example.

Biscuits also may be decorated with an icing, especially chocolate, and closely resemble a

type of confectionery.

2.2 AFRICAN YAM BEANS

 12

Sphenostylis stenocarpa or the African yam bean is a species of plant in

the Fabaceae which is native to Africa. It is an important source of food in many parts of

Africa. The tubers are fried, boiled or roasted, and are higher than the seeds in protein.

Sphenostylis is a genus of flowering plants in the legume family, Fabaceae. It belongs to

the subfamily Faboideae. Sphenostylis contains several species useful as food sources

including Sphenostylis stenocarpa.

Sphenostylis stenocarpa belongs to the family Fabaceae, and is characterized by its fruit

(legume) and stipulated leaves.

The African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa (Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Harms) is a

perennial climbing bush, 1-3 m high, generally grown as an annual. Its leaves are trifoliate

with oval leaflets (2.7 to 13 cm long and 0.2 to 5.5 cm broad). Sphenostylis stenocarpa is

cultivated for its edible tubers, which look like elongated sweet potatoes, and for its seeds,

which are contained in hard and tough, 20-30 long pods. It is mainly used as food but can

be used to feed animals.

Cultivation

Three species of Sphenostylis are important food sources in Africa, including the under-

exploited African Yam Bean or Sphenostylis stenocarpa, which can be consumed as dry

cooked seeds or tuber. Seeds are usually added to soups, made into sauces, or milled into

flour.[1] The African yam bean is grown in countries of West Africa such as Cameroon,

Cote d’Ivoire, Ghana, Nigeria, and Togo.[1] The tuber grows as the root source, while the

yam bean develops into the pod containing 20-30 seeds found above the ground. These
 13

seeds can be found in colors including brown, black, and red varieties.[2] It grows as a

vine to heights of about 3m and produces brightly colored flowers in 100–150 days.[1]

This yam bean is a very useful crop because of the extreme conditions it can thrive in,

including high rainfall, acidity, and infertile soils, and its resistance to several major crop

pests. It is also useful because of its high nitrogen-fixing ability, replenishing soil it is

grown in of its nitrogen.[1] In West Africa, the seeds of the African yam bean are

primarily used, while in the East and Central regions of Africa, the tubers are primarily

used.[3]

Uses

The African yam bean is a legume that is rich in protein and starch and an important

source of calcium and amino acids.[2] It contains amino acids that are important for the

development in early pre-school and school aged children and also those required for

adults.[2] The yam bean is a useful source of nutrients for many African communities with

a nutritional value comparable to that of the soybean, although the cooking time for the

yam bean is much longer (4–6 hours). However, some health problems have been

discovered in relation to consumption of these beans including flatulence, stomach

cramps, diarrhea and dizziness.[3] These problems result from the way they are usually

cooked.

Although little research has been devoted to this plant, some important studies have been

conducted including one on how to relieve these health problems. Studies show problems

are resolved when the yam bean seeds are exposed to pre-cooking treatments such as lactic

acid fermented using a low-level technological process. The fermentation method also
 14

reduces the amount of time and energy to produce a viable food product from the yam

bean.[3] In addition to research on cooking treatments, some research has been conducted

on the genetic variability of the plant. The yam bean has a high level of genetic variability,

which will be useful during the hybridization of the plant in order to increase food

production and sustainability. While the yam bean has been subject to cultivation, there

has been little artificial selection on specific traits.[1] If the yam bean could be grown in

large quantities, this crop could be the important source of protein needed by the people of

sub-Saharan Africa.

2.5 WHEAT

Wheat (Triticum spp.) is a cereal grain, originally from the Levant region of the Near East

but now cultivated worldwide. In 2013, world production of wheat was 713 million tons,

making it the third most-produced cereal after maize (1,016 million tons) and rice (745

million tons). Wheat was the second most-produced cereal in 2009; world production in

that year was 682 million tons, after maize (817 million tons), and with rice as a close

third (679 million tons).

This grain is grown on more land area than any other commercial food. World trade in

wheat is greater than for all other crops combined. Globally, wheat is the leading source of

vegetable protein in human food, having a higher protein content than other major cereals,

maize (corn) or rice. In terms of total production tonnages used for food, it is currently

second to rice as the main human food crop and ahead of maize, after allowing for maize's

more extensive use in animal feeds.

 15

2.5.1 History

Wheat was a key factor enabling the emergence of city-based societies at the start of

civilization because it was one of the first crops that could be easily cultivated on a large

scale, and had the additional advantage of yielding a harvest that provides long-term

storage of food. Wheat contributed to the emergence of city-states in the Fertile Crescent,

including the Babylonian and Assyrian empires. Wheat grain is a staple food used to make

flour for leavened, flat and steamed breads, biscuits, biscuits, cakes, breakfast cereal,

pasta, noodles, couscous and for fermentation to make beer, other beverages, and biofuel

(Wikipedia, 2015).

2.5.2 Classification of wheat

There are six wheat classifications: 1) hard red winter, 2) hard red spring, 3) soft red

winter, 4) durum (hard), 5) Hard white, 6) soft white wheat. The hard wheats have the

most amount of gluten and are used for making bread, rolls and all-purpose flour. The soft

wheat are used for making flat bread, cakes, pastries, crackers, muffins, and biscuits. A

high percentage of wheat production in the EU is used as animal feed, often surplus to

human requirements or low-quality wheat (Feedipedia, 2015).

2.5.3 Wheat Allergies

Wheat allergy is most common in children, and is usually outgrown before reaching

adulthood, often by age three. Symptoms of a wheat allergy reaction can range from mild,

such as hives, to severe, such as anaphylaxis. Therefore it is advised that people with

wheat allergy have quick access to an epinephrine auto-injector (such as an EpiPen®,

 16

Auvi-Q™ or Adrenaclick®) at all times. To prevent a reaction, strict avoidance of wheat

and wheat products is essential. Always read ingredient labels to identify wheat

ingredients (Foodallergy, 2015).

A wheat allergy can present a challenge for the diet as well as for baking, because wheat is

the nation’s predominant grain product. Someone on a wheat-restricted diet can eat a wide

variety of foods, but the grain source must be something other than wheat. In planning a

wheat-free diet, look for alternate grains such as amaranth, barley, corn, oat, quinoa, rice,

rye, and tapioca. When baking with wheat-free flours, a combination of flours usually

works best. Experiment with different blends to find one that will give you the texture you

are trying to achieve (Foodallergy, 2015)

Celiac disease (also known as celiac sprue), which affects the small intestine, is caused by

an abnormal immune reaction to gluten. Usually diagnosed by a gastroenterologist, it is a

digestive disease that can cause serious complications, including malnutrition and

intestinal damage, if left untreated. Individuals with celiac disease must avoid gluten,

found in wheat, rye, barley and sometimes oats. People who are allergic to wheat often

may tolerate other grains. (Foodallergy, 2015)

2.6 FLOUR

Flour is a product made from grain that has been ground to a powdery consistency. Flour

provides the primary structure to the final baked bread. While wheat flour is most

commonly used for biscuits, flours made from rye, barley, maize, and other grains are also
 17

commonly available. Each of these grains provides the starch and protein needed to form

biscuits.

The protein content of the flour is the best indicator of the quality of the biscuits dough

and the finished biscuits. While biscuits can be made from all-purpose wheat flour,

specialty coookies flour, containing more protein (12–14%), is recommended for high-

quality biscuits. If one uses flour with a lower protein content (9–11%) to produce

biscuits, a shorter mixing time will be required to develop gluten strength properly. An

extended mixing time leads to oxidization of the biscuits, which gives the finished product

a whiter crumb, instead of the cream color preferred by most artisan bakers (Wikipedia,

2015).
 18

CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHODS

3.1 SOURCE OF MATERIALS

The major raw materials used in this study are the African yam bean and wheat (Triticum

aestivum) flour gotten from both whole grains purchased from Eke market, Ivo local

government area, Ebonyi state. The reagents and equipment were bought and done in

National Roots Crops Research Institute, Umuahia.

3.2 PREPARATION OF FLOUR

3.2.1 Rice flour

This method described by Obeta and Ndukwe (2015) will be used. Raw rice will be sorted,

washed and steeped in clean water for 15-20 minutes to soften the pericarp. The steeped

water will be decanted and the rice washed and sprayed on a flat surface forming a thin

layer for proper drying under the sun for 6-8 hours.

The dried rice will be milled using the attrition to a fine particles (dry milling) and then

sieved usind a sieve. The fine rice flour will be stored in a container for further use.
 19

Whole rice seeds

Sorting

Washing

Steeping

Decanting and Sun drying

Milling

Sieving

Rice flour

Packaging

Fig 3.1: Flow chart for rice flour production.

 20

3.2.2 Preparation of cassava flour

This will be done within 24 hours to get high quality cassava flour. The cassava will be

harvested and peeled using kitchen knife and afterward washed and milled. The milled

cassava will be sundried and then grounded in the powdered form. This will be sieved to

separate fibrous particles from the fine flour.

Cassava tubers

Peeling

Washing /cleaning

Milling

Sun Drying

Grinding

Sieving

Cassava Flour

Storage

Fig 3.2: Flowchart of the preparation of cassava flour

 21

3.2.3 Flour formulation

The flour used in the production of the flour is given below

Biscuit samples Cassava flour (%) Rice flour (%) Wheat flour (%)

A - - 100

B 100 - -

C - 100 -

3.3 PROXIMATE ANALYSIS

3.3.1 Moisture content determination

This was done by gravimetric method (AOAC, 2000). Five (5) grams was weighed into

previously weighed moisture can. The samples were dried in the oven at 105oc for three

hours. Samples were cooled in the desiccator and weighed. Samples were returned to the

oven for further drying. Drying, cooling and weighing were done repeatedly at hourly (one

hour) interval until constant weight were obtained the weight of the moisture lost were

calculated and expressed as the percentage of the weight of the sample analyzed, sample

were given by the expression below.

100 w 2−w 3
% moisture content = ×
1 w 2−w 3

Where

W1 = Weight of empty moisture can

W2 = weight of empty can + sample before drying

 22

W3 = weight of can + sample dried to constant weight

3.3.2 Protein content determination

The determination of protein, this was done by Kjeldahl method described (AOAC, 2000).

The total N2 was determined and multiplied with the factor 6.25 to obtain the protein

content.

Procedures:

About half grams (0.5g) of each of the samples were mixed with ten (10) mls of conc.

H2SO4 in digestive flask. A tablet of selenium catalyst was obtained (i.e. the digests)

The digests were diluted to one hundred (100) mls in a volumetric flask and used for the

analysis.

Ten (10) mls of the digests for each sample were mixed with equal volume of 45% NaOH.

Solution in a Kjeldahl distillation apparatus. The mixture was distilled into ten (10) mls of

4% Buric containing 3 drops of mixed indicator (Bromocressol green and methyl red). A

total of fifty (50) mls of the distillate were collected and titrated against 0.02N EDTA

from green to a deep red point. A reagent blank was digested, distilled and titrated. The N 2

content and hence the protein contents were calculated using a formula below.

1ml of NH2SO4 = 14 MgSO4N2

% protein = % N2 × 6.25

100 N ×14 Vt
%N2 = ( × × )T-B
w 100 Va

Where:

W = weight of sample (0.5g)

N = normality of titrant (0.02 NH2 SO4)

Vt = total digest volume (100 mls)

 23

T = sample titre value

B = blank titer value

Va = volume of digest analyzed (10 ml)

3.3.3 Ash content determination

This was done by furnace incineration gravimetric method (James, 1995). About two (2)

grams of the processed samples were measured into previously weighed porcelain

crucible. The sample were burnt to ashes in a muffle furnace at 550◦c when the samples

has become completely ashed, they were cooled in a desiccator and weighed. The weight

of each sample obtained were calculated by difference and expressed as a percentage of

weight sample analyzed as shown below.

100 w 2−w 1
% Ash = ×
1 wt of sample

Where:

W1 = weight of empty crucible

W2 = weight of crucible + Ash

3.3.4 Crude fiber content determination

The weende method (James, 1995) was employed about five (5) gram of each processed

sample were boiled in 15mls of 1.25% H 2SO4 solution for 30mins under reflux. The water

boiled samples were washed into several portions of water using a two-fold muslin cloth

to trap particles after which they were returned to the flask and boiled again in one

hundred and fifty (150)mls of 1.25% NaOH for another 30mins under the same conditions.

After washing in several portions of hot water the samples were allowed to drain dry

before being transformed quantitatively to a weighed crucible. Where they were dried in

an oven at 105◦c to a constant weight. Therefore they were taken to a muffle furnace in
 24

which they were burnt until only ash was left in each. By difference the weight of the fiber

was obtained and expressed as percentage of weight of sample analyzed. This is given by

the formula below:

100(w 2−w 3)
% crude fiber =
wt of sample

Where:

W1 = weight of the crucible + sample after boiling, washing and drying

W2 = weight of the crucible and sample as ash

3.3.5 Fat content determination

These were determined by solvent extraction by Soxhlex apparatus (James, 1995).

About five (5) grams of the samples were wrapped in a weighed absorbent paper. The

wrapped samples were placed into a Soxhlet reflux flask. The flask was mounted into an

oil extraction flask connection flask containing 300mls petroleum ether. The upper end of

the reflux flask was connected to a condenser. The ether in the flask was heated by means

of hot plate and the boiling ether vapor condensed in the reflux flask there by covering the

wrapped samples completely. The samples were immersed into ether until the flask filled

up and over siphoned over carrying the extracted oil (fat) down to the boiling flask. The

process was allowed to continue for up to 4hours. The defatted wrapped samples was

carefully removed and dried in the oven at 105◦c for an hour and weighed after cooling in

a desiccator. The formula below was used to calculate the fat (ether extract).

w 2−w 3 100
% Fat = ×
w 2−w 1 1

Where:
 25

W1 = weight of the empty filter paper

W2 = weight of filter paper + sample before defatting

W3 = weight of filter paper + sample after drying

3.3.6 Carbohydrate content determination

The determination of carbohydrate of these samples are calculated using the formulas

below as described by James (1995).

% Carbohydrates = 100 - % (protein + fat + fiber + ash + moisture content)

3.4 SENSORY EVALUATION

Sensory evaluation of the biscuits was conducted to determine consumer preference and

acceptability of the product. Using a 7-point Hedonic scale, twenty (20) panelists drawn

from the Federal College of Agriculture, Ishiagu community were used to carry out the

sensory evaluation. The attributes assessed were taste, texture, chewiness, fibrousness,

colour and general acceptability.

3.5 STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

Each analytical determination was carried out in duplicates. The data were subjected to

(Analysis Of Variance) ANOVA using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences)

Version 20. Result obtained from the analysis were expressed as mean values and

separated by Duncan Multiple Range Test.

 26

CHAPTER 4

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Proximate properties of the biscuits

Parameter (%) A B C Legal Standard

Moisture 10.32a±1.01 b
2.97 ±0.06 2.96b±0.04 Max.14.00% (Brasil, 2005)
Ash 1.06a±0.23 c
0.77 ±0.09 0.83b±0.02 Max.3.00% (Brasil, 2005)
Proteins 10.90a±0.08 c
2.56 ±0.08 3.52b±0.21 -
Lipids 15.12c±0.02 19.07a±1.81a 15.64b±0.10 -
Carbohydrates 61.30c±1.45 73.77b±0.00b 76.14a±0.00 -
Fiber 1.30a±0.10 0.86c±0.02b 0.91b±0.04 Min. 3.00 g (Brasil, 2003)
KEY: A = Wheat flour biscuits B = Cassava flour biscuits C = Rice flour biscuits

The formulations B and C displayed similar results to those found in the control biscuit

made from wheat in terms of percentage composition (Table 4.1). The values for moisture

(2.97 and 2.96), for samples B and C, respectively, did not vary significantly (p<0,05)

from each other but are in accordance with the parameters recommended in the legislation

(Brasil, 2005b). The low moisture contents and water activity indicate a product that

inhibits microbial growth in conjunction with containing significant carbohydrate

concentrations, which also make the medium inhospitable for microbial reproduction. The

following results were obtained for formulations B and C, respectively: ash content (0.77

and 0.83); proteins (2.56 and 3.52); lipids (19.07 and 15.64); carbohydrates (73.77 and

76.14); and fiber (0.86 and 0.91). Regarding nutritional value, similar values for ash,

proteins, lipids, carbohydrates and fiber were obtained compared to the results found by

the following authors: Moraes et al. (2010) in their evaluation of biscuits made with wheat

flour and different sugar and fat contents; Santos et al. (2011) with biscuits made from

buriti flour with or without oat; Vieira et al. (2010) in the production of sweet biscuits

using manioc starch; Fasolin et al. (2007) with biscuits made from banana flour;
 27

Rodrigues, Caliari and Asquieri (2011) with biscuits made from manioc bran; Lacerda et

al. (2009) with biscuits made from extruded rice bran in place of wheat flour and manioc

starch; and Assis et al. (2009) with biscuits made with oat and rice flour. Comparing this

information, the values found in this study are compatible with those previously published.

Within this context, formulations B and C contain important nutrients for human diets.

Despite their low fiber content, these biscuits are still nutritious because they are complete

in their nutritional composition and they contain macroproteins and mineral residue (ash)

in addition to the caloric load provided by the carbohydrates and lipids.

4.2 Sensory evaluation of the biscuits

Results for the acceptability index per biscuit attribute can be seen in table 4.2. The

sensory evaluation was conducted only for samples B and C because these formulations

showed better technological profiles during the raw and baked dough texture tests.

Moreover, were the samples showed better performance in the biscuits preparation.

Samples B and C were significantly different (p < 0.05) from one another in all the studied

sensory attributes. Sample B had higher acceptability means than sample C, including the

flavor attribute, in which it scored 6.79. All the mean values obtained in the sensory

analysis, for both the B and C samples, were between the hedonic values of 6 and 7,

corresponding to ‘like slightly’ and ‘like very much’.

Table 4.2 Sensory evaluation of the biscuits

Sample

s Colour Taste Texture Overall acceptability

A 6.78 ± 0.012 6.74 ± 0.012 6.86 ± 0.024 6.89a± 0.033
a a a
 28

B 6.16c± 0.012 6.79c± 0.020 7.60c± 0.016 5.64d± 0.041

C 6.20c± 0.022 5.16d± 0.014 6.00d± 0.012 5.28c± 0.022
KEY:
A = Wheat flour biscuits
B = Cassava flour biscuits
C = Rice flour biscuits

For the scent, color, texture, flavor attributes and overall acceptability, the mean values of

formulation B were significantly higher than those for formulation C. This predilection

may be related to the sample B have more cassava flour (75%) than sample C (50% and

presentation more colororful. Regarding purchase intention, 45.56% of the judges

responded that they would most likely buy biscuit B, and 43.34% indicated similar overall

acceptability intent for biscuit C. However, 33.34% of the judges said they would certainly

buy biscuit B, and 14.45% said they would certainly buy biscuit C. In addition, 20% of the

judges reported that they had doubts regarding whether they would buy sample B, in

comparison to 32.23% for sample C (Table 4.2).

 29

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

5.1 CONCLUSION

The results obtained in this study indicate viability in producing biscuits from cassava and

rice flours from technological, nutritional and sensory standpoints because the biscuits’

acceptance was satisfactory given a considerable sample (n=20). Incorporation of rice

flour in biscuits production could help to substantially reduce foreign exchange on wheat

importation and reduce wastage of the by-product, while improving the nutritional status

of consumers.

The technology involved in biscuit production and subsequent commercialization does not

generate a high demand for resources, time or labor. Therefore, it is noteworthy that mixed

flours are a good option for manufacturing new bakery products and similar products

because mixed flours do not negatively affect the partial or complete substitution of wheat

flour. However, other factors may interfere in the sensory quality of the products, such as

the quality of the flours, moisture contents, excess and/or scarcity or inadequate choice of

the type of sugar and fat or any structural ingredient of the dough. Another evident benefit

of mixed flours is that they allow people with food restrictions to eat gluten-free foods that

have good sensory and nutritional quality.

5.2 RECOMMENDATIONS

I therefore recommend the following:

1. That biscuits should be produce from composite flour of cassava and rice flour

blends.
 30

2. That effort should be made to adopt the utilization of cassava-rice flour in the

production of baked food in Nigeria.

3. That effort should also be made to increase the utilization of value added product of

under-utilized crops which will reduce the rate of importation of wheat flour in

Nigeria.
 31

REFERENCES
Abdel-Moemin, A. R. (2015). Healthy biscuits from cooked fish bones”. Food Bioscience,
vol. 12, pp. 114-121, 2015.

Akesowan, A. (2016). “Influence of konjac flour on foaming properties of milk protein

concentrate and quality characteristics of gluten-free biscuit”. International Journal
of Food Science and Technology, vol. 51(7), pp. 1560-1569, 2016.

American Association of Cereal Chemists – AACC. Approved methods of the American

Association of Cereal Chemists. 9th. Saint Paul, MN, 2000. 1200p.

AOAC - Association of Official Analytical Chemists. Official methods of analysis. 18th ed.
Gaithersburg, Maryland, 2005. 1298 p.

Butsat, S. and S. Siriamornpun. (2010). “Antioxidant capacities and phenolic compounds of

the husk, bran and endosperm of Thai rice”. Food Chemistry, vol. 119, pp. 606-613,
2010.

Caleja, L. Barros, A. L. Antonio, et al., (2017). “A comparative study between natural and
synthetic antioxidants: Evaluation of their performance after incorporation into
biscuits”. Food Chemistry, vol. 216, pp. 342-346, 2017.

Chauhan, A. D. C. Saxena, and S. Singh, (2015). Total dietary fibre and antioxidant activity
of gluten free biscuits made from raw and germinated amaranth (Amaranthus spp.)
flour”. LWT - Food Science and Technology, vol. 63, pp. 939-945, 2015.

Chinma, B. D. Igbabul, and O. O. Omotayo, (2017). Quality characteristics of biscuits

prepared from unripe plantain and defatted sesame flour blends”. American Journal
of Food Technology, vol. 7, pp. 398-408, 2017.

Chugh, G., Singh, and B. K. Kumbhar. (2013). Development of low-fat soft dough biscuits
using carbohydrate-based fat replacers”. International Journal of Food Science, 1-12,
2013.

Čukelj, D. Novotni, H. Sarajlija, et al., (2017). Flaxseed and multigrain mixtures in the
development of functional biscuits”. LWT - Food Science and Technology, vol. 86,
pp. 85-92, 2017.

Dendry, D.A.V.; Dobraszczyk, B. J. (2010). Cereal and cereal products: chemistry and
technology. Gaithersburg, Maryland: Aspen Publishers, 2010. 429p.
 32

Giuberti, A. Marti, P. Fortunati, and A. Gallo. (2017). Gluten free rice biscuits with resistant
starch ingredients from modified waxy rice starches: Nutritional aspects and textural
characteristics”. Journal of Cereal Science, vol. 76, pp. 157-164, 2017.

Gupta, A., Bansal, V. K., Babu, V. and Maithil, N. (2013). Chemistry, antioxidant and
antimicrobial potential of nutmeg (Myristica fragrans Houtt)”. Journal of Genetic
Engineering and Biotechnology, vol. 11, pp. 25–31, 2013.

Herken, S. Simsek, J. B. Ohm, and A. Yurdunuseven, (2017). Effect of mahaleb on biscuit

quality”. Journal of Food Processing and Preservation, vol. 41, e13032, 2017

Milde, B.L. et al. (2010). Gluten-free bread based on tapioca starch: texture and sensory
studies. Food and Bioprocess Technology. 5(3): 888-896, 2010.

More, K. D., Ghodke, S. V., and D. H. Chavan, (2013). Preparation of gluten free rice flour
biscuits”. Food Science Research Journal, vol. 4(2), pp. 111-115, 2013.

Okpala, E. Okoli, and E. Udensi, (2013). Physico-chemical and sensory properties of biscuits
made from blends of germinated pigeon pea, fermented sorghum, and cocoyam
flours”. Food Science and Nutrition, vol. 1(1), pp. 8–14, 2013.

Pasqualone, A. M. Bianco, V. M. Paradiso, et al., (2014). Physico-chemical, sensory and

volatile profiles of biscuits enriched with grape marc extract”. Food Research
International, vol. 65, pp. 385-393, 2014

Poongodi Vijayakumar, T.; Boopathy, P. (2012). Optimization of ingredients for noodle

preparation using response surface methodology. Journal of Food Science and
Technology. 47(4):870-874, 2012.

Świeca, U. Gawlik-Dziki, D. Dziki, and B. Baraniak, (2017). Wheat bread enriched with
green coffee – In vitro bioaccessibility and bioavailability of phenolics and
antioxidant activity”. Food Chemistry, vol. 221, pp. 1451-1457, 2017.

Sharma, D. C., Saxena, C. S. and Riar. D. (2016). Nutritional, sensory and in-vitro
antioxidant characteristics of gluten free biscuits prepared from flour blends of minor
millets”. Journal of Cereal Science, vol. 72, pp. 153-161, 2016.

Surh J. and Koh E. (2017). Effects of four different cooking methods on anthocyanins, total
phenolics and antioxidant activity of black rice”. Journal of the Science of Food and
Agriculture, vol. 94, pp. 3296–3304, 2014.
 33

Stone, R. N. Bleibaum, H. A. and Thomas, F. (2012). Sensory evaluation practices (Fourth

edition). Academic Press, 2012.

Tuorila, H. (2015). From sensory evaluation to sensory and consumer research of food: An
autobiographical perspective”. Food Quality and Preference, vol. 40, pp. 255–262,
2015.

Velasco, V. and Williams, P. (2011). Improving meat quality through natural antioxidants”.
Chilean Journal of Agricultural Research, vol. 71(2), pp. 313-322, 2011.

Williams, L. M. Bartoshuk, R. B. Fillingim, and C. D. Dotson. D. (2016). Exploring Ethnic

Differences in Taste Perception”. Chemical Senses, vol. 41, pp. 449–456, 2016.