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    bk chapter 4 Gerald F WiecaoneK LANDSLIDE TRIGGERING MECHANISMS 16 1. INTRODUCTION slides can have several causes, including seoogical, morphological, physical, and hue man (Alesander 1992; Cruden and Warnes, Chap Bin hisrepoe,p. 70), batoaly one tiger (Varnes 1978, 26) By definition a trigace isan extemal stimuli soc as intense rainfall, earthquake shake fing, volcanic erupsion,strm waves orapidsream erosion that ares # neat immediate response in the form ofa landslide by eapdly increasing the screses or by reducing the strength of lope mate sal Insome ces lander may occur without an spparent attibutable tigger becawse of variety ‘combination of causes, sich a chemical or phys ‘cal weathering of materia, thc gradually bing the slope to flute. The requis shoe time frame of cause and eft ithe etcal element in the in: tiation ofa ladle tiges, “The most common nara land triggers ae desebed in this chapter, including cers anal, rapid snownele, water-level change, voleanicerup ‘don and earthquake shaking and examples sre feo vided in which observations oe measuemencs Bae documented the eatonship between triggers and landslides Some geologic conditions chat lead to “sseepubilcy to landing eased by hese rages ‘ace identified. Haman aerivtes tt ergger land slides such as excavation fr road euss an bear tion ae not discussed in thischapterTothe extent possible, examples havebeerslected hat llrate Toni dasage ro transport systems 2.INTENSE RAINFALL Seorms that produce intense infill fo periods as Short as several hous or havea more rola in- tensity lasting several day have eiggeredabun- dane landslides in many regions, fe example, California (Figures 4-1, 4-2, and +3). Well documented studias that have reviled close relationship between rsnfll intensity and act- ‘ation of landslides include those for California (Campbell 1975; Ellen et al. 1988), Nor (Carolia (Geyea and Brtholomen 1983; Neary and Swift 1987), Virginia (Kochel 1987; Geyta and Bartholomew 1989; Jacchuon etal 1989), Puerto Rico (ibson 1989; Simon & al. 1990; laren and Totes Sancher 1992), nd How {Wilson et al. 1992; len etal. 1993 “These ste show that shallow landslides in soils and weathered roc often are generated on steep slopes during the more intense pars of a ‘corm, and thresholds of combined inensity and duration may be necessary to rigge them In the ‘Santa Monica Mountain of suther Calfornia ‘Camptell (1975) found tha rainfall exceeding a thneshld of 6.35 mmr rigaeed shallow anies that ed to damaging debris lows (Pipe 44) ‘ring 1982 incense rainfall tng or about 32 tne in the San Francisco Bay region of California ‘wget mote than 18,00 predominastly shallow Tandblides involving soil and weathered rock, which Hocked many primary and secondary roade (Ellen eta. 1988), Those landslides vhose tines GURE 41 Lindi locking Stale Highway Teer dal Peter buns StalePark, Cao: bis ses ana ows fom toe and fais ofeacbated Tans. tense stam February. 2eeMarch 1, 1983, iragered many Sets tows tat blocked pinay ane secondary Toads atong ig Sur cone, raune 43 arse Blockna Site Hatvay excavation of ut of festmated 6.1 millon in emvice Desches extending ‘bout 300 m ‘ove roadbed tate ths the largest Fighwayrepairob uertaken in Catteni history Highway opened ingot 1984 (Wares 1984) FIGURE 4-2 above ff) {ndside locking State Highway 1: May 1, 1983, masse rock sce of 1.2 millon m* incorporated ene hice Excetonaly hea rental dng winters of 1981-1982 and 1982-1983 was esponsble fox rang ‘roundvate level nd tiggering side Durng excavation, groundwater Now of apprenimately 378,000 Ley ‘rs coleced and eed rm at (Woks 1984, casas iPMBAOFRARSONTATON 8 FicuRe 4-4 CCumustve anf stasected cording Sauges in Santa Monica and San Gall Mountains, Suter Casfoma, Known times of debe one indicated by hear, Gots. Stepness of ‘mulativeravat fe nates Intensty of rainfall (rode from (Compoel 1975, route 4s Raf esblss thotiggued ‘bunt ances insan arcsec ay Iason Calf. ‘remols for ah ‘alow mean anual preciptaton DA? Sree sete os uve erent Combinaton of ‘setalntenyand Skrstontmeated| ftom cannon and ten 1985) Landes: vestigation and Mitigation 0 aa 00 we t CUMULATIVE RAINFALL 6) CCUMULATIVERAINFALL Emm & at tanya) Parton rs ‘could be well documented were closely associated With period of mos Intense precipitation; this documentation permitted entifcation of landslide-rigaerng rainfall chresholds based on both rainfall intensity and duration (Figure 4-5) (Canon and Ellen 1985). Such thresholds are regional, depending on local gloss, geomorphic, and climatologe ondicons. “The eapid inflation of rainfall, casing sit ‘saturation anda temporary rise in pore water pres sures generally believed tobe the mechanism by ‘which mor shallow landlides are generated du {ng storms. With the advent of ipoved inst ‘mentation and electronic monitorng devices ‘uansient elevated pore presures have been mea sured in hillside sil an sallow helrock during ‘instore szoiated with abundant nll land- slang (Figues 46 and 4-7) (Sule 184; Wilson and Dietrich 1987; Reid ct. 1988; Wil 1989; Johnson and Stat 1990; Simon eal 1990), Looe or wenk sil are especially prone to land. slides crggered by intense rainfall. Wildfire may provlue a warer-repllen (hydrophobic) sil layer below and parallel othe hurned surface thar, 2 ether with los of vegetative cover promotes ra ling of loose coarse sol grains and fragments 2 the surface. Increseed overland fw and rll for- ration then lead to small debris flows (Wells 1987). On the lower parts of hillslopes and in stream channel, major storms generate high sed Ient content. in streams (hyperconcentated ows) or lage debris ows (Seate 1971; Wels et al 1987; Welich 1989; Florsheim eal 1991) ‘Shortly after enidnight on January 1 1934, an Jnense downpour after more than 12h frail, resulted in debris ows fiom several recently bbumed canyons into the La Cafada Valley of southern Califomia and caused significant prop- ‘ey damage and los of le (Troxell and Peterson 1957). Following an August 1972 wildfire north ‘of Big Surin centtal coastal California, storms ‘with intensities of 19 to 22 mmr eigered co ‘episodes of debeis ows. During the second, more ‘devastating storm on November 15, 1972, lage Tv within rbucary gullies as well asthe main sully. The erlting debris ow and flood closed CCalonsia State Highway 50 fr 5 hr while main- tenance crews removed rocky debris from the ‘pavement (Kuchn 1987). PoURE 4s Response of pore presure to if in Erato se sais frothem Calfornia, Poste peaks of pore presure: fo feriods of high ‘aia nteriy negate pore resutes nda Enltendonn party surntes al at begnning of sam ‘or during prods betwoan fal (cnetee rom ‘son and Star 1860, 2 one 47 (Aezleraton sme Nstore ara) response of pore presi in hgatied Sty sand oer ‘rom November 1387 Superstion ie (caers| earihake Acederaton te histor ware recat round Surace and beneath ued yer Fezometer 72 ras in fetid sy sand layer Pin sk layer that il ot legs odes Krom Hota et 1965) Lands Imestgation and Mitigation CC) : 3 z i i On September 7, 1991, a debe ow tigers by heay rani (30213 rm) within he period damaged several houses ina subdivision of "North Ogden, Utah, Concentration ofunof fom ‘the scorm mobilized talus and other deri in tib- uray channels and scoured material fiom the main channel into a deri fw, which emerged frm the canyon and traveled about 400 m down an al- luv far before reaching the subdivision (Mulvey and Lowe 1992), ° priya ny ene Bonn MOBO OP Toy be Time(s) 6 (Depth = 128m) 5 (0spin = 29m) 2 (Oepth = 68m) 2 Osptn = 200) 4 (Oeptn Time(s) 3. RAPID SNOWMELT Rapid melting of « snowpack caused by sudden warming sels x by sin fling on sow can add water to hillside oils. Horton (1938) examined the infiltration and runoff of melting snow neo soil incding the special case ofthe eft of nin ‘on snow cover He found thatthe process of mel {ngmay provide amore coneinsous supply of moi ‘ure over longer time period compared with the usual aration of inflaton from rain. Snowmele ‘may also recharge shallow fractured bedrock and taise pore-waterpresues bensath shallow soils, ‘hus igering arses (Mathewson eta. 1990). Near Wrightwood, California, steady haw of a heavy snowpock over a 40-day period in the Speingaf 1969 riggered mud lows in Heath Creek from saturated debts in steep channels and from steep faces nthe toe aeaof the Wryhe Mouncin landslide (Morson etal 1979). In Utah during an ‘unusially warm 10-day period from late May ¢o early June 1983, a heavy winter snowpac along the Waarch Front began to melt rapidly nd tig: sered approximately 150 debis fows and other types of landslides (Pack 1984; Wieczorek et al 1999) Inthe Wasatch Front shove Farmington, sah, during he height ofthis activity (May 25-30, 1983), snowmele provided the equivalent of spproximaely 2.110 2.6 mh of precipitation; ‘on May 30, 1983, a large debi low emerged from the canyon of Rink Creek nto the community of Farrington (Vande 1985) Rain-onsnaw events commonly reduce the water content ofthe snowpack and add sufficient ‘water to sols to be signifcane in triggering land- slides In coastal Alaska, Side (1984 found that nowmelt befoe rainfall augmented the ples metic reponse. Ina small watershed of western ‘Oregon, Hare (1981) found that 85 percent of landeldes hae could be dated accurately were as sociated with snowmel during rainfall, ‘A majority ofthe decumentd landslides inthe central Siera Nevada of California in mid-April 1982 and in early and mid-March 1983 cecurred using rainon-now events (Bergman 1987) [Landes along Sturn Springs Road, a maori erhaul route in Siera National Forest, Cli- ‘oenia were rggerdby a rin-on-now evenc that included peaking incensiis of 4 wo 18 mr supplemented by snowpack Ines equivalent 10 150 mm of water, Landslide reps of Stamp Springs Road required an esimated $153 million longa 23-km section during 1982 and 1983 (DeGratferal 1984). ‘4, WATER-LEVEL CHANGE ‘The sudden lowering of the water level (rapid down) aginst slope ca rigger lnislides in arth dams, along coastlines, and on the banks of lakes, esevois, canals, and rivers. Rapid draw Lands Tiggering Mechanisms down can occur when a iver drops fllowing a fod stage, the water level in a reservoir or canal is dropped uddenly, or the sea level drops follow Inga storm tide. Unless pore pressures within the slope adjacent tothe ling water level can disse pate quickly, the le ssubjected co higher shear stresses and potential instability (Figure 4-8) (eraghi 1943; Lambe and Whitman 1969). In terms of eetve srs, Babop (1954, 1955) in- twoduced a method fo extimate the porester presure in terms of rouction of the pincipl stresses and en analze slope sabilry de othe re= ‘moval of che water load during rapid draveown. at FicuRe 43 before conzlidoton adjustment, (after orealdaton ‘agisoment, and (hint equinus | condion Lambe apeivivnan 1969), | sane | eure 49 Bucher Valley lands, approximately 6 km South of Sbastopcl, Calor, began moving aftr seis oF 1983 winter Storms. Deepseated item deep) translational earth Diodkslde on nose of spur ridge moved ‘ong bed | Planes incined at ni 5 108 degrees. ‘Cumulative searonal rainfall dures 1381-1982 and 1982-1983 preceding lanai Fc been highest reeodded steal Tigoeng of lanasideatibuted tohigh groundwater levels ncaa ans grabens (Spite 1383. Landslides: vestigation and Mtigation ‘Thick uniform deposits of low-permesbiliy clays and sis are particularly sucepibe o landing triggered by rapid drawdown, Morgenstern (1983) listed 16 cases in which rapid drawdown tiger landslides inthe upstream face of earch dems Repid drancown triggered four landslides ia very low-permeabilcy Boulder clay in the Fort Henry and Ardelooney embankment, Irland, Thebes documented ofthese slides occured aft 4 drawdown of LI m in 10 days during the last. 24 hr the average drawdown rate was 0.35 may (Massarich e¢ al, 1987). In the coasal area of Zeeland, Netherlands, Koppejan eel. (1948) ob served cha encesive ial differences of 28 co 46 sm during spring or coinciding wth gales eigered ‘wetaand flows. From afew observations hey con- cluded that movement staned dering drawdown of the ch te between half ile and low water, Springer etal, (1985) inspected more chan £6500 km of the Oio River system and examined 120 andlde sie in detail. They observed several characters types of instabilities, including mas sive ump evidently triggered by rapid drops in river level following floods. Other landslides, co hesive wedges of material siding on thin vand strata, were triggered by recent precipitation that produced high water presues in texsion cracks behind che fe face and were not asciated with rapid dracon, During and following constrecticn of Grind Coulee Dam in Washington State, one 500 and slides were noted berween 1941 and 195 along the shores of Franklin D, Rootevele Lake, Accurtcly ated lanes emong this sraple wie mot fe ‘quent during dhe filling stage of the reserve and Subsequent co filling during ewo periods of pid sravedown (Jones etal 1961). Even lige daw dons during the period from {969 ¢o 1973 were o> sponsible fo aditional cat sump, eth prea, cath flows and debi ows (Schuster 1979), Increases in groundwater levels on ill dopes following peciods of prolonsed above normal re cipitation or during the raising of water levels in rivers, lakes, reservoirs, and canal bud up pote water pressure and redoce effective stengeh of at- ursed slope marrials and can erige lands (Feures 42 and 49). The initial fling of Yellowtail Reservit, Montana, and also of the Panama Canal were cited by Lane (1967) as exam les in which large landides wee trigeed by ini al raising ofthe water levels om matiral cut slopes. Rising groundwater levels can aso acer ate landslide movement, as observed at Vsiont Dam ay, wherea slowly moving landslide rapidly filing ofthe reservoir (Lane 1967) “The Mayunmarea landslide of April 25, 1974, ‘locked the Mantaro River in Pera, and the ring ‘waterlevelehind the dam cased by the landslide resulted in mote landslides along the shores ofthe Take, which destoreda regional highiay (Loe and Duncan 1975) Suen breaching ofthe landslide dam and rapid draydown ofthe Iake level wie fered still moe landldes slong the banks ofthe lake (RL. Schuscer, pesonal communication, 1992, US. Geologieal Survey, Denver, Colorado) ‘Thereare other examples in which gradually {ng groundwater levels cased by iigaton and pro longed or intermittent low: to moderate-intensity rainfall have resulted i landslides. These cases are ‘ot cited beease the elation of tiger and land- sliding no ax closely documented with spec 0 time as i is for those eaes described here, which tnelve more rap changes in water eves 5, VOLCANIC ERUPTION Deposition of age volcanic ah on hillsides com- ‘monly i followed by accelerated erosion an fr ‘Goent mud or debeis ows criggered by intense ‘ainfal (Kadomara eal. 1983). anu, avoleanoin central Costn Rica, erupted ash almost contin fuily from March 1963 through February 1965, Tntense rin and high runoff accompanied by sheet and rill erosion of ak-covered slopes tguered ‘ore chan 90 debris fows in valley on slopes of thie voleano. A lage debris flow in the Rio Reventado valley destoyed more than J00 homes nd killed more than 20 persons. High runoff and Sehr Howe inciel deep channels, resulting in slumping and caving of valley walls ana eaciva tion of landslides, which in tam suplied ad. ‘ional material for debris ows (Waldron 1967) Following the June 1991 eruption of Mt. Pina tuo in the Philipines, monsoon and eyphoon rains triggered many desis ows that originaced in thick voleanic-ash depois (Person 1992). Debris flowsas deep ar 5m traveled down major channels during the moe rainy periods, three to five debris fowaday were common, Mort debris dows were ‘rigetedby monsoonal rainstorms wih ines that seldom exceeded 80 co 100 mm over several hours addition eo disnpring natural drainage patterns causing Lateral migration of rer chan- \andde Tiggering Mechanisms nels and inundating agrcularal land, debris lows Inave destroyed most major highway beldges near the voleano (Pierson 1992). ‘Veleanic eruptions have triggered some ofthe largest and mest catastrophic historic landlides Asaresultof the May 18,1980, ruption of Mount Se. Helens, Washington, a massive 2.8-4en rock Slide-debwis avalanche rapidly descended from the oath slope of Mount St. Helens and traveled shout 22 kin down the valley ofthe North Fork ‘Towtle River (Voight eral. 1983). The avalanche destroyed nine bridges and many kilometers of highwaysand rods. Asa esl of rpid melting of snow and ice from the eruption, mul ows surged down several ofthe valley hat radiated from the ‘mountain. The largest and most destructive of these mu flows entered the valley of the North Fork and South Fork Toutle River and destroyed ‘or heavily damaged about 200 homes, bused half ‘ofthe 27-km portion of State Highway 50¢ and ‘other highway ad road, destroyed 27 km of rai- way, and destoyed or badly damaged 27 highway and ilo bridges (Figure 4-10) (Schuster 1981). ‘On November 13, 1985, pyroclastic Hows and surges from a relatively small eruption melted snow nd ice on the summit of Nevado del Rue voleano {in Colombia and produce Large volumes of melr- rater, iniiting debe ow instep channels that ‘wept down and lied more than 23,000 inhabi- {ants of Armero and other ares at of beyond the thase ofthe voleano (Pierson etal. 1990). 6 BARTHQUAKE SHAKING ‘Stong ground shaking during earthquakes has triggered landaids in many diferene topographic Ficune 4-10 St Helen Bdge, T5-n steel bridge ‘on Stae Highaay SoAcaried about 12 km downstream andpariay buried Bap flowin FSB sonra 84 Lands: vestigation and naation and geologic vettngs. Rock fll, sol sides, and rock sues from seep slopes, involving relatively ‘hin orshallow dsigeegated soils or ack, oc bth, have been the mest abundant eyes Landslides tmiggered by historical earthquakes (Figures 4 and4-12), arth spreads, earth slumps eat Block slides, and each avalanches on gentler slopeshave also heen very abundant in earthquakes (Keefer 1986) For 40 historic earthquakes, Kefe (1954) de- ‘ermined the maximum distance from epicenter to landslides a a fanetion of magnitude for three general landslide types (Figure 4-13), Using che expected farthest limite of landaliding during FicuRe 4-11 Rock side-ovalanche onto Sherman Ger Iiagered by March 1968 ask earthen: Shaman Glcer on August 26,1963, showing ‘ondions before earthquake (Post 1567) FoUuRe 4.12 (bottom lf) Rock side-avalanche onto sherman Giciet Uggered by March 1964 Aleka earthasake ‘olepse of Shatered Peak in mde tance formed avalanche Post 1967) eee ed FAGURE 413 above) Maximum distance to lndsides rom epicenter for earthquakes of afer magnitudes =~ srupted fl and sides; ~~", bound fr coherent Slides: bound fr spreads end flaws (ester 1384), Landslide higgering Mechanisms erchquakes ofspecific magnizae and location, an ‘Suter distance limi for landing sae prepared fora bypochetcl earthquake in the Los Angeles region (Figure 4-14) (Harp and Keefer 1935; ‘Wilson and Keefer 1985). The rmount of landslide displacement ducing an earthquakes aceiical fac- tor inhscad assesment; aseismic analyssofeath dams (Newmark 1965) was mediied to calealte the displacement of indivial landslides on che bass of econ of strong round shaking (Wilson and Keofer 1983; Jibson 1993). TLandilides involving loos, saturated, cohe slonless ois on low to moderate slopes commonly ‘occur a a result of earthquake induced liqufac: tion, a proces in which shaking temporal raises pone-waterpresurs and reduces the strength of ‘he soil (Figure 415), Sedimentary envionment, age of deposition, geologic sony, depth of wate ea a anit a \ . aaa i “es A ae Ge ya Gur ms RE 14 a une 4-15, State Highway 1 bridge destroyed bystong shaking and lguetaction tive depots at Sve Slough eat Watson California, during 1389 Loma Prt earthquake Patter Sd Galloway 1383), Lands: nvesigation and Mitigation table, ainste disttbution, density, and depth determine whether e deposit wll liguey daring ceasthquike. Genezally, eohesionlss sediments of Holocene age oe younger low the grourlatee {able are mot susceptible to liquefaction (You snd Perkins 1778), ‘The May 31,1970, Richer magnitude (M) 7.7 Penacarthquake was the mos eatstrphic historic earthquake of che Western Hemisphere, causing cover 40,000 deaths. The earthquake triggered 2 huge debris avalanche from che north peak of Hlusscaran Mountain that buried the town of ‘Yungay and par of te town of Ranrahirca with 2 loss of more than 18,000 lives. The earthquake also teggered many other landslides within a '30,000-km area that disrupted communities ad ‘emporaily blocked roads, these slides seriously hampered es and relief operations and pe the full extent ofthe disaster unknown until weeks alter the earthquake (Per etal. 1971). The M 7.5 Guatemala earthquake of February 4, 1916, cigered mote than 10,000 landslide, predominantly rock falls and debris slides from steep slopes of Pleistocene pumice deponts (cephas areas ows) or thet residual sols (Harp cecal 1981). Pumice depenits, which standin seep, near-erical slopes, lose much of thei stents during seismic lading. Seong shaking increases steesies that may break down cohesion in ee- ‘mented sol or bree rel, such as ep, loesy ‘orsandstone (Sitar and Clough 1983). ‘On March 5, 1987, cw earthquakes (M 6.1 and M69) 100 km eas of Quito, Ecuador, triggered. thousands of rock and earth slides, derisive laches and debris and sud flaws that destroyed ‘early 70 km ofthe Trans Ecuadorian ol pipeline and the only highway from Quito eo Ecuador's caste rain frets and oll felds (Crespo eta. 1981; Schuster 1991). Feonomic sis, principally fom andiie-induced dsmage co he al pipeline nd highway, were estimated to be US. $1.5 bil lion (Nieto and Schuster 1988), (On November 12, 1987, liquefaction ofa silt and sand layer daring an M 6.6 earthquake in Supersition Hills, California, caused snd boils to ‘ruptand resulted in extensive prounenckingin. dicaive ofan earth spread, Neaby insrumenta- tion recorded excess pore presutes that began develop when the peak horizontal acceleration reached 0.2 gabout [.6.see after the earthquake ‘began (Figure 47) (Hole etal 1989), The pore presure buildup was high enough to be the main factor in reducing soil strength and casing the earth spread. ‘TheM 7.1 Loma Prieta, California, earthquake of October 17, 198, triggered an estima 2,000 04,000 rock, earth, and debris falls andslidesthat blocked a major highway and many secondary ‘ond inthe San Francisco- Monterey Bay areas. debris side of about 6000 m closed the two nowde bound lanes of California State Highway 17 for 33, ays before sepsis were completed (Plfker and Galloway 1989; Keefe and Manson in pres) ‘The Loma Prieta earthquake alan cad gue faction and earth spreads between Sun Francisco and Monterey, inluding damage tothe nnwayat akland Incemational Aigpor andthe Alameds Naval Air Station (Platker and Galloway 198%, ‘Seed ec al. 1990). Numerous earth prea (about 46) destoyed or dsruped flood-contt levees, Pipelines, bridge abutments ad pers rom, houses and utilities, and seigation work inthe Monterey Bay area (Plafker and Gallowey 198 Tindley and Dupre 1993), 7. SUMMARY (Common landslide triggers, including intense ‘rainfall rapid snowmel, water-level changes, vole ‘anic eruptions, and strong ground shaking daring carthquakes are probably directly responsible for ‘he majority flndslides worldwide As illeseated by the foregoing examples, chee landslle ae ‘sponsible formuch damage transportation ss ems, utilis, and lifelines, These lance wg. sets have heen well documented, and recent ‘monitoring has provided considerable insight inva the mechanics ofthe wiggering processes, REFERENCES. ‘Alexander, D- 1992. On the Causes of Landslides: “uma Activites, Petcepton, and Natrl Pr ener. Envzoumentl Gelogy and Water Seieess, Vol 20, No.3, pp 165-178, Beryman, JA. 1987. Rain-onsnow and Soil Mas Failure in the Siena Nevada af Callforna. In Lene Act the ira Nevada dug 1982 dant 1983 (LV. DeGrall, ea), Barth Resources Monograph 12, USDA Forest Service, Poi Southwest Region, San Franco pp. 15-26. Bishop, AA. 1954. The Use f Pore Presure Coei- ‘enti Practice, Gecehnigue, Vol 4, No.4, 148-152, Bishop, AAW. 1955. Th Use ofthe Slip Circe the Staility Analysis of Slopes. Genecniqu (Pro ‘ceedings of che Conference on the Stabty of Eth Sloper, Stoekhaim, Sept. 20-25, 1954), Val. 5: pp. 7-17 ‘Camptell, RL 1975, Sail Sls, Debris los, and Ranscrms i the Sena Monica Nownains and Vii, Souther California. US. Geological Sur vey Prlasonal Paper 851, 51 pp, (Cannon, SH, and SD. Elen. 1985. Rainfill Con ‘isons for Abundant Debris Avalanches, San Francisco Bay Region, California. Calforia Got oy Val 38 No.1, pp 267-272. (Cuespo,E, TD. ORoute, and KJ. Nyman. 199, recs on Lifelines. In The March 5, 1987 Beunor Eras (RL Schuster), Natal Dinner Sulies, Val. 5, Chap 6, Commitee on ‘Natural Disses, Natonal Research Counc, ‘Washington, D.C. pp 83-99. DDeGraf.V, J. McKean, PE, Watanabe, and WE eC. 1984 Landaide Acuity and Ground water Conditions: Insights fr a Road in the ‘Cental Sera Nevada, Caer In Trwspra- ‘on Resench Record 963, TRB, National Research ‘Council, Washington, B.C, yp. 32-37 len, SD, GE. Weesorek, WM. Brow I, and DG. Herd, 1988. lawoducton, In Louies, lds, aa Marine Efe of he Storm of Jamey 3-5, 1982, in he San Franco Bay Region, Cal- faria(SD. Elen an F, Wiecorek es), US. Geological Survey Profesional Paper 1434, pp. 1. Fen, SD., RK. Matk, SH. Cannon, and DL. ‘Kiforg” 1993, Map of Debilow Hazan che lool Dieof Oak, Hou. US. Glog ‘Survey Open File Report 93-213, 25 p. Forbeim, Jy EA. Keller and DW. Best 1991. “livia Sednene Transport in Response to Mod. cezate Storm Flows Following Chaparral Wire, Lande Wggering Mechanisms ‘Veotura County, Southern Cama. Geaogal Sov of Amen Balti, Vol 103, pp. 504511 Gloney, PA. and L. Haren. 1975. Hydrol “Acsionet of the September [4, 1974, Flood Eliade Canjon, Nevada US. Geological Survey Profesional Paper 930,28 xp. Gyn, Ho and MJ. Barholomen. 1983, Debris: “Avalanche Type Features in Watauga County, North Catlin. In Geol Inesigatons inthe Blue Ridge of Norwest North Carona (SE. Lewis ei), Caralins Geolgial Sociery Guide- ‘ook, Nor Carolina Divison of Land Resouces, Boone, Amiel 5,22 pp. Grjen, J and MJ. Barholomew. 1989, Factors Tefluencing the Dsebutionof Debi Avalanches ‘Associated with the 1969 Hurricane Camille in ‘elon County, Vigil In Lande Prceses of the Esser Unied Stas and Puen Ria (A. P. Schuler and RLW. Jbson, es), Geological So- ‘ety of Ametica Special Pper 236, py. 15-25 Har, EL, RC. Wilton, and GF. Wieczorek. 1981 andses fom the Feary 4, 1976, Guatenal artic. U.S. Geological Survey Profesional Paper 1204-8, 359. Hap, EL, and DK Keefer. 1985, Lanlding— Predictad Geologic and Selsmologe cs of Powtulted Magatade 65 Earchquake along the ‘Noster Prtathe Newport Ingewoo! Zane. Boaluaing Eathguoke Hazard in he Los Avge Region: An Ear Saence Peapcate J Zion, fd), US. Geolopieal Survey Profesional Paper 1B, pp. 496-441. Har, RD. 1981. Some Charsctestes and Conse: ‘genet of Snownee during Rina im Wester (ean. Journaf arog, Vel 53, pp. 277-304 Hoker, TL, TL. Youd, and TLC. Hanks. 1989 ‘Dynami of Liquefaction ding the 1987 Super son Hill Calon, Eaethquake, Since, Vel 244, pp 56-59. Horton, RE. 1938. Pheer of he Conace Zone ‘Bnween the Grown Sac and a Laer of Maling Snow Ballin No.23, sociation Ieemstionale

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