Psychology Notes For Ssuet

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INTRODUCTION TO PSYCHOLOGY
• What is Psychology:
• The scientific study of the human mind and its
functions, esp. those affecting behavior in a
given context.
• The mental characteristics or attitude of a

person or group.
• Psychology is the science of the mind and

behavior. The word "psychology" comes from
the Greek word ‘psyche’ meaning ‘breath,
spirit, soul’, and the Greek word
‘logia/logus’ meaning Knowledge or the study
of something.
MS.SUMBUL MUJEEB Page 1

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SUBJECT MATTER OF PSYCHOLOGY

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HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
• PLATO – (427-347 BC)

o Plato was interested in moral philosophy and
despised natural philosophy (that is, science)
as an inferior and unworthy sort of
knowledge.
o Believed we are born with complete
knowledge within our soul.
o Learning – a process of inner reflection to
discover the knowledge within us.
• ARISTOTLE – (384-322 BC)

o Knowledge acquired through experience
• DESCARTES- (1596-1650)
o Mind body dualism
o Reflexes
o Behavior controlled by the mind .
o Greeks

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o How does the “soul/mind” give rise to

memory, sensation, movement,etc..
o Where is the “soul/mind” located
o Descartes (1600s)
o Dualism (mind/body problem)
o How does physical matter give rise to thought,
sensation, etc.
• WILHELM WUNDT
o Father of experimental psychology
o First psychology laboratory in Leipzig,
Germany, 1879
o The first psychologists.
• E. Bradford Titchener
o Popularized Wundt’s psychology and brought
it to U.S.
o Used introspection to uncover components of
thought study of psychology today.
o Psychology is the scientific study of behavior
and mental processes.

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SCHOOLS OF THOUGHTS
o When psychology was first established as a science

separate from biology and philosophy, the debate
over how to describe and explain the human mind
and behavior began.
o The different schools of psychology represent the
major theories within psychology.
o The first school of thought, structuralism, was
advocated by the founder of the first psychology
lab, Wilhelm Wundt.
o Almost immediately, other theories began to
emerge and vie for dominance in psychology.
o In the past, psychologists often identified
themselves exclusively with one single school of
thought.
o Today, most psychologists have an eclectic outlook
on psychology. They often draw on ideas and
theories from different schools rather than holding
to any singular outlook.

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The following are some of the major schools of

thought that have influenced our knowledge and
understanding of psychology:
• Structuralism:
Structuralism was the first school of psychology, and
focused on breaking down mental processes into the
most basic components. Major structuralist thinkers
include Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener.
Structuralists used techniques such as introspection to
analyze the inner processes of the human mind.
• Functionalism:
Functionalism formed as a reaction to the theories of
the structuralist school of thought and was heavily
influenced by the work of William James. Major
functionalist thinkers included John Dewey and Harvey
Carr. Instead of focusing on the mental processes
themselves, functionalist thinkers were instead
interested in the role that these processes play.

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• Behaviorism:
o Behaviorism became a dominant school of

thought during the 1950s.
o It was based upon the work of thinkers such as:
• John B. Watson
• Ivan Pavlov
• B. F. Skinner
o Behaviorism suggests that all behavior can be
explained by environmental causes rather than
by internal forces. Behaviorism is focused
on observable behavior. Theories of learning
including classical conditioning and operant
conditioning were the focus of a great deal of
research.

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• Psychoanalysis:
o Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology

founded by Sigmund Freud. This school of
thought emphasizes the influence of
the unconscious mind on behavior.
o Freud believed that the human mind was
composed of three elements: the id, the ego and
the superego.
o Other major psychoanalytic thinkers include:
• Anna Freud
• Carl Jung
• Erik Erikson.

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• Humanistic Psychology:
o Humanistic psychology developed as a response

to psychoanalysis and behaviorism.
o Humanistic psychology instead focused on
individual free will, personal growth and the
concept of self-actualization.
o Humanistic psychology differed considerably in
its emphasis on helping people achieve and
fulfill their potential.
o Major humanist thinkers include:
• Abraham Maslow
• Carl Rogers.

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• Gestalt Psychology:
o Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology

based upon the idea that we experience
things as unified wholes.
o Instead of breaking down thoughts and
behavior to their smallest elements, the
gestalt psychologists believed that you must
look at the whole of experience. According to
the gestalt thinkers, the whole is greater than
the sum of its parts.

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• Cognitive Psychology:
o Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology

that studies mental processes including how
people think, perceive, remember and learn.
o As part of the larger field of cognitive science,
this branch of psychology is related to other
disciplines including neuroscience, philosophy
and linguistics.
o One of the most influential theories from this
school of thought was the stages of cognitive
development theory proposed by Jean Piaget.

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RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
o A wide range of research methods are used in

psychology.
o These methods vary by the sources of information
that are drawn on, how that information is
sampled, and the types of instruments that are
used in data collection.
o Methods also vary by whether they collect
qualitative data, quantitative data or both.
Qualitative psychological research:
Is where the research findings are not arrived at by
statistical or other quantitative procedures.
Quantitative psychological research:
Is where the research findings result from
mathematical modeling and statistical estimation or
statistical inference.

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There are three main types of psychological research:
o Descriptive research:
o Also known as statistical research, describes
data and characteristics about
the population or phenomenon being
studied.
o Descriptive research answers the
questions who, what, where, when, "why"
and how…
o Correlational research:
o Correlational studies are used to look for
relationships between variables.
o There are three possible results of a
correlational study: a positive correlation, a
negative correlation, and no correlation.
o The correlation coefficient is a measure of
correlation strength and can range from –
1.00 to +1.00.

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o Experimental research:
o If researchers intend to make cause-and-
effect statements, they typically use
experimental research, which is usually, but
not always, conducted in a laboratory.
o The laboratory environment allows the
experimenter to make controlled
observations using the steps of the scientific
method.
The following are common research designs and data
collection methods:
• Archival research
• Case study
• Computational modeling
• Content analysis
• Controlled experiment
• Field experiment
• Interview, can be structured or unstructured.
• Meta-analysis

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• Neuroimaging and
other psychophysiological methods
• Observation can be naturalistic, participant or
controlled.
• Quasi experiment
• Self-report inventory
• Random sample survey
• Twin study
Research designs vary according to the period(s) of
time over which data is collected:
• Retrospective study: Subjects are chosen, and
then data is collected on their past experience.
• Prospective study: Subjects are recruited prior to
the proposed independent effects being
administered or occurring.
• Cross-sectional study: In which a population
sampled on all proposed measures at one point in
time.

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• Longitudinal study: Subjects are studied at

multiple time points: May address cohort
effects and indicate causal directions of effects.
Research in psychology has been conducted with both
animals and human subjects:
• Animal research
• Human subject research

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SCOPE OF PSYCHOLOGY
The domain of psychology has, in course of time,

emerged as one of the important disciplines while
widening its scopes and being applicable to
different fields of human endeavors, such
as, employment, industries, education,
personality development and being one of its
popular branches, to the treatment of mental and
emotional problems. A few of its branches may be
outlined briefly in this:

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Organizational Psychology:
o This branch of psychology is also known as
Industrial or occupational Psychology.
o It is meant to improve the efficiency and
effectiveness of business organizations while
solving the organizational problems.
o It seeks to identify the leadership styles,
organizational conflicts and the psychological
characteristics of the workplace so that there may
be considerable improvement in the functioning
state of a business.
o It’s not only concerned with business
development but also the effectiveness and
efficiency in terms of employees’ performance.
o The psychologist or the consultants of this branch
are in great demands as they contribute greatly to
the total organizational system and development.

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Social Psychology:
o While dealing with the social behavior on the one
hand, it is meant to help the people in solving
their social problems on the other.
o It is focused on how the role of society and its
culture influence in the development of one’s
personality.
o This field of psychology is interested to identify
the social situations and the attitudes of the
people towards them so as to help the people in
altering and improving their attitudes while trying
to reduce tensions and making them
better human beings.

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Clinical Psychology:
o This area of psychology is much popular among
other branches.
o It deals with mental, emotional and abnormal
behavior of the people.
o It seeks to help the people come out of
their mental disorders.
o Its practice involves psychological assessment
and psychotherapy while various training
programs and personality and intelligence tests
are conducted under this branch
of Psychology for the treatment of mental
problems.
o Mostly, the psychologist of this field works
with psychiatrists.

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Counseling Psychology:
o Counseling psychologists are concerned with the
problems of everyday life, concerning academic,
social, emotional, occupational and
organizational.
o They acquire reasonable knowledge of their field
and help their clients to overcome situations
causing everyday stress.
o They are employed in colleges, universities
and hospitals.
o Though the distinction between Clinical
psychologist and the counseling psychologist may
be difficult but primarily the area of counseling
psychologist involves similar methods as those of
clinical psychologist’s.

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Educational Psychology:
o It deals with educational processes and practices
and is focused on how individual learns through
educational settings.
o It is concerned with teaching methodologies and
processes.
o It is helpful to the students in the achievement of
merits while providing required services and
guidance to the physically handicapped students.
o The psychologists of this branch are appointed in
schools and colleges.
Whatever the area of psychology it is, the ultimate

objective is to know about human nature while helping
out the individuals in various problems and becoming
better human beings. Psychology seeks to understand
and predict and control the behavior that the behavior
may ultimately be such that lets one live peacefully by
enabling him or her to overcome problems of life.

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IMPORTANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY FOR

ENGINEERS

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BIOLOGICAL
FOUNDATION OF
PSYCHOLOGY

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NERVOUS SYSTEM
o The nervous system is complex combination of
cells that allows an organism to gain information
about what is going on inside and outside the body
and to respond appropriately.
o It allows to learn and to react.
o When trying to understand stress, anxiety and
depression it can help to have a very basic idea of
how our nervous system functions and the role it
plays in the stress response.
o This will help us to understand our psychological
health problems more clearly.
o The human nervous system is very complex, but
basically it is like a telephone network, the main
switchboard is the brain, with telephone cables
(nerves) running from it down the spine
connecting into every organ and system of the
body. The nervous system communicates with the
body in two ways - via chemicals called hormones
and by electrical impulses that travel at a speed of
130 meters per second.

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The nervous system is broken down into two

major parts:
1. The Central Nervous System:

o Consisting of the brain and spinal cord.
2. The Peripheral Nervous System:
o The central nervous system is isolated from
any direct contact with the outside world.
o Peripheral nervous system is the network of
sensory and motor neurons that form the
interface between the central nervous system
and the surface of the body.
The peripheral nervous system further divides into

the autonomic nervous system which is the part we
are particularly interested in with regard to stress,
anxiety, depression and its related problems.

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THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

o The function of the autonomic nervous system is
to run all the automatic functions of the body
like breathing, heart rate, digestion, endocrine
(hormonal) system, etc.
o The autonomic nervous system is divided into 2
divisions:
1. The Sympathetic Nervous System which

initiates the stress response.
2. The Parasympathetic Nervous System which

induces the relaxation response.
o The body's organs and systems are supplied by
nerves from the sympathetic and
parasympathetic nervous systems which can
slow them down or speed them up via
hormones and electrical impulses depending on
the situation.

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o Normally there is a balance kept between the

sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous
systems, but in long term chronic stress this
balance can be disturbed and either one of the
sympathetic or parasympathetic nervous
systems can predominate over the other leading
to stress related health problems.

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LEARNING

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LEARNING
o Learning is defined as a relatively permanent

change in behavior resulting from experience.
o Learning is not observed directly, but is inferred

from changes in observable behavior.
o Learning occurs when we demonstrate new

skills to ourselves.
o Swimming, driving, dancing etc.
o Learning is apparent from improvements in our

performance.

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TYPES OF LEARNING
Learning can be of following types. These are also

considered as the methods of learning.
o Learning by Observation
o Learning by Cognition/Insight
o Learning by Trial/Error
o Learning by Conditioning.
Humans and animals utilize these methods according

to the need and their capacity. Most often, we apply
more than one method at a time.
Here we will only discuss ‘Learning by conditioning’,
which is also called ‘Learning by Association’.

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LEARING BY
CONDITIONING/ASSOCIATION
o Learning by association is called conditioning.
o During the first half of the twentieth century, the

school of thought known as behaviorism rose to
dominate psychology and sought to explain the
learning process.
o The two major types of learning described by

behavioral psychology are:
– Classical conditioning
– Operant conditioning

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CLASSICAL CONDITIONING
o Classical conditioning is a technique used in

behavioral training.
o A naturally occurring stimulus is paired with a
response. Then, a previously neutral stimulus is
paired with the naturally occurring stimulus.
o Eventually, the previously neutral stimulus comes
to evoke the response without the presence of the
naturally occurring stimulus.
o The two elements are then known as the
conditioned stimulus (CS) and the conditioned
response (CR).
TYPES OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING:
• Forward conditioning:
o Learning is fastest in forward conditioning.
o During forward conditioning the onset of the
CS precedes the onset of the US.
o Two common forms of forward conditioning
are delay and trace conditioning.
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• Delay conditioning:
o In delay conditioning the CS is presented and
is overlapped by the presentation of the US.
• Trace conditioning:
o During trace conditioning the CS and US do
not overlap.
o Instead, the CS is presented, a period of time
is allowed to elapse during which no stimuli
are presented, and then the US is presented.
o The stimulus-free period is called the trace
interval. It may also be called the conditioning
interval.
• Simultaneous conditioning:
o During simultaneous conditioning, the CS and
US are presented and terminated at the same
time.

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• Backward conditioning:
o Backward conditioning occurs when a
conditional stimulus immediately follows an
unconditional stimulus.
o This is because the conditional stimulus serves
as a signal that the unconditional stimulus has
ended, rather than a reliable method of
predicting the future occurrence of the
unconditional stimulus.
• Temporal conditioning:
o The US is presented at regularly timed
intervals, and CR acquisition is dependent
upon correct timing of the interval between
US presentations.
o The background, or context, can serve as the
CS in this example.

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• Unpaired conditioning:
o The CS and US are not presented together.
o Usually they are presented as independent
trials that are separated by a variable, or
pseudo-random, interval.
o This procedure is used to study non-
associative behavioral responses, such as
sensitization.
o Classical conditioning and Phobias:
The process of classical conditioning can explain how
we acquire phobias. For example, we learn to associate
something we do not fear, such as a dog (neutral
stimulus), with something that triggers a fear response,
such as being bitten (unconditioned stimulus). After an
association has formed, the dog (now a conditioned
stimulus) causes a response of fear (conditioned
response) and consequently, we develop a phobia.

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Classical Conditioning and advertisement:
Classical conditioning has long been, and continues to be, an

effective tool in marketing and advertising (Hawkins, Best, & Coney,
1998). The general idea is to create an advertisement that has
positive features such that the ad creates enjoyment in the person
exposed to it. The enjoyable ad serves as the unconditioned stimulus
(US), and the enjoyment is the unconditioned response (UR).
Because the product being advertised is mentioned in the ad, it
becomes associated with the US, and then becomes the conditioned
stimulus (CS). In the end, if everything has gone well, seeing the
product online or in the store will then create a positive response in
the buyer, leading him or her to be more likely to purchase the
product.

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OPERANT CONDITION
o Operant conditioning (sometimes referred to
as instrumental conditioning) is a method of
learning that occurs through rewards and
punishments for behavior.
o Through operant conditioning, an association
is made between a behavior and a
consequence for that behavior.
o Operant conditioning was coined by
behaviorist B.F. Skinner, which is why you may
occasionally hear it referred to as Skinnerian
conditioning.
o As a behaviorist, Skinner believed that internal
thoughts and motivations could not be used
to explain behavior. Instead, he suggested, we
should look only at the external, observable
causes of human behavior.
o Skinner used the term operant to refer to any
"active behavior that operates upon the
environment to generate consequences"
(1953).

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o In other words, Skinner's theory explained

how we acquire the range of learned
behaviors we exhibit each and every day.
• Examples of Operant Conditioning:
o We can find examples of operant conditioning at
work all around us
o Consider the case of children completing
homework to earn a reward from a parent or
teacher, or employees finishing projects to
receive praise or promotions.
o In these examples, the promise or possibility of
rewards causes an increase in behavior, but
operant conditioning can also be used to
decrease a behavior.
o The removal of an undesirable outcome or the
use of punishment can be used to decrease or
prevent undesirable behaviors.
o For example, a child may be told they will lose
recess privileges if they talk out of turn in class.
This potential for punishment may lead to a
decrease in disruptive behaviors.

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• Components of Operant Conditioning:

Some key concepts in operant conditioning:
o Reinforcement: Is any event that strengthens or

increases the behavior it follows. There are two
kinds of reinforcers:
o Positive reinforcers: Are favorable events or
outcomes that are presented after the behavior.
In situations that reflect positive reinforcement,
a response or behavior is strengthened by the
addition of something, such as praise or a direct
reward.
o Negative reinforcers: Involve the removal of an
unfavorable events or outcomes after the
display of a behavior. In these situations, a
response is strengthened by the removal of
something considered unpleasant.
o In both of these cases of reinforcement, the
behavior increases.

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o Punishment: On the other hand, is the

presentation of an adverse event or outcome that
causes a decrease in the behavior it follows. There
are two kinds of punishment:
o Positive punishment: Sometimes referred to as

punishment by application, involves the
presentation of an unfavorable event or outcome
in order to weaken the response it follows.
o Negative punishment: also known as punishment
by removal occurs when a favorable event or
outcome is removed after a behavior occurs.
o In both of these cases of punishment, the behavior
decreases.

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LEARNING BY
OBSERVATION/IMITATION
o When we observe and imitate (i.e. copy) others

behavior, that is called learning by observation.
o The process of observing and imitating by
observation is often called modeling.
o Bandura believes that much of our learning takes
place through observation.
o We learn by watching others perform, and then
we imitate what we observe.
o The process of learning by watching others is
called observational learning, also known as social
learning.
o We learn all kinds of social behavior by observing
and imitating models.

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COGNITIVE FACTORS
CONTRIBUTING TO LEARNING

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MOTIVATION
o Motivation is the force that initiates, guides and
maintains goal-oriented behaviors.
o It is what causes us to take action, whether to grab
a snack to reduce hunger or enroll in college to
earn a degree.
o The forces that lie beneath motivation can be
biological, social, emotional or cognitive in nature.
COMPONENTS OF MOTIVATION
There are three major components to motivation:
o Activation: Activation involves the decision to

initiate a behavior, such as enrolling in a
psychology class.
o Persistence: Persistence is the continued effort

toward a goal even though obstacles may exist,
such as taking more psychology courses in order to
earn a degree although it requires a significant
investment of time, energy and resources.

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o Intensity: Intensity can be seen in the

concentration and vigor that goes into pursuing a
goal. For example, one student might coast by
without much effort, while another student will
study regularly, participate in discussions and take
advantage of research opportunities outside of
class.
CLASSIFICATION/TYPES OF MOTIVES
There are two popular types of motives:
•Primary or biological motive
•Secondary or psychosocial motive

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PRIMARY MOTIVE
o Primary motives also known as biological motives,
have a definite physiological basis and
are biologically necessary for survival of the
individual or species.
o The biological motives consist of:
o Hunger: The tendency to seek and eat food is
the hunger drive. We get hungry in many
circumstances. All of the following can make us
want to eat: the smell or sight of food, the
sound of a dinner bell, even passing our favorite
restaurant.
o Thirst: When organisms are thirsty, they have a
tendency to seek water. When they find water
and drink, they are no longer thirsty, and the
thirst drive is reduced.
o Pain: An unpleasant sensory and emotional
experience associated with actual or potential
tissue damage, or described in terms of such
damage.

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o Sex: The sex drive is considered to be biological

in nature. It is not a response to a lack of some
substance in the body and arises from any
excess of substance like hormones in the blood.
In the human beings, sexual drive is primarily is
triggered by external stimuli, and its expression
depends very much upon learning.
o Air or need for respiration: Need for air is
inborn a universally needed. Continuous supply
of air is requiring keeping one healthy and alive.
This need is fulfilled by oxygen.
o Fatigue: It is a state of awareness. It can be both
physical and mental. Mental fatigue not
necessarily includes any muscle fatigue. Such a
mental fatigue, in turn, can manifest itself either
as somnolence (decreased wakefulness) or just
as a general decrease of attention, not
necessarily including sleepiness.

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o Sleep:
Sleep is a naturally recurring state of relatively s
uspended sensory and motor activity,
characterized by total or partial unconsciousness
and the inactivity of nearly all voluntarymuscles.
In humans, other mammals, and a substantial
majority of other animals that have been
studied (such as some species of fish, birds, ants,
and fruit flies), regular sleep is essential
for survival.
o Maternal: The maternal drive or instinct refers

to the tendency for the female of the species to
perform the maternal behaviors of nesting,
feeding, sheltering and protecting their
offspring.

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SECONDARY MOTIVE
o Secondary motives are learned motives and are
sometimes known as psych sociological motives.
o They are not physiologically based.
o These are the causes of the development of a

personality.
o Secondary motives originate during our life time.

They are acquired and learned through our
interaction with people.
o They are classified in two types which are:
o Social motives
o Psychological motives

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SOCIAL MOTIVE
o Social motive are those which motivates us to go
out, interact with people and do the things that
gives a feeling of pleasure and satisfaction.
o Social motive evoke unity love sympathy love
cooperation coordination and the formation of a
leadership in a group for its existence and survival.
o Everybody loves to live according to his social
norms.
o Social Motive helps to:
o Imitate positive models
o Be a part of a group or a valued member
o Know one’s self
o Communicate

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PSYCHOLOGICAL MOTIVE
o Psychological motives are individualistic in nature.
o They are related to self-esteem, self-security, self-
exhibition, self-freedom and self-assertion.
o As psychology is the scientific study of an
individual’s behavior in relation to his
environment.
o Psychological motives are regarded very important
in the development of an individual’s behavior and
personality.
o Emotions are psychological perspectives.
o So psychological motives are very important
because our emotions motivate us to do thing.
o Psychological motives help us in many things like:
o Maintain attention to something interesting
or threatening
o Develop meaning or understanding
o Increase/decrease cognitive disequilibrium;
uncertainty.

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o Solve a problem or make a decision

o Figure something out
o Eliminate threat or risk
Secondary or psychosocial motive are important to
live a happy life and adequate satisfaction of
secondary motives is necessary for mental health to
avoid depressions etc.
Psychosocial or secondary motives contain:
o Need for affiliation: Need for affiliation is the
desire to be with others and have harmonious
and satisfying relationships.
o Need for approval: Need for approval comes
from a deeply rooted belief of not being
worthy. The very belief of unworthiness sends
out an army to search for the seal of approval.
One’s happiness and sense of being gets
trapped in the dependency on approvals.
o Need for achievement: Need for achievement
is the desire to accomplish difficult tasks and
to meet standards of excellence. A need for
achievement gives an incentive to have a
sense of accomplishment.
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o Need for security: It includes security,

stability, dependency, protection, freedom
from fear and anxiety and the need for
structure and order.
o Curiosity motive: Motive that causes the
individual to seek out a certain amount of
novelty is called as curiosity motive.
o Competence motive: Competence is "the
ability to interact effectively with the
environment. Competence Motives serve to
enhance the abilities of the organism, rather
than to regulate a biological process.
o Power motive: Power is a measure of an
entity's ability to control the environment
around itself, including the behavior of other
entities. The term authority is often used for
power, perceived as legitimate by the social
structure.

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o Aggression motive: Aggression refers to

behavior between members of the same
species that is intended to cause pain or harm.
Aggression takes a variety of forms among
humans and can be physical, mental, or
verbal.
o Self-actualization: Self-actualization is the
motive to realize all of one's potentialities.
OR
The desire to become more and more what
one is, to become everything that one is
capable of becoming
OR
What a man can be, he must be. This need we
may call self-actualization.

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THEORIES OF MOTIVATION

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Instinct Theory Of Motivation

o William McDougall (1908)
o According to instinct theory, people are motivated
to behave in certain ways because they are
evolutionarily programmed to do so.
o An example of this in the animal world is seasonal
migration. These animals do not learn to do this; it
is instead an inborn pattern of behavior.
o William McDougall created a list of human
instincts that included such things as attachment,
play, shame, anger, fear, shyness, modesty and
love.
o The main problem with this theory is that it did not
really explain behavior, it just described it.
o By the 1920s, instinct theories were pushed aside
in favor of other motivational theories, but
contemporary evolutionary psychologists still
study the influence of genetics and heredity on
human behavior.

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Drive Reduction Theory Of Motivation

o Clark Hull (1943, 1952)
o According to Hull, humans have internal biological
needs which motivate us to perform a certain way.
o These needs, or drives, are defined by Hull as
internal states of arousal or tension which must be
reduced.
o A prime example would be the internal feelings of
hunger or thirst, which motivates us to eat.
o According to this theory, we are driven to reduce
these drives so that we may maintain a sense of
internal calmness.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
Arousal Theory Of Motivation
o The arousal theory of motivation suggests that

people take certain actions to either decrease or
increase levels of arousal.
o When arousal levels get too low, for example, a
person might watch and exciting movie or go for a
jog.
o When arousal levels get too high, on the other
hand, a person would probably look for ways to
relax such as meditating or reading a book.
o According to this theory, we are motivated to
maintain an optimal level of arousal, although this
level can vary based on the individual or the
situation.
o Similar to Hull's Drive Reduction Theory, Arousal

theory states that we are driven to maintain a
certain level of arousal in order to feel
comfortable.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
Incentive Theory Of Motivation

o The incentive theory suggests that people are
motivated to do things because of external
rewards.
o For example, you might be motivated to go to
work each day for the monetary reward of being
paid.
o Behavior is goal directed.
o Behavioral learning concepts such as association
and reinforcement play an important role in this
theory of motivation.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
Humanistic Theory Of Motivation

o Humanistic theories of motivation are based on
the idea that people also have strong cognitive
reasons to perform various actions.
o This is famously illustrated in Abraham Maslow's
hierarchy of needs, which presents different
motivations at different levels.
o First, people are motivated to fulfill basic biological
needs for food and shelter, as well as those of
safety, love and esteem. Once the lower level
needs have been met, the primary motivator
becomes the need for self-actualization, or the
desire to fulfill one's individual potential.
o The best way to describe this theory is to utilize
the famous pyramid developed by Abraham
Maslow (1970) called the Hierarchy of Needs.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy Of

Needs
o Maslow believed that humans have specific needs
that must be met and that if lower level needs go
unmet, we cannot possible strive for higher level
needs.
o The Hierarchy of Needs shows that at the lower
level, we must focus on basic issues such as food,
sleep, and safety. Without food, without sleep,
how could we possible focus on the higher level
needs such as respect, education, and recognition?
o Throughout our lives, we work toward achieving
the top of the pyramid, self-actualization, or the
realization of all of our potential.
o As we move up the pyramid, however, things get
in the way which slow us down and often knock us
backward. Imagine working toward the respect
and recognition of your colleagues and suddenly
finding yourself out of work and homeless.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
o Suddenly, you are forced backward and can no

longer focus your attention on your work due to
the need for finding food and shelter for you and
your family.
o According to Maslow, nobody has ever reached
the peak of his pyramid.
o We all may strive for it and some may even get
close, but no one has achieved full self-
actualization.
o Self-actualization means a complete
understanding of who you are, a sense of
completeness, of being the best person you could
possibly be.
o To have achieved this goal is to stop living, for
what is there to strive for if you have learned
everything about yourself, if you have experienced
all that you can, and if there is no way left for you
to grow emotionally, intellectually, or spiritually.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
Abraham Maslow’s Hierarchy Of

Needs

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
PERSONALITY
WHAT IS PERSONALITY?
o “Personality is the entire mental organization of a

human being at any stage of his development. It
embraces every phase of human character:
intellect, temperament, skill, morality, and every
attitude that has been built up in the course of
one's life." (Warren & Carmichael, 1930)
o "Personality is the essence of a human being." (Hall

& Lindsey, 1957)
o "An individual's pattern of psychological processes

arising from motives, feelings, thoughts, and other
major areas of psychological function. Personality is
expressed through its influences on the body, in
conscious mental life, and through the individual's
social behavior."(Mayer, 2005)

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
STAGES OF PERSONALITY
Erikson's Stages of Psychosocial Development
Stage Basic Conflict Important Outcome
Events
Infancy (birth Trust vs. Feeding Children develop a sense of trust when caregivers provide
to 18 months) Mistrust reliability, care, and affection. A lack of this will lead to
mistrust.
Early Autonomy vs. Toilet Children need to develop a sense of personal control over
Childhood (2 to Shame and Training physical skills and a sense of independence. Success leads
3 years) Doubt to feelings of autonomy, failure results in feelings of
shame and doubt.
Preschool (3 to Initiative vs. Exploration Children need to begin asserting control and power over
5 years) Guilt the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of
purpose. Children who try to exert too much power
experience disapproval, resulting in a sense of guilt.
School Age (6 Industry vs. School Children need to cope with new social and academic
to 11 years) Inferiority demands. Success leads to a sense of competence, while
failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Adolescence (12 Identity vs. Social Teens need to develop a sense of self and personal
to 18 years) Role Confusion Relationships identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to
yourself, while failure leads to role confusion and a weak
sense of self.
Young Intimacy vs. Relationships Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships
Adulthood (19 Isolation with other people. Success leads to strong relationships,
to 40 years) while failure results in loneliness and isolation.
Middle Generativity Work and Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast
Adulthood (40 vs. Stagnation Parenthood them, often by having children or creating a positive
to 65 years) change that benefits other people. Success leads to
feelings of usefulness and accomplishment, while failure
results in shallow involvement in the world.
Maturity(65 to Ego Integrity Reflection on Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of
death) vs. Despair Life fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of
wisdom, while failure results in regret, bitterness, and
despair.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
TESTING ACCORDING TO
PERSONALITY
o A personality test is a questionnaire or other
standardized instrument designed to reveal
aspects of an individual's character or
psychological makeup.
o The first personality tests were developed in the
early 20th century and were intended to ease the
process of personnel selection, particularly in the
armed forces.
o Since these early efforts, a wide variety of
personality tests have been developed, notably
the Myers Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), the MMPI,
and a number of tests based on the Five Factor
Model of personality.
o Today, personality tests are used in a range of
contexts, including individual and relationship
counseling, career planning, and employee
selection and development.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
Myers Briggs Type Indicator

(M.B.T.I)
The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) assessment is a
psychometric questionnaire designed to measure
psychological preferences in how people perceive the
world and make decisions.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
MEMORY
o Memory is the mental capacity to store, recall or

recognize the events that were previously
experienced.
o Memory refers to the processes that are used to
acquire, store, retain and later retrieve
information.
There are three major processes involved in memory:
o Encoding: In order to form new memories,
information must be changed into a usable form,
which occurs through the process known as
encoding.
o Storage: Once information has been successfully
encoded, it must be stored in memory for later
use. Much of this stored memory lies outside of
our awareness most of the time, except when we
actually need to use it.
o Retrieval: The retrieval process allows us to bring
stored memories into conscious awareness.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
The Stage Model of Memory
o While several different models of memory have

been proposed, the stage model of memory is
often used to explain the basic structure and
function of memory.
o Initially proposed in 1968 by Atkinson and Shiffrin.
This theory outlines three separate stages of memory:
o Sensory memory.
o Short-term memory.
o Long-term memory.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
Sensory Memory
o Sensory memory is the earliest stage of memory.
o During this stage, sensory information from the
environment is stored for a very brief period of
time, generally for no longer than a half-second for
visual information and 3 or 4 seconds for auditory
information.
o We attend to only certain aspects of this sensory
memory, allowing some of this information to pass
into the next stage - short-term memory.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
Short-Term Memory
o Short-term memory, also known as active

memory, is the information we are currently
aware of or thinking about.
o In Freudian psychology, this memory would be

referred to as the conscious mind.
o Paying attention to sensory memories generates

the information in short-term memory.
o Most of the information stored in active memory

will be kept for approximately 20 to 30 seconds.
o While many of our short-term memories are

quickly forgotten.
o Attending to this information allows it to continue

on the next stage - long-term memory.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
Long-Term Memory
o Long-term memory refers to the continuing
storage of information.
o In Freudian psychology, long-term memory would
be call the preconscious and unconscious.
o This information is largely outside of our
awareness, but can be called into working memory
to be used when needed.
o Some of this information is fairly easy to recall,
while other memories are much more difficult to
access.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
NON-SENSE SYLLABLES
o A nonsense syllable is a word-like string of letters

that is not intended to have any established
meaning.
o It is a special case of a non-lexical vocable.
Nonsense syllables have been extensively used in
experimental psychology, especially the
psychology of learning and memory.
o Nonsense syllables were first introduced by
Hermann Ebbinghaus in his experiments on the
learning of lists.
o His intention was that they would form a standard
stimulus so that experiments would be
reproducible.

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
CHUNK
MENTAL HEALTH PROBLEM AT WORK

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
PERSPECTIVES ON INTERVENTION

HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY
INTERVENTIONS FOR IMPROVING

PERSONAL CONTROL

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HS-105 PSYCHOLOGY

• The mental characteristics or attitude of a

• Psychology is the science of the mind and

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SUBJECT MATTER OF PSYCHOLOGY

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• PLATO – (427-347 BC)

• ARISTOTLE – (384-322 BC)

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o How does the “soul/mind” give rise to

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o When psychology was first established as a science

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The following are some of the major schools of

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o Behaviorism became a dominant school of

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o Psychoanalysis is a school of psychology

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o Humanistic psychology developed as a response

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o Gestalt psychology is a school of psychology

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o Cognitive psychology is the school of psychology

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RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY

o A wide range of research methods are used in

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There are three main types of psychological research:

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• Longitudinal study: Subjects are studied at

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The domain of psychology has, in course of time,

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Whatever the area of psychology it is, the ultimate

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IMPORTANCE OF PSYCHOLOGY FOR

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The nervous system is broken down into two

1. The Central Nervous System:

The peripheral nervous system further divides into

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THE AUTONOMIC NERVOUS SYSTEM

1. The Sympathetic Nervous System which

2. The Parasympathetic Nervous System which

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o Normally there is a balance kept between the

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o Learning is defined as a relatively permanent

o Learning is not observed directly, but is inferred

o Learning occurs when we demonstrate new

o Swimming, driving, dancing etc.

o Learning is apparent from improvements in our

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