SEG

OCTOBER 1999SOCIET
NEWSLETTER
Y O F ECONOMI C GEOLOGISTS NUMBER 39

Alteration Mapping in
Exploration: Application of Short-
Wave Infrared (SWIR)
Spectroscopy
ANNE J. B. THOMPSON (SEG PHOEBE L. HAUFF AUDREY J. ROBITAILLE
1990)
SPECTRAL INTERNATIONAL INC. PETRASCIENCE CONSULTANTS INC. 3995
PETRASCIENCE CONSULTANTS INC. 3995 P.O. BOX 1027 W. 24TH AVENUE
W. 24TH AVENUE ARVADA, COLORADO 80001 VANCOUVER, B.C. • CANADA V6S 1M1
VANCOUVER, B.C. • CANADA V6S 1M1
EMAIL, anne@petrascience.com

ABSTRACT determine the mineralogy of altered rocks and hence assist in

classifying ore systems, identifying alteration patterns, and locating
Alteration mineral assemblages are important to the
understanding of and exploration for hydrothermal ore deposits.
Conventional mapping tools may not identify fine-grained minerals
or define important compositional variations. Field portable short-
wave infrared (SWIR) spectrometers solve some of these problems
and provide a valuable tool for evaluating the distribution of
alteration assemblages. Spectrometers such as the PIMA-II allow
rapid identification of minerals and mineral-specific variations at a
field base. Mineral assemblages, integrated with other exploration
data, are then used to target drill holes and guide regional
exploration programs. Data collection must be systematically
organized and carried out by a trained operator. Analysis of data
sets requires the use of spectral reference libraries from different
geological environments and may be aided in some cases by
computer data processing packages. Integration of results with field
observations, petrography, and X-ray diffraction analysis is necessary
for complete evaluation. The PIMA (portable infrared mineral
analyzer) has been used successfully in the high-sulfidation
epithermal, low-sulfidation epithermal, volcanogenic massive sulfide
(VMS) and intrusion-related environments. Case studies from these
systems demonstrate the ability to rapidly acquire and process
SWIR data and produce drill logs and maps. The resulting
information is critical for targeting.

INTRODUCTION
Field portable SWIR spectrometers are becoming increasingly
important to exploration. Spectrometers typically are employed to
ore. In addition to its early use in remote sensing, development
of the PIMA-II in 1991 allowed direct use of SWIR on rocks,
greatly enhancing its practical application to exploration.
SWIR spectroscopy detects minerals such as
phyllosilicates, clays, carbonates, and selected sulfates and is
also sensitive to variations in individual mineral species.
SWIR field spectrometers are used in numerous
deposit environments, including high- and low-sulfidation
epithermal, porphyry, mesothermal, sediment-hosted gold and
copper, uranium, VMS, and kimberlite deposits (Table 1, page
16). In addition, spectrometers aid regolith mapping, both for
determination of bedrock composition and for
differentiation of residual and transported regolith.
Publications on the results of SWIR spectroscopy are
sparse, reflecting the confidential nature of most companies’
programs and the lack of academic work applied to field
mapping. A selection of recent papers and abstracts, however,
highlight the work that is currently underway: Stewart
and Kamprad, 1997, and Shen et al., 1999 (regolith mapping);
Zhang et al., 1998 (uranium); Passos and de Souza Filho, 1999
(Archean greenstone); Denniss et al., 1999, and Huston et al.,
1999 (VMS); Martinez-Alonso et al., 1999, and Kruse and
Hauff, 1991 (epithermal clays); and Crowley, 1996 and 1999
(evaporites).
SWIR field spectrometers fill an important gap in exploration
data by helping to map alteration consistently throughout a
mineralized system. Determining alteration mineralogy
routinely during an exploration program aids rapid evaluation
and therefore increases efficiency.
Alteration Mapping
Determination of the type and distribution of
to page 16 ...
alteration minerals is a routine part of exploration
16 SEG NEWSLETTER
... from 1 S W I R SP E C T R O S C O P Y, CO N T .
for hydrothermal mineral deposits and is useful in the assessment of
exploration properties and the construction of deposit models.
Typically, alteration maps are based on macroscopic field
observations, supported by limited petrographic or X-ray diffraction
studies. Alteration studies at the deposit scale are limited, or reliant
on detailed but necessarily restricted sample suites.
Lithogeochemistry is used in some environments to evaluate
alteration but only works well where lithologies and their petrology
are well understood. Lithogeochemistry is difficult to apply to
extensive areas of clay alteration, where protoliths are hard to
identify during the exploration program.
Fine-grained alteration minerals commonly are grouped as
“argillic” or “phyllic” (Thompson and Thompson, 1996). Such
descriptions ignore the mineralogy and lose valuable information
regarding the nature of the alteration. The importance of using
minerals and mineral assemblages was noted by Rose and Burt
(1979) and subsequent authors, but this approach is not always
applied during exploration. Classification of alteration by mineralogy
involves field observations that may be aided by SWIR
spectroscopy (Table 2). The use of SWIR spectrometers at a field
base allows mineralogy to be mapped or placed on cross sections.
The resultant interpretation can be applied in real time to guide
drilling, and ultimately can be integrated with other data to develop
targets, models, and regional guides.
Field observations must be made in a careful and systematic
manner. Care is needed in determining the relationship among
minerals prior to assigning them to a single assemblage or
interpreting their relationship to other types of alteration. A series of
steps should be followed in order to make realistic interpretations of
the observed hydrothermal alteration. These steps are:
1. Determine the minerals present, based on field observations;
2. Determine their distribution at the outcrop and hand specimen
scales;
3. Employ SWIR analysis carefully, analyzing a variety of locations
on each sample and using systematic sampling techniques;
Table 1. Examples of the Use of SWIR in Exploration
Mineral Identification Alteration Interpretation
Alunite Advanced argillic
Dickite Advanced argillic
Kaolinite Advanced argillic and
weathered rock
Dickite, pyrophyllite, diaspore Advanced argillic
Chlorite Propylitic, chloritic
Illite/smectite Argillic
Carbonate Carbonate
Nº 39 • OCTOBER ’99
4. Use the above data to establish the relationships among the
main minerals;
5. Outline the distribution at the map scale;
6. Use petrography of selected samples to further define
relationships of minerals;
7. Augment with X-ray diffraction (XRD) analysis if necessary;
8. Use scanning electron microscope (SEM) with energy dispersive
system (EDS) to determine variations in individual minerals
and assist with interpretation in fine-grained material;
9. Refine and reevaluate, continually, the interpretation and
integrate the results with other geologic, geochemical, and
geophysical data sets.
SWIR analysis aids exploration from regional to property scales.
For example, in complex zoned intrusive systems, alteration
mineralogy determined routinely during mapping helps to define
vertical and horizontal zoning and related ore environments. Within
each environment, alteration mineralogy can define local zoning,
providing vectors to mineralization. SWIR spectroscopy is most
helpful where alteration mineralogy is not easily identified in hand
specimen because of grain size or weathering. Even where field
mapping of alteration minerals is effective, SWIR spectroscopy
allows recognition of subtle mineralogic and compositional
variations; these can be important in locating ore.
REFLECTANCE SPECTROSCOPY
Reflectance spectroscopy is an analytical technique used by
chemists and mineralogists since the early 1900s, with infrared data
on minerals published between 1905 and 1910 by W.W. Coblentz of
the U.S. Bureau of Standards. Commercially available infrared
spectrophotometers in the mid-1940s led to increased use of the
technique for mineralogy. Early reviews of mineral spectra were
published by Lyon (1962) and Moenke (1962). Farmer (1974)
published a comprehensive book on theoretical and practical
aspects and Marel and Beutelspacher (1976) compiled clay
minerals. Kodama (1985) published spectra of minerals typically
found in soils, including numerous hydroxides, oxides,
phyllosilicates, carbonates, and sulfates.
Exploration Application
— High-sulfidation environment, and zoning around high sulfidation
— Steam-heated zones in low sulfidation
— Zoning around high sulfidation
— Sediment-hosted Au, with mineralization
— High-sulfidation
— Sediment-hosted Au, zoning
— Depth estimation
— VMS zoning
— Uranium zoning
— High and low sulfidation, zoning
— Uranium, zoning
— Mesothermal, zoning
 Mineral spectra in the SWIR were first compiled by Hunt and
Salisbury (1970, 1971), and Hunt et al. (1971a, b, c). Hunt’s
database provided a basic reference for infrared active minerals in
the SWIR region that is still in active use. The work was
expanded on by Clark et al. (1990). Hauff (1993) published a
commercial reference library. Workers at the Jet Propulsion
Laboratory also added to the references available (Grove et al.,
1992).
Field Portable Spectrometers
Geologists in the remote-sensing community drove the initial
development of field portable SWIR spectrometers that were
particularly useful to the mineral exploration industry. The ability to
easily produce laboratory-quality data in field situations enhanced
Table 2. Summary of Infrared-Active Minerals, with Distinctive Spectra in the SWIR
Environment of formation Standard terminology
Intrusion-related Potassic (biotite-rich), K silicate,
biotitic
Sodic, sodic-calcic
Phyllic, sericitic
Intermediate argillic, sericite-
chlorite-clay (SCC), argillic
Advanced argillic
Greisen
Skarn
Propylitic
High-sulfidation epithermal Advanced argillic — acid sulphate
Argillic, intermediate argillic
Propylitic
Low-sulfidation epithermal “Adularia” — sericite, sericitic,
argillic
Advanced argillic —
acid-sulphate (steam-heated)
Propylitic, zeolitic
Mesothermal Carbonate
Chloritic
Biotitic
Sediment-hosted gold Argillic
Volcanogenic massive sulfide Sericitic
Chloritic
Carbonate
Sediment-hosted massive sulfide Tourmalinite
Carbonate
Sericitic
Albitic
Minerals are grouped by assemblages of alteration minerals, and keyed to commonly used terminology; Complete assemblages are in
Thompson and Thompson (1996)
the ability to field check Landsat Thematic Mapper imagery.
Several field spectrometers are available. These include the
Geophysical Environmental Research, Inc. (GER-IRIS), Analytical
Spectral Devices (ASD-FieldSpec) and Integrated Spectronics Pty. Ltd.
(PIMA). The GER and ASD instruments provide data in the visible,
near, and shortwave infrared wavelengths. The instruments are field
portable, but require use of solar illumination. Early published
papers include documentation of the GER instrument (Marsh and
McKeon, 1983). The instrument was used in field checking of
airborne spectroradio- meter data in the Oatman district (epithermal
veins), Arizona. Hunt and Ashley (1979) and Crowley (1984)
to page 18 ...
linked
SWIR spectroscopy to alteration mapping.
SWIR active mineral assemblage (key minerals are in bold)
Biotite (phlogopite), actinolite, sericite, chlorite, epidote,
muscovite, anhydrite
Actinolite, clinopyroxene (diopside), chlorite, epidote, scapolite
Sericite (muscovite-illite), chlorite, anhydrite
Sericite (illite-smectite), chlorite, kaolinite (dickite),
montmorillonite, calcite, epidote
Pyrophyllite, sericite, diaspore, alunite, topaz, tourmaline,
dumortierite, zunyite
Topaz, muscovite, tourmaline
Clinopyroxene, wollastonite, actinolite-tremolite, vesuvianite, epidote,
serpentinite-talc, calcite, chlorite, illite-smectite, nontronite
Chlorite, epidote, calcite, actinolite, sericite, clay
Kaolinite, dickite, alunite, diaspore, pyrophyllite, zunyite
Kaolinite, dickite, montmorillonite, illite-smectite
Calcite, chlorite, epidote, sericite, clay
Sericite, illite-smectite, kaolinite, chalcedony, opal, montmorillonite,
calcite, dolomite
Kaolinite, alunite, cristobalite
(opal, chalcedony), jarosite
Calcite, epidote, wairakite, chlorite,
illite-smectite, montmorillonite
Calcite, ankerite, dolomite, muscovite (Cr-/V-rich), chlorite
Chlorite, muscovite, actinolite
Biotite, chlorite
Kaolinite, dickite, illite
Sericite, chlorite, chloritoid
Chlorite, sericite, biotite
Dolomite, siderite, ankerite, calcite, sericite, chlorite
Tourmaline, muscovite
Ankerite, siderite, calcite, muscovite
Sericite, chlorite
Chlorite, muscovite, biotite
 ... from 17 S W I R S P E C T R O S C O P Y, CO N T. Short-wave infrared spectroscopy detects the energy generated
by vibrations within molecular bonds. These bonds have bending
and stretching modes within the 1,300- to 2,500-nm region of the
The most widely used portable instrument in exploration is the
electromagnetic spectrum. The observed absorption features are
PIMA, which collects data only in the SWIR region. The PIMA-II is a
manifestations of first and second overtones and combination tones
commercial field instrument manufactured by Integrated
of fundamental modes that occur in the mid-infrared region. SWIR
Spectronics Pty. Ltd. in Australia. The instrument has an internal
is particularly sensitive to certain molecules and radicals, including
light source, allowing collection of laboratory-quality data in the OH, H2O, NH4, CO3, and cation-OH bonds such as Al-OH, Mg-OH,
field by direct illumination of the rock sample. In addition, internal and Fe-OH. The positions of the features in the spectrum and their
calibration results in reliable spectra not subject to variability due to characteristic shapes are a function of the molecular bonds present
the conditions under which they were measured. The instrument is in the mineral. Variations in chemical composition may be detected
capable of measuring a variety of sample types, including rocks, as the wavelength positions of features shift consistently with
chips, core, powders, and liquids. An analysis typically takes less elemental substitution. SWIR spectroscopy is partly sensitive to
than 30 seconds. PIMA dominates current usage in the industry for crystallinity variations, but may not detect primary changes in the
the purpose of alteration mapping. Several PIMA-II instruments lattice structure. A typical spectrum consists of several absorption
were used in the collection of the data discussed in this paper. features. Figure 1 illustrates the various aspects of an absorption
All instruments require training for effective use, both in the feature, including wavelength position, depth and width (full-height,
interpretation of results and in instrument operation. Lack of training half-width maximum). The outline of the hull or continuum is also
can result in broken and malfunctioning instruments or worse, shown.
misinterpretation of data. The limitations of the technique must be
understood in order to utilize fully a powerful tool. Integration of
spectral data with geologic, geochemical, and geophysical
information is also critical.
Field use of short-wave infrared spectrometers has increased
dramatically in the last five years. The increased application of the
tool is the result of several developments during the twentieth
century. The milestones in the development of infrared
spectroscopy for minerals include:
• Early documentation (1905–1910);
• Laboratory use, expansion of mineral reference databases
(1940–1985);
• Development of field portable instruments (1978–1991);
• Real time processing of data (late 1980s);
• Commercial availability of portable instrument with internal
light source, PIMA (1991);
• Continued expansion of mineral reference data sets (1990s);
• Dissemination of case histories and examples of the application
of SWIR spectroscopy to mineral exploration (1990s);
• Use of PCs in the field, allowing rapid data interpretation
(1995–present);
• Heightened interest due to use of airborne hyperspectral scanners
and increasingly sophisticated data processing software
(1998–present).
SWIR spectrometers also are now employed in numerous other
capacities beyond exploration. In particular, they are useful in
mineral processing control procedures and evaluation of leach piles
and tailings dumps. Continued development of applications will
lead to uses in other environmental applications and the
geotechnical fields.
SWIR Spectroscopy
Remote-sensing geologists use a variety of bands within the
electromagnetic spectrum, including the visible-near infrared (VNIR),
short-wave infrared (SWIR), and mid-infrared (MIR). Field portable
instruments detect in the SWIR region, which is sensitive to
molecular changes, and also in the VNIR, where color variations Figure 1. Detail of feature in kaolinite SWIR spectrum collected with PIMA-II
and changes in elemental oxidation states (e.g., iron and chromium) spectrometer. The hull, feature depths, position and the full width half-maximum
(FWHM) are shown.
are observed. VNIR, however, does not relate directly to
composition.
 Minerals can be distin-
guished not only on the
basis of distinctive features
and wavelength positions,
but also by the character of
the profile (without hull
subtraction). Examples of
common alteration minerals
are shown in F i g ur e 2.
Mineral identification is
based on wavelength posi-
tions, intensity and shape of
absorption troughs, and the
overall shape of the entire
spectrum.
The short-wave infrared
wavelength region is not
suitable for most anhydrous
silicates. In addition, it is
difficult to identify minerals
present in amounts less than
5%, unless the sample is a
simple mixture with quartz
and the mineral is highly
reflective. Infrared reflec-
tivity varies between mineral
species. In mixtures of
infrared-active minerals, the
dominant and typically most Figure 2. Stack plot with examples of spectra
reflective mineral is easily characteristic of individual minerals. Reflectance values
are offset for clarity. Examples are from the SPECMIN™
identified; however, as a database.
general rule, 10% or more of
a mineral must be present
for positive identification.
Where low reflectance min-
erals are present, recognition
may require 20% or more of
the mineral in the sample
(e.g., carbonate, chlorite).
Mineral chemistry: Vari-
ations in mineral chemistry
are typically detected by
shifts in wavelength posi-
Figure 4. Examples of K-, Na-, Ca-, and NH4-bearing alunite group
tions or changes to the hull minerals. An inset shows the positions of distinctive features for K and
shape. The presence of iron Figure 3. Example of Fe- and Mg-bearing clinochlore. Ca in the Ca-dominant sample. Elements present in this sample were
Note the steep slope on the Fe-rich sample from 1,300 confirmed by EDS analysis (scanning electron microscope). Examples
in most minerals results in a nm to 1,900 nm. are from the SPECMIN™ database.
strong positive slope from
1,300 to 1,900 nm. A com-
parison of the spectra from Fe-rich and Mg-rich clinochlore is may be required in order to assign an observed variation to a
shown in Figure 3. Chemical variation in the carbonate group of change in chemical composition. Mineral composition variations are
minerals is gauged by a shift in the position of the major feature best evaluated from monomineralic samples; however, it may be
as a function of the cation present. The dominant feature varies possible to define variations in some mineral mixtures.
widely, including magnesite (Mg) at 2,300 nm, dolomite (Mg, Ca)
at 2,320 nm, calcite (Ca) at 2,330 nm and rhodochrosite (Mn) at DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS
2,360 nm. Variations in alunite-group mineral chemistry are Data Collection
manifested by shifts in the 1,480-nm position, with values ranging Understanding the variables that affect spectra is critical to the
from ~1,461 (NH4), to ~1,478 nm (pure K) to ~1,496 (Na) to 1,510 interpretation of spectral data sets. These variables include grain
to page 20 ...
nm (Ca). Examples of all four spectra are shown in Figure 4. size, transparency, sulfide content, overall
Depending on the quality of reference spectra, petrographic, reflectivity, water content, heavy element
SEM or electron microprobe data
 ... from 19 S W I R S P E C T R O S C O P Y, CO N T.
content, contaminants (e.g., oil, organic material), orientation of
minerals (e.g., micas), and mineral mixtures. Good data collection
procedures that minimize the effect of these variables should be
adopted. A minimum of 2 spectra per sample is necessary, both for
reproducibility of data and to test for heterogeneity of the samples.
By analyzing the groundmass, veins, phenocrysts, vug infill, fracture
coatings, and weathered surfaces, the data gatherer can identify
several minerals in one sample. Clear descriptions of basic
observations — e.g., color, texture, veining or fractures, vein
envelopes, and weathering state — are important for high-quality
spectral interpretation.
Sample types and sample processing may also affect the spectra.
Hand specimens, powders, rock chips, liquids, and reject samples
can all be analyzed, with some minor variations observed in the
spectra. Samples that have been pulverized (e.g., analytical pulps)
commonly yield extremely degraded patterns, where many of the
spectra are similar in appearance. Pulps are typically made with ring
mills that generate heat during the crushing process. Clay analysis,
in particular, will be inaccurate if the structure of the mineral
changes with heating. Standard XRD analysis for clays is also done
without the use of ring mills for the same reason.
Instrument stability must be considered in evaluating spectra,
particularly in variable field conditions. Without calibration,
wavelength positions will shift as the instrument heats up or is
moved. Analysis of a standard kaolinite with the PIMA-II shows a
systematic wavelength shift of 2 nm downward as the instrument
heats up from 22° to 44°C. Although small (within the spectral
resolution of the PIMA spectrometer), this shift highlights the need
for consistent recalibration of the instrument. Good laboratory
practice also includes use of standards and the saving of calibration
files as references for future checks on instrument drift. Some
workers have reported 2 nm variations in as few as 10
measurements.
SWIR spectroscopy is a useful tool for identifying minerals in
individual samples; however, its greatest power comes from
consistent collection of data in a systematic manner. Sample
intervals may need to be as small as 1 to 2 m to evaluate gradients
in alteration mineralogy and define boundaries when used for drill
core logging or detailed traverses. Once the basic variations are
described, spacing can be widened, depending on the area to be
covered and the goal of the survey. For example, core logging may
be done on 5- to 10-m spacing, whereas mapping may be widened
to 50 or even 100 m. Closely spaced sampling typically produces
the most useful information. For mapping, the sample locations may
be laid out on a grid pattern and include soils or may be tied to
outcrop patterns. Data processed and evaluated concurrent with
mapping can have a direct impact on an exploration program.
Data Analysis and Processing
Mineral identification is based on the use of reference data sets,
which are empirical records of each mineral’s characteristic spectra.
Visual observation of a group of mineral spectra will quickly show
variations based on numerous factors, including mineral chemistry,
temperature, and mode of formation (reflected in crystallinity), and
other subtle changes. The user’s greatest asset, then, is a well-
defined and large reference collection or spectral database created
from samples representative of a wide variety of deposit
environments and occurrences. Experienced users are ultimately
able to identify many spectra characteristic of minerals by eye, as
data collection is carried out. Even novice users can quickly learn
the basic minerals important in their study area. Only a few minerals
typically are required to characterize an area, which also realistically
allows for the tracking of variability within a single mineral species.
Reference databases are extremely useful in refining the ability of
data processing software to provide automatic identification.
Automatic identification may be helpful when working with
large data sets on well-defined areas. In order to achieve high-
quality results, variations at the deposit scale must be observed and
recorded by the user, using reference data sets created for that
deposit. Deposit or region specific data sets appear to be critical in
obtaining reliable results from attempts at unmixing (identifying
mineral mixtures) using algorithms. Identification of complex
mixtures will require geologic context, user experience, and
establishment of reference samples with additional information, e.g.,
petrography, XRD, and SEM analysis, but may be difficult with
currently available algorithms.
Data processing software allows the subtraction of the hull (see
Fig. 1), typically followed by extraction of feature positions,
intensities, and widths. There are various methods to extract
diagnostic derivative spectra from those that are measured. Two
common methods are the hull quotient, which is a “rubber band”
method of removing the effects of variable background slopes, and
the first derivative that removes the effects of background by
emphasizing changes in response. A variety of software packages
are available commercially, with the most flexible being those that
allow the importing of data from a variety of sources (spectrometers
or scanner data). Care must be taken when extracting data to ensure
that the data is treated in the same manner, e.g., feature positions all
based on the hull quotient, or on the first derivative.
In some cases, use of a single feature position, depth, or ratio of
depths of two features may provide broad outlines of alteration
zones. This style of data extraction with a computer program can be
done extremely quickly; however, the data must be carefully
evaluated by an experienced user to confirm that the comparison is
of similar material, with comparable mineral assemblages and
features. Since wavelength positions for various minerals overlap,
faulty results which are based on a single feature may be produced.
For example, the Al-OH feature at ± 2,200 nm may represent
alunite, pyrophyllite, kaolinite, dickite, illite, mixed-layer
illite/smectite, smectite, or muscovite, which all obviously
have different implications in terms of deposit modeling.
Contouring of such data must also be carefully carried out.
Individual analyses may falsely weight the data, resulting in
spurious features.
Mineral percentages: A common objective of SWIR analysis is to
determine not only the minerals present in a sample but also their
relative abundance. Many software programs attempt to provide
mineral unmixing as part of the package. This task is challenging
due to the lack of knowledge regarding the absorption coefficients
for the molecular bonds detectable in the SWIR range of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The spectral data indicate that minerals
apparently are not present in linear mixed configurations, but rather
as a function of these unknown absorption coefficients. The
intensities of the absorption features, therefore, cannot be used as a
1:1 correlation to relate directly with the amount of mineral present.
For instance, an iron chlorite will absorb more energy at its
diagnostic wavelengths and reflect less back to the detector than an
aluminum-bearing mineral, a muscovite, which more accurately
reflects the absorbed energies. In addition, there is a matrix effect Alteration was defined based on mineral assemblages, and the
problem when non-infrared active minerals are also present and alteration patterns determined by spectral analysis were used to help
absorbing, but not reflecting the excitation energy. predict zones of mineralization. It was found that dickite increased
In cases where the absorption coefficients are likely to be similar in areas associated with gold mineralization, thus providing a
for the minerals in question, the resulting spectrum can be treated mineralogical pointer to areas favorable for gold. Figure 5 is a drill
essentially as a linear mixture. The key to accurate results lies in log from the Alumbre zone, showing the relationship of the
building calibration files from the sample suite under investigation. alteration to mineralization. Spectral analyses were carried out every
Monomineralic end members must be chosen for the models to 2 to 3 m down hole. This hole was subsequently deepened and
succeed. The accuracy of the mixing algorithm may be as good as additional mineralization associated with to page 22 ...
4%; however, this will vary depending on the software (algorithm), dickite, alunite, and vuggy quartz was found.
the materials in the mixture, and their relative abundance.
Instrumentation is also a limiting factor in producing accurate
results. PIMA-II has approximately a 5- to 6-nm resolution and
samples are collected in 2-nm steps. This over-sampling is done to
improve the reproducibility of the method; however, it does not
necessarily improve the accuracy and leads to an artificial
perception of a 2-nm resolution. Therefore, the limit of the method
for resolving the wavelength positions remains between 5 and 6
nm.

CASE STUDIES
The following case studies illustrate the use of SWIR in
exploration. All of the analyses were collected with PIMA-II
spectrometers. These examples emphasize the use of the technique
as a mapping tool, for integration with other data types. The
examples include alteration maps, detailed drill logs, and integration
of geochemistry, petrography and spectral data. The mineral
identifications and variations in feature positions are shown to
define alteration zones and provide vectors toward mineralization.
Blind application of digital data, however, may lead to false results
based on inadequate sampling or misinterpretation of spectral
variations.
High-Sulfidation Epithermal Gold Deposits
The general characteristics of high-sulfidation deposits are well
known and are summarized in Arribas (1995), who includes
numerous examples of deposits around the world. These deposits
are known for their extremely fine grained alteration minerals and
typically homogeneous appearance. Minerals that are infrared active
and form in these environments are shown in Table 2. Alteration
mapped in the field typically relies first on varying degrees of silicic
alteration ranging from leached, vuggy quartz to zones of
replacement quartz. Beyond the quartz-dominated areas, however,
the alteration assemblages are commonly mapped simply as
advanced argillic and argillic alteration during exploration
programs. Identification of individual minerals, some of which are
critical to zoning patterns, is extremely difficult. Use of SWIR
spectroscopy allows the major alteration minerals to be easily and
rapidly identified.
Virgen: A comprehensive alteration study of the Virgen property
was completed for Gitennes Exploration Inc., Vancouver. The
Virgen property is a gold prospect located 180 km east of Trujillo,
Peru. Cretaceous sedimentary rocks and Tertiary andesites host
mineralization. The aim of the work was to determine alteration
zone patterns with respect to mineralization using the PIMA-II
spectrometer. Data were collected from available drill holes, hand
samples, and road cuts. A total of 22 drill holes were analyzed and
Figure 5. Drill log from the Alumbre zone, Virgen deposit, Peru, showing variations in
over 900 spectra were obtained across the property. Alteration alteration mineral assemblage, lithology, and mineralization. Dickite in the advanced
minerals observed using spectral analysis include alunite, dickite, argillic alteration was used as an indicator for mineralization.
pyrophyllite, diaspore, kaolinite, smectite, illite, and quartz.
 ... from 21 S W I R S P E C T R O S C O P Y, CO N T. zone contain two to three minerals in a single spectrum. Examples
of these spectra are shown in Figure 7. The alteration and style of
mineralization is consistent with a high-sulfidation epithermal to
Pamel: An alteration study of the Pamel prospect in the Western
Cordillera of Peru was conducted for Candente Resource Corp. The magmatic-hydrothermal environment.
property is at an early stage of exploration. Geologists employed at
the property selected hand and reject samples from the geochemical
sampling program and submitted these to Vancouver for analysis
with a PIMA-II spectrometer. The results from approximately 128
samples were integrated with geologic information and outcrop
patterns. Based on three days work, combined with the previous
geologic data, an alteration map was created for the property. The
results clearly showed distinct alteration zones and helped delineate
zones of interest (Figure 6). The alteration varies, from silicification
to alunite-dickite, to alunite-kaolinite, to kaolinite dominant, and
outward to sericite, illite, and chlorite. Small amounts of diaspore,
topaz, and tourmaline were also noted locally. A detailed study was
conducted in the western portion of the map area. Samples from the

1000metres
Figure 7. Examples of spectra for mineral mixtures, from the Pamel prospect,
Candente Resource Corp.

Low-Sulfidation Epithermal Gold Deposits

Figure 6. Alteration map based on outcrop patterns for the Pamel prospect,
Candente Resource Corp.
Alteration in low-sulfidation deposits is characterized by adularia
and calcite-replacement textures within quartz veins that grade
outward in the host rock to illite, illite-smectite, and illite/smectite-
chlorite zones. Calcite may also occur within the alteration
envelope. The variation in clay alteration outward from
mineralization is typically difficult to define in the field, but may be
detected with SWIR. Zoning patterns are well described by
numerous authors, including White and Hedenquist (1990) and
Sillitoe (1993). The widths of alteration envelopes vary from
centimeters to meters. Zones of steam-heated, advanced argillic
alteration may also cap or develop laterally from low-sulfidation
mineralization. Differentiation of these zones from high-sulfidation
systems is critical to exploration in this environment. Table 2 lists
minerals found in the low-sulfidation and steam-heated
environment.
Patagonia, southern Argentina: SWIR spectroscopy was carried
out systematically on RC (reverse circulation) chips from a property
in Patagonia, southern Argentina. The area contains zones of high-
grade mineralization associated with illite-dominant alteration. The
use of spectral analysis allowed mapping of alteration patterns.
Figure 8 is a drill log showing the distribution of illite, illite-
gypsum, illite-smectite, and illite-chlorite. The illite-gypsum zones
clearly flank the mineralization.
Figure 8. Drill log shows the distribution of alteration with respect to gold assays.
Example of low-sulfidation system, Patagonia, southern Argentina.
Volcanogenic Massive Sulfide Deposits
Alteration mapping is an important aspect of VMS exploration in
areas where metal distribution may provide limited information.
Typically, distribution of Fe and Mg chlorite and sericite
(muscovite) zones are used as a vector toward ore lenses. Clays may
also be an important part of some systems. The style of alteration
varies, depending on the setting of the deposit; Franklin (1993)
gives several models. Lithogeochemistry is commonly employed to
differentiate alteration types, but use of SWIR spectroscopy may
also provide valuable, direct information regarding the alteration
mineralogy.
Kidd Creek: Distribution of chlorite and sericite is outlined by
Koopman et al. (1999) for the Kidd Creek deposit, western Abitibi
Subprovince, Canada. Variations in proportions of the two minerals
appear to reflect proximity to ore and help to outline mineralized
zones. The initial work was based on field observations, X-ray
diffraction and petrographic techniques. Seventy-six of the XRD
samples were analyzed with a PIMA-II spectrometer. A variety of
processing techniques were applied to the data set, including
automatic mineral unmixing using commercially available software;
comparison of ratios of feature depths in the Al-OH region to the
Fe- OH (as described by Huston, 1999); and simple comparison of
the data to a set of artificially (linear) mixed spectra. The linear
mixed spectra used site-specific end members, and 10% increments
(Figure 9, page 24). Results from this comparison were the most
consistent and correlate well with the estimated mineral abundance
based on peak intensities from the XRD analysis (Table 3, page 26).
The attempts at semiquantification using the other techniques,
however, did not produce reliable results. The effect of different
reflectivity and of mixed mineral assemblages may hinder the use of
the automatic techniques in determining mineral percentages in this
environment until better data processing is possible.
Intrusion-Related Deposits
Many deposit types occur within the intrusion-related
environment. Mapping of alteration has application to both broad
and local zoning. As shown in Table 2, a wide variety of alteration
minerals may be present in this environment and can be used to
focus exploration on a specific target type.
Red Mountain, British Columbia: A detailed study of the
relationship of alteration and mineralization was completed at the
Red Mountain project in northern British Columbia and is described
by Rhys et al., 1995. Gold mineralization in the area is spatially
related to a porphyry Cu-Mo stockwork.
Hydrothermal alteration is pervasive throughout the pre-Tertiary
rocks on Red Mountain, including all phases of the main intrusions.
Several shallow-dipping alteration zones are stacked above a quartz
stockwork/molybdenum zone with pervasive sericite alteration.
These zones include: (1) sericite-quartz-pyrite alteration (pyrite-
dominant), (2) chlorite-K feldspar-sericite-titanite alteration with
disseminated and vein pyrrhotite, (3) brown to black tourmaline
veins, and (4) K feldspar-titanite-actinolite alteration. Anomalous
gold values are associated with the transition from pyrite to
pyrrhotite, and sericite to K feldspar alteration. High-grade zones
are focused below areas of abundant tourmaline, in pervasive
sericite alteration. Details of the alteration zones are given in Table
4 (page 26), along with a summary of major element
to page 24 ...
geochemistry. The deposit is structurally
 ... from 23 S W I R S P E C T R O S C O P Y, CO N T.
disrupted by several faults. The distinct alteration zones provide a
way to reconstruct relative locations within the system where fault
boundaries are crossed in drilling.
Data gathered by the PIMA clearly outlines the major alteration
zones, based on the presence of key minerals for each assemblage.
The results of SWIR analysis on drill core samples are compared to
geochemistry and petrography in Table 4, and representative spectra
from the deposit are included in Figure 10. The complete log for a
drill hole from the Marc zone is shown in Figure 11. Integration
with the previous petrographic, geologic, and geochemical data
provides a framework for application of SWIR spectroscopy to the
deposit area and exploration within the district.
CONCLUSIONS
SWIR spectroscopy is a tool to assist field mapping in mineral
exploration. The ability to rapidly differentiate fine-grained
alteration minerals in the field allows for an enhanced understanding
of the property under investigation, and the results can be applied
immediately to the exploration program. Further refinement of the
alteration assemblages, including the use of other analytical
techniques, will yield data important for the development of deposit
models and regional exploration programs. Several components are
critical to a successful survey. These are:

Figure 9. Artificial linear mineral mixtures determined from actual chlorite and muscovite end members for the Kidd Creek footwall rhyolite. The percentage of chlorite
increases down the plot. Examples of the comparisons of real spectra with selected mineral mixtures are shown on the right. Mineral mixtures were generated with
SPECWIN©, Spectral International Inc.
• A systematic, well-planned sampling program, with consistent
sample spacing depending on the purpose of the survey;
• Alteration mapping concurrent with a mapping or a drilling
program, to allow rapid incorporation of information and
effective application of data;
• SWIR data collection by a trained operator with a geologic
background;
• Use of mineral-dominant assemblages for preliminary mapping;
• Subsequent data processing of wavelength positions or other
spectral characteristics, to further evaluate alteration;
• Selected petrography and XRD for complete alteration
assemblages that can be related to the spectral data.
With the increased use of SWIR spectrometers in the field,
distribution patterns over large areas can be delineated. The use of
field spectrometers has provided a vast new database that not only
is aiding exploration, but also will contribute ultimately to the
understanding of these systems.
Figure 10. Representative spectra used to determine alteration zones at
Red Mountain, British Columbia.
······················· ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ·······················
We would like to thank the many geologists and consultants in
exploration for their contributions to the use of SWIR spectroscopy.
The successful application of the technique would not have been
possible without them. Data in this paper was published with the
permission of Jerry Blackwell (Gitennes Exploration Inc.), Joey
Freeze (Candente Resource Corp.), Mark Hannington (Geological
Survey of Canada) and Jacques Houle (Royal Oak Mines) who are
all thanked for their support. The paper benefited from reviews by
Noel White and Charles Tarnocai. In particular,
to page 26 ...
Noel White is thanked for his enthusiasm, well-
timed reminders, and critical review.
Figure 11. Drill log from the Marc zone, Red Mountain, British Columbia. Log shows
major alteration zones, lithologies, and the location of Au-Ag mineralization. The
SWIR active minerals identified in each alteration zone are: A. actinolite dominant:
actinolite + chlorite (Fe > Mg) + datolite + prehnite + axinite, B. tourmaline
dominant: chlorite (Mg > Fe) + muscovite + schorl + axinite + calcite, C.
Tourmaline stockwork: schorl + Mg chlorite + muscovite, D. auriferous pyrite-
pyrrhotite stockwork: muscovite + chlorite, and E. pyrite dominant: muscovite +
chlorite + clinozoisite.
 ... from 25 S W I R S P E C T R O S C O P Y, CO N T.

Table 3. Comparison of SWIR and XRD Results for Selected Samples from the Kidd Creek Footwall Felsic Units

Spectra Lithology SWIR X-ray diffraction

ah09667b Rhyolite Chlorite >> muscovite Quartz >> clinochlore > muscovite
ah09682b Quartz porphyry Chlorite > muscovite Quartz >> clinochlore, muscovite
ai00510b Quartz porphyry tuff Chlorite >> muscovite Quartz >> albite, clinochlore, calcite > muscovite
ai00557a Felsic tuff Chlorite > muscovite Quartz >> clinochlore, albite, calcite > muscovite
ai00671b Rhyolite Chlorite > muscovite Quartz >> clinochlore > muscovite
ai00724b Rhyolite Muscovite > chlorite Quartz >> albite, clinochlore > muscovite
ai01511b Quartz porphyry tuff Chlorite > muscovite Quartz >> albite > clinochlore, muscovite
ai01532b Quartz porphyry tuff Chlorite > muscovite Quartz >> clinochlore, calcite > muscovite
ai01538a Quartz porphyry tuff Chlorite = muscovite > kaolinite? Quartz >> clinochlore > muscovite
ai01545a Rhyolite Muscovite >> chlorite > kaolinite? Quartz >> albite, muscovite > clinochlore
ai01550b Felsic tuff Muscovite = chlorite Quartz >> albite > clinochlore, muscovite

SWIR analysis identified the chlorite as Fe-bearing

Table 4. Distribution of Alteration Zones at Red Mountain, B.C.

Alteration Thickness Geochemistry Veins Petrography SWIR

Zone
Actinolite >150m Na2O > 3.3%,; K2O < 0.5%; Chlorite + pyrite + K feldspar + actinolite + Actinolite + chlorite
CaO > 2.8%; Sr > 400 ppm actinolite + calcite chlorite + titanite + albite (Fe>Mg) ± axinite* ±
+ pyrite ± datolite ± muscovite ±
prehnite
Tourmaline 100-300m Na2O > 3.3%; K2O < 0.5%; Tourmaline + pyrite + K feldspar + chlorite + Schorl (tourmaline) + chlorite
stockwork CaO > 2.8%; Sr > 400 ppm chlorite + pyrrhotite titanite + pyrite + tourmaline (Mg) ± muscovite
+ pyrrhotite ± carbonate ± axinite*
Pyrrhotite 100 – 200m Na2O > 3.3%; K2O < 0.5%; Pyrrhotite + pyrite ± K feldspar + sericite + Muscovite + chlorite (Mg)
CaO >2.8%; Sr > 400 ppm chalcopyrite ± chlorite ± pyrrhotite + pyrite + axinite ± carbonate ±
calcite ± quartz ± sphalerite chlorite ± tourmaline prehnite
± galena
Auriferous 10-50m Na2O < 1.5%; K2O > 5%; Pyrite ± pyrrhotite ± Intense sericite + pyrite; Muscovite + chlorite (Mg)
Py-Po high values in Au (>0.5 quartz ± chlorite mantled by disseminated and
stockwork ppm); Ag, As, Sb and locally veinlet sphalerite + pyrrhotite
Cu, Zn correspond with ore + pyrite
zones
Pyrite 100-200m Na2O < 3.5%; K2O > 4%; Pyrite ± calcite ± quartz ± Sericite, pyrite ± calcite ± Muscovite + chlorite
CaO < 3.3%; Sr < 100 ppm chlorite chlorite ± tourmaline
Gypsum <5 – 100m Similar to pyrite-dominant Gypsum + pyrite + calcite Sericite + pyrite ± quartz Gypsum*
stockwork alteration ± quartz ± K feldspar
Quartz >200m Cu > 300 ppm; Mo > 30 Quartz + pyrite ± chlorite Sericite + quartz + pyrite Chlorite (Mg), muscovite ±
stockwork, ppm; SiO2> 55% and ± epidote ± magnetite ± + chlorite + K feldspar ± clinozoisite*
Mo-Cu similar values to pyrite molybdenite ± chalcopyrite epidote ± tourmaline ±
dominant alteration for magnetite ± hematite
Na2O, K2O, CaO, and Sr
* Denotes vein mineralogy
Zones are listed from the top down, with their associated geochemistry, vein mineralogy and alteration mineralogy (petrography and SWIR
analysis); after Rhys et al (1995)
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