UNIT 1: VECTORS AND VECTOR SPACES

1.1 Scalars and Vectors; Located and Position Vectors in R2 and R3

A. Scalars and Vectors

In physics, a scalar quantity (or a scalar) is a physical quantity that can be completely described by
“magnitude” alone. It does not require direction for its description. In mathematics the term scalar is
synonymous with the term number. More generally, a scalar (in mathematics) is any element of a field (1).

In physics, a vector quantity (or a vector) is a physical quantity that has both magnitude and direction. In
geometry, a vector is a directed line segment, i.e., a line segment to which direction is assigned. Since, a line
segment is determined by its endpoints, so we can also view a geometric vector is an ordered pair (A, B) of
points. In algebra a vector is a finite sequence of real numbers. A finite sequence (a1, a2… an) of n real
numbers is called an n-tuple. This definition is sometimes called the component wise or analytic definition of a
vector. And such a vector is sometimes called a list vector. More generally, a vector (in algebra) is any element
of a vector space (1). Thus we can treat a vector as a quantity, a figure, a sequence or an element of a vector space. In
this course we treat vectors mainly as algebraic objects. But where it is necessary, we shall also consider them
as geometrical objects.

Definition 1:

a) A two dimensional vector is an ordered pair (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 ) of real numbers.

b) A three dimensional vector is an ordered triple (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) of real numbers.

c) An n-dimensional vector is an ordered n- tuple (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 … 𝑎𝑛 ) of real numbers.

Example 1: (-4, 1) is a 2-dimensional vector, (1, 3, 7) is a 3-dimensional vector; (2, 2, 2, 2) is a 4-

dimensional vector.

When a vector is described in component form, we sometimes write the components inside the angular
bracket 〈 , 〉 rather than parenthesis, as for example, 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉.

In this course we deal mainly with two dimensional (2D) and three dimensional (3D) vectors. Geometrically,
we can visualize vector 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉 as the line segment in ℝ3 directed from the origin to the point (a, b, c).

Notation: In print, vectors are usually denoted by bold face letters such as a, b, u, v, x, etc or italized letters

such as a, b, u, v, etc. By hand, a vector is usually denoted by placing a small arrow over a letter such as a ,𝑏⃗,
etc. We write a = (a1, a2, a3), for example. The numbers a1, a2, a3 are called the components of a. More precisely
a1 is called the x-component, a2 is called the y-component and a3 is called the z-component of a.

Notation: We denote the set of all real numbers by ℝ and the set of all ordered pairs of real numbers by ℝ2 .
In general for any natural number n, the set of all finite sequences of n real numbers is denoted by ℝ𝑛 .
Equivalently we can say ℝ𝑛 is the set of all n-dimensional vectors. Note that ℝ is equivalent to a line ,ℝ2 is
equivalent to a plane and ℝ3 is equivalent to the usual space (physical space).

One important difference between a vector and a point is that the components of a vector do not depend on
the coordinate system used, where as the coordinates of a point depend.

------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(1) The definitions of the terms field and vector space are given in section 1.6.

Definition 2: A vector each of whose components is zero is called a zero vector (null vector). It is denoted by 0
or 0. Geometrically, the null vector is just a point.

Example 2: The vector (0, 0, 0) is three dimensional zero vector.


Definition 3: The magnitude (also called length, norm, modulus) of a = (a1, a2, a3) is a non-negative number given
by
 
a1  a2  a3
2 2 3
 a  =

 
Example 3: If a = (-2,-3,-1),  a = (2) 2  (3) 2  (1) 2 = 14

Definition 4: A vector whose magnitude is 1 is called a unit vector.

√3 √3 √3
Example 4: The vectors (1,0,0),(0,1,0) , (0,0,1) and 〈 , 〉 are unit vectors. But (1, 1, 1) is not a unit
3 3 3
vector.

Notation: The vectors (1,0,0),(0,1,0) and (0,0,1) are called the standard unit vectors . They have special symbols:
 
i =(1,0,0) , j =(0,1,0) and 𝑘̂ = (0,0,1)

Definition 5: Two vectors 𝒂 = 〈𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 〉 and b = 〈𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 〉 are said to be equal, written a = b, if their
corresponding components are equal, i.e., a1 = b1 , a1 = b1 and a3 = b3.

Geometrically, two vectors are said to be equal if they have the same length and direction.

B. Located Vectors and Position Vectors

A vector is uniquely determined (up to equality) by its components, i.e., there is only one vector having a
given set of components. Similarly an ordered pair of two points determines a unique vector.

Let A and B be two fixed points in xyz-space. The ordered pair (A, B) determines a unique vector which we

denote by AB . This vector is called a located vector (because the end points of the vector are given fixed
locations). The points A and B are respectively called the initial and terminal points of vector ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵. Pictorially,

we view AB as an arrow from A to B. The arrow tail indicates the initial point and the arrow head indicates
the terminal point of the vector. Given two points A = (a1, a2, a3) and B = (b1, b2, b3) in xyz-space with origin
O, then there is a unique point P(x, y, z) such that AB = OP and ̅̅̅̅ 𝐴𝐵 ∥ ̅̅̅̅
𝑂𝑃 (i.e., ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 ). ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑂𝑃 is called
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
the position vector of 𝐴𝐵. Moreover, the coordinates of P and the components of 𝐴𝐵 are related by the
following equations:

x = b1 – a1, y = b2 – a2 and z = b3 – a3

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = 〈 𝑏1 – 𝑎1 , 𝑏2 – 𝑎2 , 𝑏3 – 𝑎3 >. 〉
Thus when expressed analytically (component wise), 𝐴𝐵

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ analytically where A = (-1, 2, 5) and B = (1, 2, 4).

Example 5: Express 𝐴𝐵

Solution: ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝐴𝐵 = (1 − (−1), 2 − 2, 4 − 5) = (2, 0, −1)


Note that if A is a point in xyz-space, AA has no direction and no dimension. It is just a point. By
convention we view it as a vector and call it the zero vector or null vector.

Exercise 1.1

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ for the points 𝑃 (1, −2, 4) and 𝑄(6, 1, −5).

1. Give the coordinate representation of 𝑃𝑄
2. Decide if the following vectors are equal or not.
a. the vector from (5,3) to (6,2) and the vector from (1,-2) to (1,1).
b. the vector from (2, 1, 1) to (3, 0, 4) and the vector from (5, 1, 4) to (6, 0, 7)

3. Find x, y and z such that 〈𝑥 − 𝑦, 𝑥 + 𝑦, 𝑧 − 1〉.

4. Find the length of each vector.
a. 〈3, 1〉 b. 〈−1, 2〉 c. 〈4,1, 1〉 d. 〈0,0,0〉 e. 〈1, −1,1,0〉
 5. Determine whether the following vectors are unit vectors or not.
5
1 √3 1 1 1 1 √2 √5 √2
a. 〈1,0, −1〉 b. 〈2 , 〉 c. 〈2 , 2 , 2 , 2〉 d. 〈1,1,1〉 e. 〈 3 , − , , 0〉 𝑓. 〈√2 − 1, 22 〉
2 3 3

1 1
6. Given the vector 𝑎 = (𝑎1 , 2 , 3), give all values for the component a1 such that ∥ a ∥= 1.
7. Is there a real number k so that 𝑢 = 〈1, 𝑘, −1〉 is unit vector?

1.2 Vector Addition, Vector Subtraction and Scalar Multiplication

Two vectors can be combined in various ways to form a third vector. These combination mechanisms are
called vector operations. Vector operations include vector addition, vector subtraction, scalar multiplication of
vectors, scalar product, vector Product and (orthogonal) projection.

Definition 1: Let a= (a1, a2, a3) and b= (b1, b2, b3) be vectors and  be a scalar (number).Then we define

a) 𝒂 + 𝒃: = (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 )

b) 𝒂 − 𝒃 = (𝑎1 − 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 − 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 − 𝑏3 )

c) 𝜆𝒂 ∶= (𝜆𝑎1 , 𝜆𝑎2 , 𝜆𝑎3 )

Note: If 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and b= (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 )are vectors in ℝ3 and  is a scalar, then a + b, a – b and
 a are also vectors in ℝ3 . Thus the set of all 3-dimensional vectors is closed under vector addition,
vector subtraction and scalar multiplication of vectors.

Example 1: Let a= (1, −3, 2) and b= (3, 5, −1).Then find:

a) 𝒂 + 𝒃 b) 𝒂 – 𝒃 c) -7𝒂 d) 𝟐𝒂 − 5𝒃 e) 0 𝒃

Solution:

a) a + b= (1+3, -3+5, 2+ (-1)) = (4, 2, 1).

b) a – b= (1-3, -3-5, 2-(-1)) = (5,-15, 10).
c) -7a= (-7(1), -7(-3), 7(2)) = (-7,-21, 14).
d) 2a -5b= (2,-6, 4) – (15, 25, -5) = (-13, -31, 9).
e) (0(3), 0(5), 0(−1)) = (0,0,0) = 𝟎

Geometrical interpretations (definitions) of vector addition, vector subtraction and scalar multiplication are
illustrated via the following figures.

Vector Addition: Let 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and b= (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ). Then 𝒂 + 𝒃 = (𝑎1 + 𝑏1 , 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 , 𝑎3 + 𝑏3 ) is

the diagonal of the parallelogram formed as shown.
 Z

a+b
a

b Y

Figure 1.Geometric Interpretation of Vector addition

Vector Subtraction:

Given any vector b, then -b is the vector whose magnitude is the same and whose direction is opposite to
that of b.

-b
b

-b
𝑎−𝑏 a

Figure 2.Geometrical interpretation of vector subtraction

Note that 𝒂 − 𝒃 = 𝒂 + −𝒃 (see Figure 2 above)

(c) Scalar Multiplication: Let 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 )  (0,0,0) and  be a scalar. Then  a is:

 The vector with direction same as a and with magnitude  a if  >0.

 The vector with direction opposite to a and with magnitude -  a if  < 0.
 The zero vector if  =0
 a
2a
-2a

½a

Figure 3.Geometric interpretation of scalar multiplication

Theorem 1 (Properties of vector addition): Let 𝒂, 𝒃 and 𝒄 be vectors. Then

A1: a+b=b+a (commutatitivity)

A2: (a +b)+c= a + (b +c) (Associtivity)

A3: a+0 = a (property of zero vector)

A4: a + (-a)=0 (existence of additive inverse)

Proof (Exercise):

Theorem 2 (Properties of Scalar multiplication):

Let 𝒂, 𝒃 be vectors and  ,  be scalars.

M1: (  )𝒂 =  (  𝒂) (Associativity)

M2: (    )𝒂 =  𝒂 +  𝒂 (Distributivity)

M3:  ( ฀𝒂 + 𝒃) =  𝒂 +  𝒃 (Distributivity)

M4: 1𝒂 = 𝒂 (property of 1)

Proof:

Remark:

(1) The magnitude of a vector satisfies the following properties.

i) ‖𝒂‖ ≥0 and ‖𝒂‖ =0 ⇔ a = 0
ii) ‖𝜆𝒂‖ =|𝜆|‖𝒂‖ for all scalars  and a ϵ ℝ3
iii) ‖𝒂 + 𝒃‖ ≤ ‖𝒂‖ + ‖𝒃‖

(2) Any vector 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) can be expressed as a=a1i + a2j + a3k Where i,j and k are the three
special unit vectors.

Justification:

a= (a1, a2,a3)

= (a1, 0,0) + (0, a2,0 )+( 0, 0,a3)

= a1(1,0,0)+a2(0,1,0)+a3(0,0,1)
 = a1i + a2j + a3k ฀

  
(3) Given any vector a ฀  0, the unit vector in the direction of a , denoted by u a , is given by


1
u a =‖𝑎⃗‖ 𝑎

Justification:
1 1
i) ⃗ 𝑎 ‖= 1. On the other hand ‖‖𝑎⃗‖ 𝑎‖ = ‖𝑎⃗‖ ‖𝑎‖ = 1
‖𝑢
1 1   
1
ii) Since 
> 0, 
a and a have the same direction.  u a and ‖𝑎⃗‖ ‖𝑎‖ have the
a a
same direction. From i and ii and the geometric definition of equal vectors the required
follows.

(4) Given any vector a, a= a u a

Example 2:

a) Find the unit vector in the direction of -3i + j -2k.


 3i  j  2k 3 1 2
Solution: Let a =-3i + j -2k. u a = = i+ j- k
(3) 2  (1) 2  (2) 2 14 14 14

b) Find the vector with norm 3.5 in the direction of the vector i + 2j + 3.


a 1 2 3
Solution: Let a =i + 2j +3k and b be the required vector u a = 
= i+ j+ k and
a 14 14 14

 
b= b u b = b u a =3.5 ( 1 i + 2 j+ 3 k)
14 14 14
Exercise 1.2

1. Let 𝑎 = 2𝑖 − 7𝑗 + 𝑘, 𝑏⃗ = −3𝑖 + 4𝑘 and 𝑐 = 5𝑗 − 8𝑘. Compute 2𝑎 +3𝑏⃗ − 5 𝑐

2. Find the unit vector in the direction of 𝑎 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗.
3. Find the vector of magnitude 9 in the direction of the vector
a) 𝑎 = 𝑖 b) 𝑎 = 2𝑖 c). 𝑎 = 𝑗 d) 𝑎 = 2𝑖 + 3𝑗.
4. Use vector methods to show that the diagonals of a parallelogram bisect each other.
5. Using vectors prove that the line segment joining the mid points of any two sides of a triangle is
parallel to the third side.
6. Using vectors prove that the medians of a triangle are concurrent.
7. Determine if the points (2,3,2),(1,-1,-3),(4,5,-1) and (5,9,4) form the vertices of a parallelogram or
not.
 Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)

1.3 The Dot Product

A. Dot Product

Definition 1: Let 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and b= (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ) be two vectors. The dot product (also called scalar
product or inner product) of 𝒂 and 𝒃, denoted by 𝒂  𝒃 or a  b or 〈a, b〉, is the number defined by:

a  b : = a 1b1+ a 2b2 +a 3b3

Example 1: Given 𝒂=7i – 6j + 8k and 𝒃= -5i + 3j +2k, compute a  b and b a

Solution: 𝒂  𝒃 = 7(-5) + -6(3) + 8(2) = -37.

𝒃 𝒂 = -5(7) + 3(-6) + 2(8)=-37

Notes:

1) i  j=i  k= j  k =0
2) a i =a1 , a j= a2 , a k =a3
3) i i=j j=kk=1

Theorem 1 (Properties of Dot product)

For any vectors a, b and c in R3 and any scalar k,

I0: a . b is a scalar.

I1: a  b = b a

I2: (ka)  b= k(a  b) =a (k b)

I3: a ( b + c) = a b + a c

I4: (a + b) c = a c + b c

Proof:

Notes:

1) a  b = 0 does not necessarily imply a=0 or b=0.

2) a b = a c does not necessarily imply b=c. (Give a counter example).

Definition 2: The angle between two nonzero vectors a and b is defined to be the angle  , where 0
 m( )   , formed by the corresponding line segments whose initial points are the origin.

The angle between the vectors in the figure is 750 but not 1050.

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 Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)

105

a b

Figure 4: Angle between two vectors

 
Example 2: Given P=(-1,1) ,Q=(2,4) ,r = (-2,4),S=(5,-4), find the angle between PQ and RS

Answer: 450

Theorem 2[An equivalent definition of dot product]:

Let 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and b= (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ) be nonzero vectors and let  be the angle between them.

Then 𝒂 𝒃 = a b 𝑐𝑜𝑠 

Proof:

Definition 3: Two nonzero vectors 𝒂 = (𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , 𝑎3 ) and b= (𝑏1 , 𝑏2 , 𝑏3 ). are said to be parallel , written
𝒂 ∥ 𝒃 if one is a scalar multiple of the other (i.e., if there exists a scalar k such that (b1,b2,b3)= k(a1,a2,a3) or
𝑏1 𝑏 𝑏
= 𝑎2 =𝑎3 = k.
𝑎1 2 3

Example 3: The vectors <1, 2, 3> and <2, 4, 6> are parallel but <1, 2, 3> and <2, 4, 5> are non-parallel.

Definition 4: Two nonzero vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃 said to be perpendicular (orthogonal), written 𝒂 ⊥ 𝒃 if the measure
of the angle between them is 900.

Corollary:

a) Two nonzero vectors a and b are perpendicular if a b = 0.

2
b) For any vector a , aa = a
Proof:

From theorem 4 we get that

a b
 = cos 1 ( )
a b

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 Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)

Example 4: Show that the vectors 𝒂 = 2𝑖 + 𝑗 − 𝑘, 𝒃 = 3𝑖 + 7𝑗 + 13𝑘 and 𝒄 = 20𝑖 − 29𝑗 + 11𝑘 are
mutually perpendicular.

Example 5: Prove the inequality

a b  a b (Cauchy-Schwarz inequality)

Example 6: Prove the inequality

ab  a  b ( Minkowski’s Inequality or Triangle Inequality)

Note: One application of vectors is in proving properties of geometric figures. Vectorial methods make
proofs of certain geometry theorems simple.

Example 7: Show the identity

a b  a b  2 a  2 b
2 2 2 2

(Geometrically: the sum of the squares of the lengths of the diagonals of the parallelogram determined by
vectors 𝒂 and 𝒃 is equal to the sum of the squares of the lengths of the four sides.)

B. Orthogonal Projection

If a and b are two vectors with common initial point O, then the projection of b onto /along a ,written Pr𝑎 𝑏 , is
the vector OD where D is the foot of the perpendicular line segment from the head of b to the line through
a.

b
b
a

O D O a D

D O

Figure 5. Orthogonal projection

If  is the angle between a and b , then

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 Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)


 a a b a a b
OD = Pr a b= OD u a = b cos  . 
=  = 2

a a a
a

Definition 5: Let a be a nonzero vector. The (orthogonal) projection of a vector b onto (along) a, written Pr a b is
the vector defined by

a b
Pr a b= 2
𝒂
a

Example 8: Let a= 2i – j +2k and b=i. Find

a) pr a b b) pr b a c) pr 2ab d) pr a 5b

Solution :
𝑎∙𝑏 2(1)+(−1)(0)+2(0) 2 4 2 4
a) pr a b = ‖𝑎‖2 𝒂 = [ ] 𝒂 = 3𝒂 = 3 𝑖 - 3𝑗 + 𝑘
√4+1+4 3
b) Problems (b) to ( d) can be solved in the same way.

Remarks:

a) Pr c (a + b)= Pr c (a) + Pr c (b)

b) Pr c (ka) = kPr c (a)
c) Pr kc (a) = kPr c (a)

C. Resolution of a Vector

Let a, b and c be non coplanar 3D vectors. Then any 3D vector v can be written as:

v=  a +  b +  c for some numbers  ,  and  .

(i.e. any 3D vector can be resolved into vectors parallel to a, b and c ). In particular if a, b and c mutually
perpendicular, v can be expressed as

v = pr a v + Pr b v + Pr c v

Similarly if a and b be non-collinear vectors. Then any vector v coplanar to a and b can be expressed as v=
 a +  b. In particular if a and b are perpendicular, v can be expressed as:
v = pr a v + Pr b v

Resolution of two dimensional vectors has the following geometrical interpretation. Let a and b be non-
collinear vectors. Then in order to geometrically express any vector v=OA which is coplanar to a and b as 
a +  b, we can proceed as follows: Draw a line through the tail, of v parallel to a and the line through the
head of v parallel to b or vice versa. Let this lines meet at P. Then v=OP + PA. Since OP is parallel to a and
PA is parallel to b, we get that OP=  a and PA=  b. Thus v=𝛼a +  b.

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 Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)

Figure 6: Resolution of a vector

D. Directional Cosines

Definition 6: Let a  0. The angles  ,  and  (0   ,  ,    ) that ‘a’ makes with +x, +y and +z –
axis are called direction angles of a and their cosines (i.e., 𝑐𝑜𝑠  , 𝑐𝑜𝑠  and cos𝛾 )are called the direction cosines of
a.

a1 a a
Note-1: cos  = , cos  = 2 and cos  = 3
a a a

Note-2: a= a (cos  i + cos  j + cos  k)

Note-3: cos2  + cos2  + cos2  =1

Example 9: An air plane is 4km high, 5km south, and 7km east of an air port. Find the direction angles of
the plane.

Solution: Let the airport be at the origin of xyz- coordinate space and let x-, y- and z- axes indicate South, East
and upward directions Figure 7: Direction
respectively. Thencosines
a = (5,of7,a 4)
vector
is the position vector of the position vector. If

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 Compiled by: Tadesse Bekeshie (PhD)

𝛼, 𝛽 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 are the direction angles of a with respect to +x, +y and +z axes respectively, then 𝛼 =
5 7 4
𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (3 ),𝛽 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (3 ) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛾 = 𝑐𝑜𝑠 −1 (3 ).
√10 √10 √10

𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋
Example 10: Show that 4 , 6 and cannot be the direction angles of a vector.
3

𝜋 𝜋 2𝜋 √2 √3 −1
Solution: (𝑐𝑜𝑠 4 )2 + (𝑐𝑜𝑠 6 )2 + (𝑐𝑜𝑠 3 )2 = ( 2 )2 + ( 2 )2 + ( 2 )2 ≠ 1. It follows from note 3 above that the
given angles cannot be direction vectors of a vector.

Exercise1.3:

1. Show that 𝒂. (𝒃 − 𝒄) = 𝒂 . 𝒃 – 𝒂. 𝒄.
2. Suppose 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏⃗ = 𝑎 ∙ 𝑐 and 𝑎 ≠ 𝟎. Is 𝑏⃗ = 𝑐 necessarily?
3. Find the angle between each two, if it is defined.
a) 〈1,2〉 and 〈1,4〉 b) 〈1,2,0〉 and 〈0,4,1〉 c) a) 〈1,2〉 and 〈1, −4, −1〉
𝑘 4
4. Find k so that the vectors [ ] and [ ].
1 3
5. Find all unit vectors parallel to 𝑌𝑍 plane and perpendicular to 3𝒊 − 𝒋 + 2𝒌.
6. Find all unit vectors in the plane of the vectors 𝒖 = 3𝒊 + 𝒋 and 𝒗 = 𝒊 − 𝒋 + 𝒌 that are perpendicular
to 𝑤 = 𝒊 + 𝒋 + 2𝒌.
7. Show that the points (2,0,4), (4,1, −1) and (6,7,7) form vertices of a right triangle.
8. Use vector methods to show that the diagonals of a rhombus are perpendicular.

9. Use vector methods to show that the sum of the squares of the lengths of both diagonals of a
parallelogram equals the sum of the squares of the lengths of all four sides.

1.4 Cross Product

Definition 1: The cross product (also called vector product or outer product) a  b of two vector a=a1 i + a2 j + a3k
and b=b1 i + b2 j + b3k is defined by

a  b= (a 2b 3-a 3b 2)i+(a 3b1-a 1b3)j+(a 1b2 -a 2b1)k

Note: Unlike other vector operations cross product applies to only 3D vectors. Unlike dot product the cross
product of two vectors is a vector. In some books a  b is denoted by a  b

Example 1: Let 𝒂 = (2, 3, −1) and 𝒃 = (−1, 1, 5). Calculate 𝒂  𝒃 and 𝒃  𝒂.

Solution: a  b= (3× 5 – (-1)× 1)i +(-1× (−1) – 2× 5) j +(2× 1 – 3× (−1)) k = (16, -9, 5). Similarly we
obtain b  a = (-16, 9, -5).

Triple Products

Given three vectors a, b and c consider the expressions a( b  c) , a  (bc) , a  ( b  c) and a  (bc)? The
products a  (bc) and a  (bc) are meaningless where as the product a  b  c could mean a  ( b  c) or
(a  b)  c. But the later two expressions are different. Hence we need to retain the parenthesis. The products
a  ( b  c) and (a  b)  c are called vector triple products. Similarly ab  c could mean a( b  c) or (a b)  c.
But the later is undefined. Thus ab  c = a( b  c) and hence parenthesis can be dropped. The product ab 
c is called scalar triple product.

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Triple
products

Scalar triple Vector triple

product product

a.bxc ax(bxc)
axb.c (axb)xc

We can also consider multiple products (i.e., products involving three or more numbers of cross and dot
products). (Read about Quadruple and Quintuple products).

Theorem 1 (Properties of the cross product)

Let a, b and c be nonzero vectors in ℝ3 and k be a scalar. Then:

C1: 𝑎  𝑏  𝑎 and 𝑎  𝑏  𝑏

C2: 𝑎𝑏 = − 𝑏𝑎

C3: 𝑎  ( 𝑏 + 𝑐) = (𝑎  𝑏) + (𝑎  𝑐) 𝑎𝑛𝑑 (𝑎 + 𝑏)  𝑐 = (𝑎  𝑐) + (𝑏  𝑐)

C4: (𝑘𝑎)  𝑏 = 𝑘(𝑎  𝑏) = 𝑎  (𝑘𝑏)

C5: 𝑎  ( 𝑏  𝑐) = (𝑎𝑐)𝑏 − (𝑏 𝑐)𝑎

C6: (𝑎  𝑏)(𝑎  𝑏) = ( 𝑎𝑎)( 𝑏𝑏) − (𝑎𝑏)2

C7: a  b  a b sin  where  is the angle between a and b.

Proof (Exerecise):

Corollary: Two nonzero vectors a and b are parallel 𝑖𝑓𝑓 a  b=0.

Physical and Geometrical interpretations/applications of Cross Product

Cross products have applications in computing geometrical quantities such as the area of triangles and
parallelograms, volume of parallelepipeds and dihedral angle between two planes and physical quantities such
as moment of a force, Lorenz force, etc.

Theorem 2: The area 𝐴 of the parallelogram with adjacent edges 𝑎 and 𝑏 is A =‖𝑎 × 𝑏‖.

Theorem 3: The volume 𝑉 of the parallelogram with adjacent edges 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 is A =|𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 × 𝑐)|.

Example 2: Find the area of the parallelogram formed by the unit vectors (1,0,0) and (0,1,0).

Answer: √2 sq units

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Example 3: Find the area of the triangle with vertices A(0,1,2), B(3,-2,5) and C(2,3,4).

Answer: 2√6 sq units

Example 4: Find the volume and surface area of the parallelepiped determined by the edges a = 𝑖 − 𝑗 + 2𝑘,
b = 3𝑖 − 4𝑗 + 𝑘 and c = 3𝑖 + 𝑗 + 2𝑘.

The volume formula above can be used to test if four or more points (or three or more vectors) are coplanar
or not. If the vectors a, b and c are coplanar, the volume of the parallelepiped they form is zero and
conversely.

Detecting collinearity of points

Three points A, B and C are collinear if and only if ‖𝐴𝐵 × 𝐴𝐶‖=0

Example 5: Determine if the points (1,0,0), (0,0,1) and (1,1,0) are collinear.

Detecting coplanarity of points and coplanarity of vectors

a. Four points A, B, C and D are coplanar if and only if ‖𝐴𝐵. (𝐴𝐶 × 𝐴𝐷‖=0

b. Three vectors a, b and c are coplanar if and only if |𝑎 ∙ (𝑏 × 𝑐)| = 0

Example 6: Determine if

a) the vectors 〈3, −2,1〉, 〈5, −2,1〉 and 〈0,1, −1〉 are coplanar.
b) the points (1,0,0), (0,1,0) , (0,0,1) and (1, −1,2) are coplanar.

Exercises 1.4

1. Given 𝒖 = 𝒊 − 2𝒌, 𝒗 = 3𝒊 + 𝒋 + 𝒌, 𝒘 = 𝒋 − 𝒌, compute (𝒖 + 𝟐𝒗)  𝒘.

2. Heron’s formula for computing the area 𝐴 of a triangle whose sides have lengths 𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 states that
𝑎+𝑏+𝑐
A = √𝑠(𝑠 − 𝑎)(𝑠 − 𝑏)(𝑠 − 𝑐) , where s: = 2 . Prove!
3. If ‖𝑎‖ = 3, ‖𝑏⃗‖ = 4 and 𝑎 ∙ 𝑏⃗ = 6, then find the area of the parallelogram determined by 𝑎 and 𝑏⃗.
4. Find a vector that is orthogonal to both 𝒖 = 〈−6,4,2〉 and 𝒗 = 〈3,1,5〉.
5. Find the area of the parallelogram determined by
a) 𝒖 = 〈1, −1,2〉 and 𝒗 = 〈0,3,1〉 b) 𝒗 = 〈2,3,0〉 and 𝒗 = 〈−1,2, −2〉
6. Find the area of the triangle with vertices
a) P(2,6,-1) ,Q(1,1,1), R(4,6,2) b) P(1,-1,2) ,Q(0,3,4), R(6,1,8)
7. Find the volume and surface area of the parallel-piped with sides 𝒖 = 〈2, −6,2〉, 𝒗 = 〈0,4, −2〉 and
𝒘 = 〈2,2, −4〉.
8. Simplify (𝒖 + 𝒗)  (𝒖 − 𝒗).

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1.5 Lines and Planes in Space

In this section we learn different forms of equations (1) of lines and planes in xyz-coordinate space.

A. Lines in space

Recall that there are different forms of equations of lines in the plane (ℝ2 ). These are the point-point form, the
point – slope form, the slope-intercept form, the intercept form, the general form and the normal form. In this section we
shall learn three more forms namely vector form, parametric form and symmetric form. First, we summarize some
geometrical notions and facts (results) about lines.

Some Notions and Facts about Lines:

  
A nonzero vector v is said to be parallel to a line L, written v ∥L, if and only if v is parallel to P0 P for every
two points P 0 , P on L. Any two distinct points determine a line, i.e., there is only one line that contains two
given points in space. Given a point P0 and a vector v, there is only one line through P0 parallel to v. Through
a point outside a given line there is only one line parallel to the given line. Given a line L and a point P0 there
is only one line through P0 perpendicular to L (if P0 lies on L)

Equations of Lines in Space:

Let 𝑃0 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) be a fixed/given/stationary point in space; v= 〈𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐〉be a given vector in space; L be
the line through P0 parallel to v and P= (x, y, z) be an arbitrary/moving point on L. Let r0= OP0 where O is
the origin of ℝ3  r0=<x0, y0, z0>. Let r= OP where O is the origin of ℝ3  r=<x, y, z>.

v
P0

r0

P
r
l

Now ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
Figure𝑃 8: line −
0 𝑃a=〈𝑥 in 𝑥0, 𝑦 −
space 𝑧0 〉) 𝑷
𝑦0 , 𝑧 a−point
through ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑃0 𝑃parallel
𝟎 and
and to v. 
to a vector
is parallel
𝒗
 
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
For each P on L, there exists a scalar t such that 𝑃 0 𝑃=tv. On the other hand, r  r0  P0 P

----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
(1) An equation is any mathematical sentence that contains the phrase “is equal to” or the symbol”=”. An

equation of a figure G is any equation E such that E is satisfied by all points on G and by no point outside G.

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  
 r  r0  t v (1)

This equation is called a vector equation of l. The variable t can be any real number and it is called a parameter.

* You can perceive P as the position of a moving particle on l and P0 as a fixed (reference) point on l, and t as
time. Then as t varies P changes its position.
  
From the vector equation r  r0  t v of l, we get that

(x,y,z)= (x0,y0,z0) + t(a,b,c) (2)

 x= x0 + at , y= y0 +bt, z= z0 + ct

These equations are called parametric equations of l.

If z0= 0 and c=0 , then l lies in the XY plane and has parametric equations

x= x0 + at , y= y0 +bt, z=0

Solving the parametric equations for t, we get

x  x0 y  y0 z  z0
t= , t= and t= (if a, b, c  0 )
a b c
Thus

x  x0 y  y 0 z  z0
= =
a b c
These equations are called symmetric Cartesian//equations of l.

y  y0 z  z0
If a=0 and b,c  0 ,then the equations are x  x0 , =
b c

If a=b=0 and c  0 , then the equations are x  x0 ,y= y0, z  z 0  ct

If a=b=c=0, then v=0 and so parallel ness of v and l can’t be assumed.

Note that the symmetric equation above is a system of three equations.

Example 1: Find parametric equations and symmetric equations of the line L through the point (-2, 1, 0) and
parallel to the vector 3i-j+5k and determine whether or not the origin is on L.

Solution: Let P0= (-2, 1, 0) , v =3i-j+5k . Let P=(x, y, z) be arbitrary point on the line. Thus the
position vectors of P0 and P are respectively r0= (-2, 1, 0) and r=(x,y,z).

Now the equations are given as:

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Vector equation

r = r0 + tv  (x,y,z)= (-2,1,0 ) + t(3,-1,5)

Parametric Equations

x = -2 + 3t

y= 1-t

z= 5t

Symmetric equations

x  2 y 1 z
 
3 1 5
Example 2: Find parametric equations of the line containing the points P1(−1,1,0) and

P2 (−2, 5, 7).

Solution: Let P0= (−1, 1, 0), v = P1P2 and 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be an arbitrary point on the line.

Clearly, v is parallel to the line. Now 𝑟 = 𝑟0 + 𝑡𝑣  (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (−1,1,0) + 𝑡(−1,4,7)

 x= -1-t, y=1 + 4 , z= 7t

Distance from a point to a Line (in Space):

What does it mean to say the distance from a point to a line? Recall that how to find the distance between two
points on xy-plane or in xyz-in space and the distance between a point and a line in on xy-plane. The
following theorem gives a formula for finding the distance from a point to a line in xyz-space.

Theorem 1(Distance From a point to a Line (in Space):

Let L be a line parallel to a vector v and let P1 be a point not on L. Then the distance D between P1 and L is
given by:

 
v  P0 P
D= 
v

Where P0 is any point on L.

Proof: Let  be any angle between v and P0P1. 0    

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P1
L
D

P0
v

Figure 9: Distance from a point to a line

Now D= P0 P sin  (*)

On the other hand, v  P0 P1 = v P0 P1 sin 


D

 v  P0 P = v D (by *)

 D= v  P0 P

Example 3: Find the distance D from the origin to the line that contains the point (-3,-3,-3) and is parallel to
the vector 2i-3j+5k.

Solution:

Given: P0=(0,0,0), P1=(-3,-3,-3) ,v=2i-3j+5k

v  P0 P1 (2,3,5)  (3,3,3) 3 39
Thus D= = =
v (2,3,5) 19

Example 4: The set of points whose distances from a given line L are all the same a  0 is called a circular
cylinder. L is called the axis. If L = Z-axis, show that the equation of the cylinder is
x2 + y2= a2

Solution: Let P0 = (0,0,0) and P(x, y, z) be an arbitrary point on the cylinder. Then

the distance a from P to L is:

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k  ( x, y , z )
a= (why?)
k

( y, x,0)
 a=
1

a= ( y) 2  x 2

x2 + y2= a2

Example 5: Find an equation of the cylinder with radius 5 whose axis is the line with
equations x=y=z.

Solution: Let P0=(0,0,0) and P(x,y,z) be an arbitrary point on the cylinder. Then

the distance a from P to L is:

(1,1,1)  ( x, y, z )
a= (why?)
(1,1,1)

( z  y, x  z , y  x)
 5=
3

 125= (x-y)2 + (x-z)2 + (y-z)2

B. Planes in Space

Intuitively, a plane is a flat/straight surface that extends indefinitely in all directions. Pictorially, it is usually
represented by a ‘parallelogram- like’ picture. A plane is usually represented by three capital letters or by a
single Greek letter. If a plane is placed in an xyz-coordinate system then it can be expressed by an equation
involving x, y and z. Let us first recall the following Euclidean geometry notions and facts about planes.

Some Terminologies and Geometric Facts about Planes in Space:

a) A line and a plane that do not share a point are said to be parallel.
b) A vector and a plane are said to be parallel if
c) A line is said to be perpendicular to a plane if it is perpendicular to every line in the plane that it
intersects. This definition depends on the definition of perpendicularity between lines.
d) A vector is perpendicular to a plane if
e) The angle between a line L and a plane ABC is defined to be the angle between L and any line on the
plane through the point of intersection of L and ABC.
f) The angle between two planes is defined to be the angle between their normal vectors.
g) Two planes are said to be parallel if their normal vectors are parallel.
h) Two planes are said to be perpendicular if their normal vectors are perpendicular.
i) Two distinct lines perpendicular to the same plane must be parallel to each other.
j) Through three non collinear points one and only one plane can pass.
k) Given two non-parallel and nonzero vectors and a point, there is one and only one plane through the
point parallel to the given vectors.

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l) Given a point and a vector there is one and only one plane through the point perpendicular to the
vector.
m) Through a point not on a given line there is one and only one plane perpendicular to the given line.
n) Through two intersecting lines/ two parallel lines / there is only one plane.
o) Through a point not on a given plane there is one and only one plane parallel to the given plane.
p) Given line l and two points P and Q such that PQ and l are skew, there is one and only one plane
through P and Q parallel to l.

Equations of Planes:

(a) Parametric Form

Let - U= ( u1, u2,u3) and V= (v1,v2,v3) be two given nonzero and nonparallel vectors in R3

- 𝑃0 = (𝑥0 , 𝑦0 , 𝑧0 ) be a fixed point in R3

-  be the plane through P0 parallel to U and V

- 𝑃 = (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) be any point on 

P0

Figure 10: A plane  through P0 parallel to vectors U and V

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Recall that: If U,V and X are coplanar vectors such that U and V are nonzero and nonparallel, then there
exist scalars s and t such that:

⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
𝑋 = 𝑡𝑈 + 𝑠𝑉  𝑃 0 𝑃= 𝑡𝑈 + 𝑠𝑉

  
⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 ⃗⃗⃗
If 𝑟 = 𝑂𝑃 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗0 , then r  r0  P0 P
𝑟0 = 𝑂𝑃

   
 r  r0  (t u  s v )  (𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) = (x0,y0,z0) + t( u1,u2,u3) + s(v1,v2,v3)

 x=x0 + tu1 + sv1, y= y0 + tu2 + sv2, z= z0 + tu3 + sv3

These equations are called parametric equations of  .

(b) Normal Form

P0 P

Figure 11: A plane  through P0 and perpendicular to vector N

Let P0= (x0,y0,z0) be a given point

N = (a,b,c) be a given nonzero vector

 be the plane through P0 and perpendicular to N

P= (x,y,z) be an arbitrary point on 

Now P0P = (x-x0, y-y0, z-z0) and P0P  N (why?)

 P0P  N = 0

 a (x-x0) +( y-y0) +( z-z0) = 0

 ax + by + cz =ax0 +by0 +cz0

 ax + by + cz =d where d:=ax0 +by0 +cz0

This equation is called a Normal Form of the plane 

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Remark:

1) Every plane in space has equation of the form 𝑎𝑥 + 𝑏𝑦 + 𝑐𝑧 = 𝑑 and conversely every linear equation
in x, y and z represents a plane in space. Recall that a line on a plane and the linear equation ax + by = c has
analogous relationships.

2) A normal equation (and for that matter parametric equations) of an equation is not unique.  The same
plane can have infinitely many Normal Forms of equations b/c the vector N and point P0 are not unique.
Thus we can’t say the normal equation of a plane, but say a normal equation.

3) The nature of the graph of an equation is determined by the space in which the graph is made.  The
same equation can represent different geometric figures. For instance: The graph of the equation ‘x =
constant’ is:

. a point in one dimensional space (on number line)

. a line in 2-dimensional space(XY plane)

. a plane in 3-dimensional space(XYZ space)

Example 6: Find an equation of the plane that contains the point (-2, 4, 5) and has a normal vector 7i-6j.

Example 7: Find an equation of the plane passing through the three points P1 =(1,2,-1) , P2 = (-1,1,4) and
P3=(1,3,-2).

Distance from a point to a Plane in Space:


Theorem 2(distance from a point to plane): Let  be a plane with normal vector N , and let P1 be any
point not on  . Then the distance D between P1 and  is given by:

 
N . P0 P
D= 
N

Where P0 is any point on 

Proof: Let  be any angle between N and P0P1. 0    

P1

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Case-1: 0   <90(N and P1

P0
are on same side of  )

Case-2: 90<   180(N and

𝑃0
P1 are on opposite sides of
)
𝐷

P1

Figure 12: Distance from a Point to a plane

Case-1: 0   <90(N and P1 are on same side of  )

Now D= P0 P1 cos  (*)


On the other hand, N  P0 P1 =  N P0 P1 cos  = N P0 P1 cos 

D


 N  P0 P1 = N D (by *)

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 
N . P0 P
 D= 
N

Case-2: 90<   180(N and P1 are on opposite sides of  )

(Exercise)

Example 8: Find the distance d between the point (3,-1, 4) and the plane 2x-y+z=5.

Example 9: Show that the distance D between the origin and the plane ax +by + cz =d is D=
d
a2  b2  c2

Example 10: Find the distance between the pair of parallel planes 𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 2 and 3𝑥 − 3𝑦 + 3𝑧 =
1.

C. Hyper lines, hyper planes and hyper spheres; Other Curves and Surfaces in Space

Though sketching their graphs is impossible we can extend the notions of line, plane and sphere to vectors
having dimensions beyond 3. In those spaces they are respectively called hyper lines, hyper planes and hyper
spheres.

In any Euclidean space, an equation of the line parallel to a given vector V and passing through a given point
P0 is P = P0 + tV; t∈ ℝ. Similarly an equation of the plane normal to a given vector N and passing through a
given point P0 is N.P = N. P0. And an equation of the sphere with center P0 and radius r is ‖𝑃 − 𝑃0 ‖ = r.

In addition to lines, planes and spheres we can also consider other curves and surfaces in ℝ3 and other
spaces.

Exercise 1.5

1. Find parametric equations for the line that contains the point (3,-1,2) and is parallel to the line with
x 1 y  3
equations  z
4 2
2. Find the equation of the line passing through P(1,1,1) and perpendicular to XY plane.
3. Are the points (1,4,2), (4,-3,-5) and (-5, -10,-8) collinear?
4. Show that the line containing the points (5,7,9) and (4,11,9) is parallel to line with equations
x 1 y  2
 ,z  5
3 12
5. Two nonparallel and nonintersecting lines in space are called skew lines. Two skew lines always lie on
parallel planes. Determine whether the two lines L1 and L2 are parallel, skew or intersecting:
1
1 1 1
a) L1 : 𝑥 − 2 = (𝑦 + 1) = (𝑧 − 3) and L2: 3 (𝑥 − 5) = (𝑦 − 1) = 𝑧 − 4
2 3 2

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1 1 1 1 1
b) L1 : (x-11) =y-6= - (z+5) and L2: (x-13)= - (y-2)= (z-5)
4 2 6 3 8
6. Find an equation of the plane passing through the point (-1,2,3) and is:
a) Parallel to the XY plane.
b) Perpendicular to the Y-axis
7. Find, if possible, an equation of the plane that contains the lines:
x 1 y 1 z  5 x3 y4 z
a)   and  
3 2 4 3 2 4

1 1 1 1
b ) x-2= (y+1)= (z-3) and (x-5)= (y-1)=z-4
2 3 3 2

1 1 1 1 1
c) (x-11) =y-6= - (z+5) and (x-13)= - (y-2)= (z-5)
4 2 6 3 8
8. Determine whether the points (2,3,2), (1, −1, −3), (1,0, −1) and (5,9,5) are coplanar.
9. The planes 𝑥 − 𝑧 = 1 and 𝑦 + 2𝑧 = 3 intersect in a line. Find a third plane that contains this line
and is perpendicular to the plane 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 2𝑧 = 1.
10. Determine whether the lines ⟨1,1,1⟩ + 𝑡⟨1,2, −1⟩ and ⟨3,2,1⟩ + 𝑡⟨−1, −5,3⟩ are parallel, intersect,
or neither.
11. Sketch the plane 3𝑥 + 2𝑦 + 𝑧 = 6.
12. Find the angle between the two planes with equations 2𝑥 − 𝑦 + 𝑧 = 5 and 𝑥 + 𝑦 − 𝑧 = 1,

1.6 Vector spaces and Subspaces

A. Field , Vector Space and subspace

Recall that the real number system (1)i.e., the set of real numbers together with addition and multiplication of
real numbers, written (R, +, ∙), satisfies the following 11 algebraic properties.

1. For all x, y  ℝ, x +y  ℝ. (Closure 7. For all x, y ℝ, x y=y x.

property) (Commutative Property)
2. For all x, y  ℝ, x + y=y + x. 8. For all x, y, z ℝ, (x y) z=x (yz).
(Commutative Property) (Associative Property)
3. For all x, y, z  ℝ, (x + y) +z=x+(y + z). 9. x (1)= x for all x ℝ. (Identity)
(Associative Property) (1 is called the identity element of ℝ with
4. x + 0= x for all x  ℝ. (Identity) respect to multiplication).
(0 is called the identity element of ℝ with 1
10. For all x  ℝ \{0}, x ( ) =1.
𝑥
respect to addition). (Invertibility)
5. For all x  ℝ , x + (-x)=0. (Invertibility) 1
(–x is called the additive inverse of x). (𝑥 is called the multiplicative inverse of x).
6. For all x, y  ℝ, x y  ℝ. (Closure 11. For all x, y, z ℝ, (x+ y) z=x (y + z).
property) (Distributive property)
In general if a nonempty set F and two binary operations on F satisfy the same properties satisfied by the real
number system, (R, +, .), then it is called a field. Thus a field is a generalization of the real number system.

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Definition 1: Let F be a non empty set. Let “+” and “.“ be binary operations on F (We call these operations
(field) addition and (field) multiplication respectively, though they may not be the usual addition and multiplication
of numbers). The system (F,+,.) (i.e., the set F together with the binary operations ‘+’ and ‘.’ ) is said to be a
field if it satisfies the following 11 rules (axioms).

1)  x, y  F, x + y  F. 7)  x, y  F, x .y= y .x.

2)  x, y  F, x + y= y +x. 8)  x, y, z  F, (x . y) . z=x. (y. z)

3)  x, y, z  F, (x + y) + z=x + (y+z) 9) There is a special element in F denoted by 1

such that x. 1 =x,  x  F
4) There is a special element in F denoted by 0
such that x + 0=x  x  F [Such an element is called an identity element for
the field multiplication, .]
[Such an element is called an identity element for
the field addition, +.] 10)  x  F \ {0},  x**  F such that x . x ** =
f.
5)  x  F,  x*  F such that x + x* = e.
[x** is called a reciprocal/multiplicative inverse of
[x* is called a negative/additive inverse/opposite of x]
x]
11)  x, y, z  F, x.( y + z) .=x .y + x . z
6)  x, y  F, x . y  F.
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

In mathematics, a system (also called, space or structure) is a set together with some other mathematical
(1)

object (s) satisfying certain prescribed rules (axioms). Eg. the real number system consists the set of real
numbers and its basic operations.

Note: Be aware that the rules defining a field are given in 3 parts: part I is about addition, part II is about
multiplication and Part III is about both.

Example 1[field]:

a) (ℝ, +, .) is a field
b) (ℂ, +, .) is a field.
c) (ℚ, +, .) is a field.
d) (ℤ, +, .) is not a field (because rule 10 fails).
e) Let ℤ𝑛 = {0,1,…, n-1} .Define addition and multiplication on ℤ𝑛 =as follows:
Addition: x ⊕y ≡ the remainder of x plus y divided by n. This is called addition modulo n.
Multiplication: x⊙y ≡ the remainder of x times y divided by n. This is called multiplication modulo n.
Then (ℤ𝑛 ,⊕ ,⊙) is a field.

Theorems 1.1 and 1.2 show that the set R3 of three dimensional vectors satisfies 5 properties with respect to
vector addition and another 5 properties with respect to scalar multiplication (if we include closure
properties). Note that R3 is not the only set of vectors that fulfils these rules. R2 also satisfies the same rules.
In fact, for any natural number n, Rn satisfies these 10 rules.

In general if a nonempty set V and two binary operations satisfy the same properties satisfied by the set R3 of
three dimensional vectors, then it is called a vector space. Thus a vector space is a generalization of R3.
More formally:

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Definition 2: Let V be a nonempty set and let (F, +, ∙) be a field. Let + : 𝑉 × 𝑉 → 𝑉 and let ∘ : F× 𝑉 → 𝑉 .
Let us denote +(X, Y) by X + Y and ∘ (𝛼, X) by 𝛼X. These operations are respectively called vector addition
and scalar multiplication. Then V is said to be a vector space over F (with respect to these operations) if:

A0) For every X,Y  V, X +Y  V

A1) For every X,Y  V, X+Y=Y+X

A2) For every X,Y,Z  V, (X+Y)+Z=X+(Y+Z)

A3) There exists an element of V (denoted it by 0) such that X + 0= X for all X V. (Such element is
called a zero element of V).

A4) For every x  V, there exists an element x* of V such that x + x*=0

M0) For every X  V and for every k ∈F, kX V

M1) For every X,Y  V and for every k  F, k(X+Y)=kX + kY

M2) For every X  V and for every  ,   F, (  +  )x=  X+  X

M3) For every x  V and for every  ,   F, (   )x=  (  x)

M4) For all X  V, then 1X=X (where 1 is the identity element for multiplication in F)

Remarks:

1) Elements of V are called vectors regardless of whether they are the usual vectors or not. Because they
behave as usual vectors.
2) Elements of F are called scalars (numbers) regardless of whether they are the usual numbers or not.
Because they behave as numbers.
3) A vector space is also called a linear space.
4) If F=ℝ, the vector space is called real vector space and if F=ℂ it is called a complex vector space.

Example 2[vector space]:

a) R3 is a vector space over R under the usual addition and scalar multiplication of three dimensional
vectors.
In general for any natural number n, Rn is a vector space over R under the following operations:
For 𝑋 = 〈𝑥1 , … , 𝑥𝑛 〉, 𝑌 = 〈𝑦1 , … , 𝑦𝑛 〉 and 𝜆𝜖 R, define:
𝑋 + 𝑌 ≔ 〈𝑥1 + 𝑦1 , … , 𝑥𝑛 + 𝑦𝑛 〉 and 𝜆𝑋: = 〈𝜆𝑥1 , … , 𝜆𝑥𝑛 〉.
In particular R is a vector space over R.
b) R3 is not a vector space over R with respect to the usual addition and the following scalar
multiplication: K(x, y, z) = (kx ,y, z) for all k  R and (x,y)  V (because M2 fails ).
c) R is a vector space over Q under the usual addition and multiplication of numbers. But Q is not a
vector space over R under the usual addition and multiplication of numbers (because M0 fails).
d) Let P2 represent the set of all polynomials of degree at most 2. Then P2 is a vector space over R.
In general if Pn represents the set of all polynomials of degree at most n, then Pn is a vector space
over R.
e) Let P represent the set of all polynomials. Then P is a vector space over R.
f) Let V = {f: R  R where f is continuous}  the set of all real valued continuous functions on
domain R.

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V is a vector space w.r.t the usual addition and constant multiplication of functions.

g) Let V represents the set of all real valued functions. Then V is a vector space on R under the usual
addition and constant multiple of real valued functions.

The following theorem gives easy consequences of the vector space axioms. These rules are sometimes called
calculation rules.

Theorem 1 (Elementary Consequences of the Vector space Axioms):

Let V be a vector space over F.

a) V has a unique zero element.

b) Each element x of V has a unique additive inverse.
c) 0x = 0 ∀x 𝜖V.
d) K0 = 0.
e) (-k)x = k(-x) = - (kx)
f) Kx = 0 implies k = 0 or x = 0
g) x + y = x + z ⇒x=z.
h) 𝛼𝑥 = 𝛼𝑦and 𝛼 ≠0 ⇒x=y.
i) 𝛼𝑥 = 𝛽𝑥 and 𝑥 ≠0 ⇒ 𝛼𝑥 = 𝛽𝑥.

Proof:

c) 0x = 0x + 0 = 0x + (0x + -(0x)) =( 0x + 0x)+ -(0x) = (0 + 0)x + -(0x) = 0x + -(0x) = 0

Subspace:

A subset W of a vector space V which is a vector space on its own right is called a subspace of V.

Definition 3: Let V be a vector space over F. A nonempty set W is called a subspace of V if W  V and W
itself is a vector space over F with respect to the same operations.

Theorem 2(A simple criterion for testing a subspace):

Let W be a nonempty subset of a vector space V over F. Then W is a subspace of V iff:

a) If x,y  W, then x +y  W

b) If x  W and k  F, then kx  W

Proof:

Remark: The above theorem suggests that in order to show that a set W is a subspace of a vector space V, it
suffices to show that

i) W  V and W   (is 0  W)
ii) x,y  W x +y  W
iii) x  W and k  R kx  W

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Example 3 [subspaces]:

a) For every vector space V, {0} and V are subspaces of V. These subspaces are called the trivial or
improper subspaces of V. All other subspaces of V are called nontrivial or proper subspaces.
b) Let V=ℝ3 , F = ℝ and W= {(a1, a2, a3 ) 𝜖 ℝ3 : a1 + a2 + a3 = 0} . Show that W is a subspace of V
over F.
Solution:
i) Clearly W is a subset of V.
Since (0, 0, 0) 𝜖 ℝ3 and 0+0+0=0, so (0, 0, 0) 𝜖 𝑊.⇒ W is nonempty.
ii) Let (x1, x2, x3 ) , ( y1, y2, y3)𝜖 𝑊. This implies that x1+ x2+ x3 =0 and y1+ y2+ y3=0.
Then (x1, x2, x3 ) + ( y1, y2, y3) = (x1 + y1 , x2 + y2 , x3 + y3) and (x1 + y1 )+( x2 + y2 ) +( x3 +
y3)=0. Therefore, (x1, x2, x3 ) + ( y1, y2, y3)  W.
iii) Let (x1, x2, x3 ) 𝜖 𝑊and 𝛼 ∈ ℝ. This implies that x1+ x2+ x3 =0.
Then 𝛼 (x1, x2, x3 ) = (𝛼x1 , 𝛼x2 , 𝛼x3) and 𝛼x1 + 𝛼x2 + 𝛼x3 =𝛼 (x1+ x2+x3 ) = 0. Therefore
𝛼 (x1, x2, x3 ) 𝜖 𝑊.
Using the same arguments we can show the following.
c) Show that the set of all continuous functions from ℝ to ℝ is a subspace of the set of all real valued
functions from ℝ to ℝ. (Exercise)

Theorem 3: The intersection of two subspaces of a vector space V is a sub space of V.

B. Linear Combinations and Linear Spans

Definition 4 (linear combination of a finite set): Let V be a vector space over F and let S= {v1, v2, … ,vn
}  V. Let a1 , a2 , … , an be scalars. An expression of the form

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + … + an vn

is called a linear combination of S (or a linear combination of the vectors v1, v2… vn)

An element v of a vector space V is said to be expressed or written as a linear combination of S or a linear

combination of the vectors v1, v2… vn if there exists scalars a1, a2… an such that

v= a1 v1 + a2 v2 + … + an vn.

Remarks:

1) Some vectors cannot be expressed as a linear combination of a given set of vectors.

2) A representation of a vector as a linear combination of a given set of vectors may/may not be unique.

Definition 5 (linear combination of an arbitrary set): Let V be a vector space over F, let S  V and let B=
{a1, a2,… ,an }  F.

An expression of the form a1 v1 + a2 v2 + … + an vn is called a (finite) linear combination of elements of S

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* A linear combination of a set S is always a finite sum (whether S is finite or infinite). An element x of V is
said to be (expressed as) a linear combination of S if there exists vectors v1, v2 …., vn in S and scalars a1, a2,
…, an such that x = a1 v1 + a2 v2 + … + an vn.

Definition 6: Let V be a vector space over a field F. Let S  V and S≠ 𝜙 .The set of all linear combinations
of elements of S is denoted by Span(S) or L(S) and it is called the linear span of S. Thus

Span(S) = {∑𝑛𝑘=1 𝑐𝑘 𝑣𝑘 |𝑐𝑘 𝜖𝐹 & 𝑣𝑘 𝜖𝑆}.

Remark: Let V be a vector space over F and S  V. Then

a) S⊆ Span(S)
b) Span(S)⊆ V.( In fact Span(S) is a subspace of V as given in the next theorem).

Definition 7: Let V be a vector space over a field F. Let S  V and S   .. We say S spans or generates V if
Span(S) = V.

Since Span(S)⊆ V by the above remark, so in order to show that S spans or generates V it suffices to show
that V⊆ Span (S), i.e., every element on V is a linear combination of some elements of S.

Theorem 4: Let 𝑉 be a vector space over 𝐹 and 𝑆  𝑉.

a. 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑆) is a subspace of 𝑉.
b. If 𝑊 is a subspace of V such that 𝑆  𝑊, then𝐿(𝑆)  𝑊.
(i.e 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑆) is the smallest subspace of 𝑉 containing 𝑆.)

W
S
L(S)

Figure 13: Comparison of 𝑆, 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑆), a subspace 𝑊 containing 𝑆 and 𝑉

Proof:

Example 4 [on linear combination and linear span]:

a. Any vector x= (x1, x2) in R2 can be expressed as x = x1i + x2 j . Hence, {i, j} generates R2.
b. Any vector x= (x1, x2, x3) in R3 can be expressed as x = x1i + x2j + x3k. Hence, {i , j ,k} generates R3.
c. Let V=R2 and S= {v1, v2} where v1= (2, 1), v2= (-4,-2). Can (6, 3) be represented as a linear combination
of S? If yes, is the representation unique?

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Solution: We find scalars a1 and a2 such that (6, 3) = a1(2,1) + a2(-4,-2)

2a1  4a 2  6

3a1  2a 2  3
The system has solutions. Hence, (6,3)  Span(S).There are infinite solutions for this system of linear
equations. Hence, there are infinite ways of writing (6,3) as a linear combination of S; some instances are:
(6,3)= 3(2,1) + 0(-4,-2)

3
(6, 3)= 0(2, 1) + (-4,-2). //
2
d. Let V=R2 and S= {v1, v2} where v1= (2, 1), v2= (-4,-2). Can (3, 5) be represented as a linear combination
of S? If yes, is the representation unique?
Solution: We find scalars a1 and a2 such that (3, 5) = a1(2,1) + a2(-4,-2)

 2a1  4a 2  3
3a1  2a 2  5

a) There is no solution for this system of linear equations.  It is impossible to write (3, 5) as a linear
combination of S. Hence, (3, 5)  Span(S ).
e. Write v=i +13j +k as a linear combination of a=2i-4j + 5k and b=2i +6j +4k.

Answer: v=-a + 3/2 b

f. Show that S = {〈1,2〉, 〈2,1〉} generates ℝ2 .

Solution: First let us show that S spans ℝ2 , i.e., 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛 (𝑆) = ℝ2. To that end it is enough to show that
ℝ2 ⊆ 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑛(𝑆). Let (𝑥, 𝑦) 𝜖 ℝ2 . We must show that there exist 𝛼, 𝛽 ∈ ℝ such that

(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝛼 (1,2) + 𝛽(2,1).

𝑥−2𝑦
𝑥 = 𝛼 + 2𝛽 𝛼 = −3
⟹{ ⟹{
𝑦 = 2𝛼 + 𝛽 𝑦−2𝑥
𝛽 = −3

Since the right-hand sides of the last two equations are defined for every real numbers x and y, so

(𝑥, 𝑦) = 𝛼 (1,2) + 𝛽(2,1).

𝑥−2𝑦 𝑦−2𝑥
where 𝛼 = and 𝛽 = . For instance (4, 5) = 2(1,2) + 1(2,1), (0,0) =
−3 −3

0(1,2)+0(2,1), etc.

Using (f) above as a prototype we can also prove the following.

g. S = {〈1,0,0〉, 〈0,1,0〉, 〈0, −2,1〉} generates ℝ3 .

h. S = {1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 } is generates 𝒫2 .
i. S = {1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 , … } generates 𝒫.
j. S={(2,1), (-4,-3)} does not span R2, since there exists elements of R2 (e.g (3,5)) that cannot be expressed
as a linear combination of S.

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C. Linear Dependence and Linear Independence

Definition 8: Let V be a vector space over a field F and let S= {v1, v2… vn }  V

We say S is a linearly dependent (LD) set if there exist scalars a1, …, an (at least one of them nonzero) such that:

a1 v1 + a2 v2 + … + an vn=0.

Otherwise S is called linearly independent (LI).

Definition 9: Let V be a vector space over a field F and let S  V

We say S is a linearly independent set if every finite subset of S is linearly independent. Otherwise is is said to be
linearly dependent.

Example 5[on linear dependence and independence]:

a) S={(2,1), (-4,-3)} is linearly dependent because a1(2,1) + a2(-4,-3) =(0,0) does not necessarily imply
a1= 0 and a2= 0.
b) S={i , j ,k} is linearly independent because a1 i + a2 j + a3 k= (0,0,0) implies a1 = a2 = a3=0.
c) S= {1, x, x2} is linearly independent.
d) S={1,x,x+1,x2+1}is linearly dependent
e) S= {1, x, x2, …}is linearly independent.

Theorem 5 (some elementary properties on linear dependence and independence)

a. The empty set is linearly independent.

b. A singleton set with a nonzero element is linearly independent.
c. 𝑆 = {𝑢, 𝑣} LD 𝑖𝑓𝑓 𝑣 = 𝑘𝑢 for some scalar 𝑘.
d. Any subset of a vector space V containing the zero element is LD.
e. If w is a LC of set S, then S  {w} is LD.
f. If S is LI, then any subset of S is LI.
g. If S is LD, then any super set of S is LD.

Proof:

D. Basis and dimension of a vector Space

Definition 10: Let V be a vector space over a field F. Let S  V and S   . We say S is a basis of V if:

i) S spans V and

ii) S is LI.

Remark: By convention the empty set is taken to be the basis of the vector space {0}. This is motivated by
the fact that the only subset of {0} which is not linearly dependent is the empty set.

Theorem 6: Every vector space 𝑉 has a basis.

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Theorem 7: Every two bases B1 and B2 of the same vector space V have the same cardinal number (number
of elements).

Thus the number of elements of a basis of a vector space is the characteristic property of the vector space.

Definition 11: Let 𝑉 be a vector space over a field 𝐹. The cardinal number of a basis of V is called the
dimension of V and it is denoted by 𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝑉. A vector space is said to be finite dimensional if its dimension is finite
and infinite dimensional otherwise.

Example 6 [on basis and dimension]:

a) S = {〈1,0〉, 〈0,1〉} is a basis of ℝ2

b) S = {〈1,0,0〉, 〈0,1,0〉, 〈0,0,1〉} is a basis of ℝ3
c) S = {〈1,2〉, 〈2,1〉} is a basis of ℝ2 .
d) S = {〈1,0,0〉, 〈0,1,0〉, 〈0, −2,1〉} is a basis of ℝ3 .
e) S = {1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 } is a basis of 𝒫2 .
f) S = {1, 𝑥, 𝑥 2 , … } is a basis of 𝒫.
g) S = {〈1,2〉} is not a basis of ℝ2 because it does not generateℝ2 .
h) S = {〈1,0, 〈0,1〉, 〈1,1〉〉} is not a basis of ℝ2 because it is LD.
i) 𝑑𝑖𝑚 {0} = 0.
j) 𝑑𝑖𝑚 ℝ3 = 3.
k) 𝑑𝑖𝑚 ℝ𝑛 = 𝑛.
l) 𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝒫𝑛 = 𝑛 + 1.
m) 𝑑𝑖𝑚 𝒫 = 𝑖𝑛𝑓𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑦.

Exercises 1. 6:

1. Which of the following sets are subspaces of ℝ3 ?

a) A= {(a1, a2, a3 ): a2 a3 = 0}
𝑥
b) B= {(a1, a2, a3 ): 2 = √2}
𝑥 1
c) C = {(x, y, z ): √2x= √3}
d) D = {(x, y, z ): √2z 𝜖ℤ}
e) E = {(x, y, z ): x2 = z2}
2. Which of the following sets are subspaces of the vector space 𝒫of all polynomials?
a) A= {p 𝜖 𝒫 : deg p = 4}
b) B= {p 𝜖 𝒫 : deg p ≤ 4}
c) C = {p 𝜖 𝒫 : deg p ≥ 4}
d) D = {p 𝜖 𝒫 : p(1) = 0}
3. Let u=3x2 + 8x – 5, v= 2x2 + 3x – 4 and w= x2 – 2x – 3. Write u as a linear combination of v and w.
4. If two vectors from R2 are randomly chosen, what is there probability to be:

a) LD? b) LI ?

5. Find a real number t so that (2-t, 2+t) and (2+t, 2-t) are LI vectors in R2.

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