General

Physics 1

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THERMODYNAMICS
 CHAPTER OVERVIEW
This chapter deals with the basic laws of thermodynamics, its applications,
and basic concepts of heat engines.

SUMMARY OF TOPICS
The Laws of Thermodynamics
Heat Engines
Refrigerators and Air Conditioners

CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
1. Define thermodynamics, entropy, and heat engines.
2. State and discuss the laws of thermodynamics.
3. Differentiate universe from system, and reversible process from irreversible
process.
4. Discuss how a heat engine works.
5. Differentiate a heat engine from a heat pump.
6. Discuss how a refrigerator or an air conditioner works.
7. Name the different types of heat engines and give examples for each.
8. Compute actual and ideal efficiency of a heat engine.
9. Solve problems using the laws of thermodynamics.

CONCEPT MAP

Thermodynamics
Basic Concepts

Laws of Thermodynamics

Zeroth Law First Law Second Law Third Law

Heat Engines Heat Pumps

Refrigerators
Carnot Engine Types Air Conditioners
External Combustion Engine
Efficacy Steam Engine
Internal Combustion Engine
Diesel Engine
Gasoline Engine

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 Introduction

Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the relationships between heat
and other forms of energy. In particular, it describes how thermal energy is converted to
and from other forms of energy and how it affects matter. The fundamental principles of
thermodynamics are expressed in four laws.

WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN HEAT TRANSFER

AND THERMODYNAMICS?

In Heat transfer, the heat directly flows from high temperature to low temperature. but
through thermodynamics, the heat is converted into work with the help of an external
heat engine is known as heat transformation which is a thermodynamic process.

THE INTERNAL ENERGY

The internal energy (U) of a system is the total energy content of the system. It is the sum
of all forms of energy possessed by the atoms and molecules of the system.

FORMULA
THE WORK DONE
BY A SYSTEM
The work done by a system (∆W) is positive
∆W = P∆V
if the system thereby loses energy to its
ΔW = Heat
surroundings. When the surroundings do
work on the system so as to give it energy, P = mass
∆ W is a negative quantity. ΔV = change in temperature

ISOBARIC PROCESS
If the working substance is taken in an expanding chamber in which the pressure is kept
constant, the process is called isobaric process.

REVERSIBLE PROCESS IRREVERSIBLE PROCESS

A reversible process is one which can be
retraced in the reverse order, so that it
passes exactly through the same state as
in the direct process.
EXAMPLES:
Extension of springs
Electrolysis (with no resistance)
Frictionless motion of solids
These processes which cannot be retracted
in the opposite order by reversing the
controlling factors are known.
EXAMPLES:
Rusting of iron
Dissolving of soap in water
Decay of matter
Flow of current through the conductor

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 ZEROTH LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS
Heat (∆Q) is the thermal energy that flows from one body or system to another, which is in
contact with it, because of their temperature difference. Heat always flows from hot to
cold. For two objects in contact to be in thermal equilibrium with each other (i.e., for no net
heat transfer from one to the other), their temperatures must be the same. If each of two
objects is in thermal equilibrium with a third body, then the two are in thermal equilibrium
with each other. This fact is often referred to as the Zeroth Law of Thermodynamics.

FIRST LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
Introduction

The First Law of Thermodynamics states that heat is a form of energy, and
thermodynamic processes are therefore subject to the principle of conservation of
energy. This means that heat energy cannot be created or destroyed. It can, however, be
transferred from one location to another and converted to and from other forms of
energy.

A thermodynamic system in an
equilibrium state possesses a
state variable known as the
internal energy (U). Between two
systems the change in the internal
energy is equal to the difference
of the heat transfer into the
system and the work done by the
State 1 State 1 system.

∆
Refer to the figure above, if an amount of heat Q flows into a system, then this energy
∆
must appear as increased internal energy U for the system and/or work W done by the ∆
system on its surroundings.

∆Q = ∆U +∆W
As an equation, the First Law is:

Amount of Heat = Internal Energy + Work Done

MORE INFORMATION
The first law of thermodynamics states that the energy of the universe remains the same.
same. Though it
may be exchanged between the system and the surroundings, it can’t be created or destroyed. The
law basically relates to the changes in energy states due to work and heat transfer. It redefines the
conservation of energy concept.

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 THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS OCCURS IN OUR BODY?
The first law of thermodynamics applies directly to the
beginning and the end our metabolic processes. Eating
something increases the internal energy of the body
because it is adding potential energy. Our metabolisms use

∆W ∆Q oxidation to realease the chemical potential energy from

the foods we have consumed. So the input of food is in the
form of work . We get our unit for energy for food, calories,
by burning the food in a calorimeter.

EXAMPLES

In a certain process, 8.00 kcal of heat is furnished to the system while the system does 6.00
1 kJ of work. By how much does the internal energy of the system change during the process?

SOLUTION:

We have

∆Q = (8,000 cal) ( 4.184 calJ = -33.5 kJ and, ∆W = 6.00 kJ

(
Therefore, from the First Law ∆Q = ∆U + ∆W:

∆U = ∆Q - ∆W
∆U = 33.5 kJ - 6.00 kJ
∆U = 27.5 kJ
The internal energy of the system changed by 27.5 kJ during the process.

The specific heat of water is 4184 J/kg K. By how many joules does the internal energy of 50
2 grams of water change as it is heated from 21 °C to 37 °C?

SOLUTION:

The heat added to heat the water is

∆Q = cm∆T
∆Q = (4,184 kg-K
J
( 3
(0.050 kg)(16°C) = 3.4 x 10 3 J

If we ignore the slight expansion of the water, no work was done on the surroundings.
And so W = 0.
Then, the first law, Q = U + W, tells us that

∆U = ∆Q = 3.4 kJ
The internal energy of the water will change by 3.4 kJ.

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SECOND LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
Introduction

The Second law of Thermodynamics states that any spontaneously occurring process
will always lead to an escalation in the entropy (S) of the universe. In simple words, the
law explains that an isolated system’s entropy will never decrease over time.

THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS

The Second Law of Thermodynamics is about the quality of energy. It can be stated in three (3)
equivalent ways:

1. CLAUSIUS STATEMENT - Heat flows spontaneously from a hotter to a colder object, but not vice
versa.
2. KELVIN-PLANCK STATEMENT - No heat engine that cycles continuously can change all its heat-in to
useful work-out.
3. ENTROPY STATEMENT - If a system undergoes spontaneous change, it will change in such a way
that its entropy will increase, or, at best, remain constant.
The Second Law tells us the manner in which a spontaneous change will occur, while the First Law
tells us whether or not the change is possible. The First Law deals with the conservation of energy;
the Second Law deals with the dispersal of energy.

ENTROPY
Entropy, denoted by S, is a state variable for a system in equilibrium. By this is meant that Entropy is
always the same for the system when it is in a given equilibrium state. Like, P, V, and U, the Entropy
is characteristic of the system at equilibrium. When heat enters a system at an absolute
temperature T, the resulting change in entropy of the system is:

where

ΔS= ΔQ ΔS =Entropy

T ΔQ = Heat
T = Temperature

A REVERSIBLE CHANGE (or process) is one which the values of P, V, T, and U are well-defined during the
change. If the process is reversed, then P, V, T, and U will take on their original values when the
system is returned to where it started. To be reversible, a process must usually be slow, and the
system must be close to equilibrium during the entire change.

Another, fully equivalent, definition of entropy can be given from a detailed molecular analysis of
the system. If a system can achieve a particular state in Ω (omega) in different ways, then the
entropy of the state is:

S= k B In Ω
-23
where In is the logarithm to base e, and k B is Boltzmann's constant, 1.38 x 10 J/K.

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 ENTROPY IS A MEASURE OF DISORDER
Entropy is also a measure of disorder. This is a state that can occur in only one way is a state of
high order. But a state that can occur in many ways is a more disordered state. One way to
associate a number with disorder is to take the disorder of a state as being proportional to Ω
(omega), the number of ways the state can occur.
Spontaneous processes in systems that contain many molecules always occur in a direction
from a:

(state that can exist in only a few ways ( state that can exist in many ways
( (
➔
Hence, when left to themselves, systems retain their original state of order or else
increase their disorder.

The Most Probable State of a system is the state with the largest entropy. It is also the state
with the most disorder and the state that can occur in the largest number of ways.

SOLID LIQUID GAS

(has the least entropy) (has more entropy than solid) (has the most entropy: total disorder)

You can see in the images above that the solids show proper arrangements of molecules. They do not
show any molecular movement. Thus solids have very very less disorder or very less randomness.
While Liquids show more movement of molecules as compared to solids. Thus the randomness of
liquids is more as compared to solids. In gases, you can see that the entire container is filled with
the gas (in other words, gas occupies the entire space of the container). Gas molecules show
maximum movement and thus we can say that it has the maximum randomness or maximum
disorder.

In short, we can say that: The movement of molecules is known as randomness or disorder, and its
measurement is called Entropy.

HOW DOES THE ENTROPY OCCUR ON BALLOONS?

Air leaks from the balloon on its own. Air never enters the balloon on its own.
The air never goes inside the balloon on its own. This example is based on the Entropy
statement of second law of thermodynamics. It is an example of spontaneous process.

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THIRD LAW OF
THERMODYNAMICS
Developed by German chemist Walther Nernst between the years 1906 and 1912. The Third Law of
Thermodynamics simply states that it is impossible to attain the absolute zero temperature.
At a temperature of zero Kelvin, the following phenomena can be observed in a closed system:
The system does not contain any heat.
All the atoms and molecules in the system are at their lowest energy points.
Therefore, a system at absolute zero has only one accessible microstate – it’s ground state. As per
the third law of thermodynamics, the entropy of such a system is exactly zero.

EXAMPLES

Twenty gram of ice at precisely 0°C melts to water with no change in temperature. By how
1 much does the entropy of the 20-g mass change in this process?

SOLUTION:

By slowly adding heat to the ice, we can melt it in a reversible way.

The heat needed is

∆Q = mL f = (20 gl) (80 cal

( = 1,600 cal
g

So in order to get the entropy

∆S = ∆TQ = 1,600 cal

273 K
= 5.86
cal
K
= 25 J/K

Notice that melting increases the entropy (and disorder).

The entropy of the 20-g mass changed by 25 J/K.

Two vats of water, one at 87°C and the other at 14°C, are separated by a metal plate. If heat
2 flows through the plate at 35 cal/s, what is the change in entropy of the system that occurs
in a second?

SOLUTION:

The higher-temperature vat loses entropy, while the cooler one gains entropy:

∆S h = ∆T hQ = (-35 cal)(4.184 J/cal)

360 K
= -0.41 J/K

∆S c = ∆Q =
Tc
(35 cal)(4.184 J/cal) = 0.51 J/K
287 K

Therefore
∆S = ∆S c - ∆S h = 0.51 J/K - 0.41 J/K = 0.10 J/K
The change in entropy is 0.10 J/K.

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HEAT ENGINES
A heat engine is a system which converts heat into work by taking heat from the reservoir ( hot body)
to carry out some work. There is a discharge of some heat to the sink (cold body). In this system,
there will also be some waste in the form of heat. There are two types of heat engines: External
Combustion Engine and Internal Combustion Engine.
Here is a very basic diagram of how the heat engine works:

We know that thermodynamics is the study of the relation

between heat and work. The first law of thermodynamics and the
second law of thermodynamics helps in the operation of the
heat engine.
The first law is the application of conservation of energy and the
second law sets limits on the possible efficiency of the machine
and determines the direction of flow of energy.
All heat engines follow this pattern of operation: Heat (Hh) is
supplied to the engine by a hot reservoir. Part of this is used to
do work on an object and the rest (Hc) is discarded to a cold
reservoir.

EXTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE

In external combustion engine, the fuel gets burned outside the engine or at a far distance
from the engine by which it can produce force and motion. A very good example of an
external combustion engine is a steam engine.

STEAM ENGINES
The steam engine operates on the force of water vapor (steam) heated to high pressure. It is a
technology that converts thermal energy (heat) to mechanical energy (work).

CARNOT ENGINE
Carnot engine is a theoretical thermodynamic cycle proposed by Leonard Carnot. It estimates
the maximum possible efficiency that a heat engine during the conversion process of heat
into work and, conversely, working between two reservoirs can possess.

THE CARNOT CYCLE

A B C D

q in q out
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Following are the four processes of the Carnot Cycle:
In (a), the process is reversible isothermal gas expansion. In this process, the amount
of heat absorbed by the ideal gas is qin from the heat source at a temperature of Th.
The gas expands and does work on the surroundings.
In (b), the process is reversible adiabatic gas expansion. Here, the system is thermally
insulated, and the gas continues to expand and work is done on the surroundings. Now
the temperature is lower, Tl.
In (c), the process is reversible isothermal gas compression process. Here, the heat
loss qout occurs when the surroundings do the work at temperature Tl.
In (d), the process is reversible adiabatic gas compression. Again the system is
thermally insulated. The temperature again rises back to Th as the surrounding
continue to do their work on the gas.

ISOTHERMAL PROCESS
This is a constant-temperature process. In the case of an ideal gas where the constituent
atoms or molecules do not interact when separated, ∆
U = 0 in an isothermal process.
∆
However, this is not true for many other systems. For example, U ≠ 0 as ice melts to water at
0C, even though the process is isothermal.
For an idea gas, ∆U = 0 in an isothermal change and so the first law becomes
∆Q = ∆W (ideal gas)
For an ideal gas changing isothermally from (P1, V1) to (P2, V2), where P1V1 = P2V2

∆Q = ∆W = P 1 V1 ln( VV (
2
( V2
(
= 2.30P 1 V 1 log
1 V1

ADIABATIC PROCESS
The Adiabatic process is one in which no heat is transferred to or from the system. For such a
∆
process, Q = 0. Hence, in an adiabatic process, the first law becomes

∆U + ∆W = 0
Any work done by the system is done at the expense of the internal energy. Any work done on
the system serves to increase the internal energy. For an ideal gas changing from conditions
(P1, V1, T1) to (P2, V2, T2) in an adiabatic process,
γ γ γ-1 γ-1
P 1 V1 = P2 V 2 and T 1 V 1 = T 2V 2
where

cp constant pressure
γ= =
cn constant volume

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 EFFICIENCY OF A HEAT ENGINE

The efficiency of a heat engine is defined as

work output Hh - Hc
eff = eff = x 100%
heat input Hh
The Carnot Cycle is the most efficient cycle possible for a heat engine. An engine that operates in
accordance to this cycle between a hot reservoir (T h ) and a cold reservoir (T c ) has efficiency

eff max = 1 - T c
Th
Kelvin temperatures must be used in this equation.

EXAMPLES

Twenty cubic centimeters of monatomic gas at 12 °C and 100 kPa is suddenly (and
1 adiabatically) compressed to 0.50 cm³. What are its new pressure and temperature?

SOLUTION:
γ γ
For an adiabatic change involving an ideal gas, P 1 V 1 = P 2 V 2
where γ = 1.67 for a monatomic gas. Hence,

( ( 20 1.67
P 2 = P 1 V1
( γ
5
= (1.00 x 10 5 N/m)
(
V2 0.50
7 2
P 2 = 4.74 x 10 7 N/m 2 ) = 47 MPa

To find the final temperature, we use

γ-1 γ-1
T 1 V 1 = T 2V 2

( (
V1
T 2 = T 1 V2
( γ-1
20 1.67 - 1
= (285 K) 0.50
( 3
= (285 K)(11.8) = 3.4 x 10 K

As a check
P 1 V 1 = P 2 V2
T1 T2
5 2 2 7 2 3
(1 x 10 N/m )(20 cm ) (4.47 x 10 N/m )(0.50 cm )
=
285 K 3,370 K
7,000 = 7,000

The entropy of the 20-g mass changed by 25 J/K.

Compute the maximum possible efficiency of a heat engine operating between the
2 temperature limits of 100 °C and 400 °C.

SOLUTION:

The most efficient engine is the Carnot engine, for which

(
(
(
Efficiency = 1 - Tc
( =1-
373 K
= 0.446 = 44.6 %
Th 679 K

The maximum possible efficiency is 44.6%.

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 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINE
In internal combustion engine, the fuels are burned inside the chamber. Car engine a very
good example of this type of combustion engine, which includes diesel and gasoline engines.

Internal Combustion has engine cycles, these cycles are essentially the same in both engine
types except for the combustion cycle where the gasoline engine is spark initiated and the
diesel is compression initiated. The difference is central to the superiority of the diesel for
applications requiring high efficiency and high torque functionality with good fuel economy.

GASOLINE ENGINE
Gasoline engine are any of a class of internal-combustion engines that generate power by
burning a volatile liquid fuel (gasoline or a gasoline mixture such as ethanol) with ignition
initiated by an electric spark. Gasoline engines can be built to meet the requirements of
practically any conceivable power-plant application, the most important being passenger
automobiles, small trucks and buses, general aviation aircraft, outboard and small inboard
marine units, stationary pumping, lighting plants, machine tools, and power tools.

DIESEL ENGINE
Diesel engines are the core powerplants of the industry. Trucking, marine, and rail shipping
industries rely heavily on diesel power rather than gasoline fueled engines. A diesel engine
has cylinders, a crankshaft, connecting rods, and pistons to transfer the energy of the fuel
from a linear to rotary motion. The primary difference lies in the way they ignire the fuel/air
mixture. Diesel-fueled engines are compression ignition engines.

FOUR-STROKE ENGINE CYCLE

intake value fuel injector exhaust valve

intake compression power exhaust

Note: Unlike a conventional gasoline engine, a diesel injects fuel directly into the cylinder
during the power stroke which then combusts due to high cylinder temperatures.
The four-stroke engine is the most common types of internal combustion engines and is used in
various automobiles (that specifically use gasoline as fuel) like cars, trucks, and some motorbikes
(many motorbikes use a two stroke engine). A four stroke engine delivers one power stroke for
every two cycles of the piston (or four piston strokes).

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Following are the four-stroke engine process:
Intake stroke: The piston moves downward to the bottom, this increases the volume to
allow a fuel-air mixture to enter the chamber.
Compression stroke: The intake valve is closed, and the piston moves up the chamber
to the top. This compresses the fuel-air mixture. At the end of this stroke, a spark plug
provides the compressed fuel with the activation energy required to begin combustion.
Power Stroke: As the fuel reaches the end of it’s combustion, the heat released from
combusting hydrocarbons increases the pressure which causes the gas to push down
on the piston and create the power output.
Exhaust stroke: As the piston reaches the bottom, the exhaust valve opens. The
remaining exhaust gas is pushed out by the piston as it moves back upwards.

EXAMPLES

A steam engine operating between a boiler temperature of 220 °C and a condenser temperature
of 35.0°C delivers 8.00 hp. If its efficiency is 30.0 percent of that for a Carnot engine operating
1 between these temperature limits, how many calories are absorbed each second by the boiler?
How many calories are exhausted to the condenser each second?
SOLUTION:

(
(
Actual efficiency = (0.30)(Carnot Efficiency) = (0.300) 1 - 308 K = 0.113
493 K
But the relation
work output
efficiency =
heat input
Gives

(
(8.00 hp)(746 W/hp)
1.00 cal/s
(
work output 4.184 W
Input heat/s = = = 12.7 kcal/s
efficiency 0.113

To find the energy rejected to the condenser, we use the law of conversation of energy:
Input energy = (output work) + (rejected energy), where:
Rejected energy/s = (input energy/s) - (output work/s)
Rejected energy/s = (input energy/s)[1 - (efficiency)]
Rejected energy/s = (12.7 kcal/s)(1 - 0.113) = 11.3 kcal/s

11.3 kcal/s are exhausted to the condenser.

Dissatisfied with the performance of his heat engine in the previous example, the engineer wishes
to increase its efficiency to 25%. To accomplish this, he decided to change the temperature of the
2 hot reservoir while keeping the temperature of the cold reservoir constant. What must be the
temperature of the hot reservoir of the engine?
SOLUTION:

Tc = 343 K
efficiency = Th - Tc x 100%
Th

25% = Th - 343 K x 100%

Th
0.25 Th = Th - 343 K
Th = 457 K or 184°C

The temperature of the hot reservoir of the engine is 184°C.

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REFRIGERATION
Refrigerators work on the second law of thermodynamics. In the process of refrigeration, unwanted
heat is taken from one place and discharged into another. The common refrigerator which we have
in our homes, works on the principle of evaporation. A refrigerant is a substance used in a heat
cycle to transfer heat from one area, and remove it to another. A refrigerant when passed through
the food kept in the refrigerator, it absorbs heat from these items and transfers the absorbed heat
to the surrounding with less temperature.

SINGLE STAGE VAPOR COMPRESSION

REFRIGERATION
Liquid Liquid

Fan
Evaporator

Condenser
Cold Air Warm Air

Expansion Valve

Liquid + Vapor Liquid

Condenser may be water-cooled or air cooled

There are four components in the refrigerator system. They are:
1. Evaporator: It is the main part of the refrigerator that helps to keep the device and
things cool always. It features the tubes with high thermal conductivity that helps in
absorbing the heat rejected by the fan or coil in the system.
2. Compressor: It compresses the low-pressure, low-temperature vapor into a high-
temperature, high-pressure vapor. The refrigerant is passed from the evaporator and is
compressed in a cylinder to generate a high-temperature, high-pressure gas.
3. Expansion valve: helps to control the flow of refrigerant into the evaporator, or cooling
coil. Expansion valve is also known as flow control valves. It is a sensitive small device
that aids to sense the temperature change of the refrigerant.
4. Condenser: It comprises a set of tubes with external fins placed back of the
refrigerator. This component helps to convert the gaseous refrigerant into liquid form.

HEAT ENGINE VS HEAT PUMP

A heat pump is basically a heat engine run in the reverse direction. In other words, a heat pump is a
device that is used to transfer heat energy to a thermal reservoir. They are often used to transfer
thermal energy by absorbing heat from a cold space and releasing it to a warmer one.
Heat pumps transfer heat from a cold body to a hot body at the expense of mechanical energy
supplied to it by an external agent. A heat pump generally comprises four key components which
include a condenser, a compressor, an expansion valve and an evaporator.
Heat engines are the devices which convert the thermal energy into mechanical work, while heat
pumps transfer heat energy from low temperature to high temperature. Any refrigerating system is
a heat pump, which extracts heat from a cold body and delivers it to a hot body.

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An air conditioning process has an indoor and outdoor unit connected
connected with a pipe. The air is heated,
compressed, condensed and
and liquified. The liquid gas evaporates and is cooled with the help of condenser.

EXAMPLES

1 How much heat is released by a refrigerator to the kitchen if in removing 1 000 J of heat from the
food inside it, it does 500 J of work?
SOLUTION:

A refrigerator is a heat engine operating in reverse. From the diagram of a

heat engine operating in reverse,
Hh = Hc + W
Hh = 1,000 J + 500 J
Hh = 1,500 J ≈ 2,000 J

2,000 J of heat is released by the refrigerator.

A Carnot refrigerator removes 160 J of heat from a body at 15°C and delivers energy to a body at
2 156°C. Find (a) the energy delivered to the hot body and (b) mechanical energy required to
accomplish this.

SOLUTION:
Th - Tc
efficiency = Hh - hc x 100% = x 100%
Hh Th
Hc Tc
=
Hh Th
(156 + 273) K
Hh = 160 J = 238 J ≈ 240 J
(15 + 273) K
W = Hh - Hc = 238 J - 160 J = 78 J ≈ 80 J

240 J of energy is delivered to the hot body while 80 J is required

to accomplish this.

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SUMMARY
The thermodynamics is the study of heat energy and its transformation to mechanical energy.
System is an object or collection of objects under study. Everything else outside the system is called
surroundings. The system and the surroundings make up the universe.
There are four laws of thermodynamics: zeroth law, first law, second law, and third law.
The zeroth law states that if system A is in thermal equilibrium with system B and system C, then system B and
system C must be in thermal equilibrium with each other. Two systems are in thermal equilibrium if they have
the same temperature.
The first law states that when heat is added to a system, some of it remains in the system increasing its internal
∆
energy while the rest leaves the system as the system does work. In symbol; H = U + W. The first law may be
considered as a statement of conservation of energy.
There are three ways by which the second law may be stated.
a.Kelvin-Planck statement: No heat engine can completely convert heat energy into work.
b.Clausius statement: Heat flows naturally from hot objects to cold objects.
c.Entropy statement: When a reversible process occurs, the entropy of the universe does not
change. When an irreversible increases.
Entropy is the thermodynamic measure of disorder.
Reversible process is one in which the system and its surroundings can be returned to exactly the initial states
they were in before the process takes place. The opposite of reversible process is irreversible process. All
spontaneous processes are irreversible.
The Third Law of Thermodynamics simply states that it is impossible to attain the absolute zero temperature.
A heat engine is a device that converts heat energy to mechanical energy. Heat engines are classified into two
major types: internal combustion engine and external combustion engine. Internal combustion engine burns
the fuel inside it, while external combustion engine burns fuel outside it. The diesel engine and the gasoline
engine are internal combustion engines. Steam engine is an external combustion engine.
All heat engines follow this pattern of operation: Heat (Hh) is supplied to the engine by a hot reservoir. Part of
this is used to do work on an object and the rest (Hc) is discarded to a cold reservoir.
All heat engines follow this pattern of operation: Heat (Hh) is supplied to the engine by a hot reservoir. Part of
this is used to do work on an object and the rest (Hc) is discarded to a cold reservoir.
Refrigerators and air conditioners are heat engines operating in reverse. They take heat from the cold reservoir
and discard it to the hot reservoir.

FORMULAS

FIRST LAW OF EFFICIENCY

THERMODYNAMICS
∆U + W
work output
eff =
H= heat input
Hh - Hc
eff = x 100%
ENTROPY Hh

∆S = ∆TQ eff =
Th - Tc
Th
x 100%

eff max = 1 - T c
S= k B In Ω Th

Page | 15
 Name: Score:
Test
Yourself Year & Section: Date:

INSTRUCTION
Answer 3 out of 9 questions only.

1.Explain why the second law is called the time’s arrow?

2.Explain why the first and the second law of thermodynamics may be stated as: You
cannot get ahead and you can not break even, respectively.

3. What is the effect of the following on the efficiency of an ideal heat engine:
(a) increasing the input temperature while keeping the exhaust temperature
constant and
(b) increasing the exhaust temperature while keeping the input temperature
constant?

4.Explain what is meant by “the human body is heat engine which is more or less
20% efficient”.

5.If I left my refrigerator open for a long time, will it cool my kitchen?

6.A refrigerator and an air conditioner both remove heat from a cold reservoir and
deposit it to a hot reservoir. Why then does an air conditioner cools a room while
refrigerator warms a room?

7 .It is possible to produce a perpetual motion machine?

8.On a hot day when someone leaves the door of an air-conditioned room open, it is
often said that the person is letting the cold air out. Is this correct statement?
Explain.

9.When water becomes ice, the entropy decreases. Does this contradict the second
law?

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 Name: Score:

Year & Section: Date:

TEST BANK

A INSTRUCTION

Choose the letter that corresponds to the correct answer. For the numbers
that require computations, show your solution.

1 . The first law of thermodynamics is simply a statement of

a. Conservation of mass c. Newton’s laws
b. Conservation of energy d. Principle of entropy
2. Entropy is a measure of
a. Temperature c. Disorder
b. Pressure d. Energy
3. One Calorie is equivalent to how many joules?
a. 1000 J c. 1 J
b. 4186 J d. 240 J
4. The first commercial steam engine was developed in 1698 by
a. Thomas Savery c. James Watt
b. Thomas Newcomen d. James Prescott Joule
5. The sequence of strokes in a four-stroke gasoline and diesel engine is
a. Exhaust-intake-power-compression
b. Intake-power-compression-exhaust
c. Intake-compression-power-exhaust
d. Intake-exhaust-compression-power
6.Which law of the thermodynamics dictates that for objects to be in
thermal equilibrium, they must have a common temperature?
a. Zeroth law c. Second law
b. First law d. Third law
7. Sixty joules of work have been performed by a system upon the addition of
100 joules of heat. The change in the internal energy of the system is
a. 0 J c. 160 J
b. 40 J d. -40 J
8. Which does not belong to the group?
a. Shuffling a new deck of cards
b. Arranging stud ents alphabetically
c. Breaking of glass
d. Mixing sand with gravel
9.The ideal efficiency of a heat engine operating between 20.0˚C and 100.0˚C is
a. 80.0%
b. 20.0%
c. 21.4%
d. 100%

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10. Suppose you mix two identical blocks of metal, one having a temperature
of 10˚C and the other, 20˚C. Is it possible for the colder block to cool to 5˚C
and the warmer block to warm to 25˚C?
a. Yes.
b. No, because it will violate the zeroth law of thermodynamics.
c. No, because it will violate the first law of thermodynamics.
d. No, because it will violate the second law of thermodynamics.
11. James Watt perfected the steam engine by adding
a. Piston c. Flywheel
b. Condenser d. Gate valve
12.The heat exhausted to the heat sink by a heat engine is twice the
mechanical work done. What is its efficiency?
a. 33% c. 100%
b. 67% d. 50%
13. In which process does the entropy of the universe increase?
a. Boiling of water c. Expansion of a substance
b. Burning pieces of paper d. Melting of ice
14. When Rudolph Diesel designed his first prototype engine, he used
a. Peanut oil c. Diesel gas
b. Ethanol d. Gasoline
15. What is the change in entropy of 1,000 kg of ice at 0.0˚ when it melts and
becomes steam at 100.0˚C?
a . 1,230 J/K c. 7,290 J/K
b . 6,060 J/K d. 8,590 J/K

B INSTRUCTION

Solve the following problems. ANSWER ONLY TWO (2) OUT OF FIVE QUESTIONS. Show your complete
solutions. NOT FOLLOWING OF INSTRUCTIONS will be a deduction of 10 POINTS from the total score.

1. Find the change in the thermal energy of a system that releases 2,000 J of
heat while it does 500 J of work.
2. An internal combustion engine has an efficiency of 22% and produces 2,500
J of work. How much heat does the engine reject?
3. A weight lifter loses 0.2 kg of water through perspiration while exercising. If
in lifting the weights, he did 1.6 x 10 5 J of work, find
(a) heat lost due to perspiration assuming the latent heat of vaporization of
perspiration at normal body temperature is 2.42 x 10 6 J.
(b) The change in internal energy of the weight lifter, and
(c) the minimum number of nutritional calories of food that he must take to
replace whatever amount of energy lost.
4. An ideal engine has an efficiency of 28% when the temperature of its hot
reservoir is 120°C. What must be the reservoir's temperature if it is desired to
increase the efficiency to 35%? Assume that the temperature of the cold
reservoir is the same for both cases.
5. Find the change in entropy when
(a) 3.0 kg of boiling water changes to steam at 100°C,
(b) 3.0 kg of water is heated from 20°C to 80°C, and
(c) 2.0 kg of water at 30°C are mixed with 5.0 kg of water at 75°C and the
mixture allowed to reach equilibrium.

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 PREPARED BY:

ANA ROSE M. FACULIN, MEd - Physics

Subject Teacher

APPROVED BY:

SALVADOR J. SEMBRAN, Ph.D.

Assistant Principal II, SHS

LAYOUT ARTIST: ENCODER:

CARL V. BANSAG Karen Happuch P. Sarabia

BS Civil Engineering, UA BS Civil Engineering, SAC
12 STEM B, Batch 2020, ANS 12 STEM B, Batch 2019, ANS

bostik
CARL KAREN