U.S.

Civilization CM (L3)
Flashcards
General context: America at Mid-century (1945-1960)
When veterans returned after WWII, the GI Bill was implemented in 1944 to improve
their reintegration into society. The economy recovered and there was a baby boom, as well as
increasing suburbanization. However, there was an inequality in benefits for minorities.
Concerning domestic politics in the Cold War Era, Harry S. Truman was elected again in 1948
and affected post-war liberalism. His Fair Deal meant to support healthcare and so forth, but it
was a failure and his ratings fell due to this and his sending of troops to Korea in 1950.
Eisenhower was elected in 1952, who decreased federal spending yet was still liberal towards
humans. After Sputnik, Americans feared they were being left behind scientifically so
Eisenhower implemented the National Defence Education Act. There was a growth of the
military-industrial complex. Due to the Cold War, anticommunism rose and the Red Scare,
spearheaded by McCarthy, inflated. There was also a rising struggle for civil rights. The middle
class grew and dominated American culture and economy. Gender roles were very prominent
in the 1950s, although women began entering the work force. Subcultures sprang up among the
youths, as well as a wave of counterculture against the middle-class norms. The middle-class
nation had limits, such as criticism of conformity, environmental degradation, continuing
racism and persisting poverty.

CHAPTER 1: The Vietnam War

- Gradual involvement of the U.S. in the conflict

• From 1863 until 1953, Indochina controlled by France. (strong involve. btw 1953-
1954)
o Indochina was composed of Cambodia, Laos, Malaysia, Thailand and
Vietnam.
• Since 1946, communist movement for independence led by president Hô Chi Minh
named Viet Minh.
• In 1953, 13.000 French troops vs. 15.000 Viet Minh soldiers supported by
communist China.
• Victory of Viet Minh with the battle of Dien Bien Phu (13 March-7 May 1954).
• July 1954: Geneva accords, temporary division: Hô’s gvt confined to the North
(communist) and Bào Dai’s to the South (under French and US influence).
• U.S. want to prevent communist expansion. They named a catholic nationalist
governor Ngo Dinh Diem.
• President Eisenhower (1953-1961) is a Republican. He was more in favour of
democratic, diplomatic actions, as well as nuclear threats, and wanted to avoid
conflict because wars are expensive.
o The country was seen as a peacemaker for a while.
• JFK’s policy raised U.S. armament, sent more troops in South Viet. (+$6 billion to
the army).
• Launched herbicide crop destruction to starve the Viet-cong out of hiding.
• By 1963: more than 16.000 military advisers were in South Vietnam.
• At the same time, rise of opposition to Diem’s repressive catholic regime.
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Eventually, the U.S encouraged South Vietnamese generals to remove Diem. The coup led
against him was approved by JFK and this assassination resulted in the end of the U.S.-
Diem alliance and the collapse of his regime as well as the first Republic of Vietnam.

- Full-scale intervention 1964-1968

• In early August 1964, U.S. destroyers reported coming under attack twice (Maddox
+ Turner Joy) from North Vietnamese patrol boats in the Gulf of Tonkin.
• Johnson ordered air strikes against North Vietnam’s patrol boat bases and oil depot.
• The Tolkin Gulf Resolution (1964) gave the president the authority to “take all
necessary measures to repel any armed attack against the forces of further
aggression”.
• Johnson was seen as a strong diplomat.
• February 1965: Operation Rolling Thunder in response to Viet-cong attack on U.S.
installations in the South. It lasted until October 1968.
• North Vietnamese response was more infiltration in U.S. territory, meanwhile coups
and countercoups in Saigon undermined U.S. efforts.
• July 1965: Johnson convened a series of high-level discussions about U.S. policy;
deliberations confirmed America’s commitment. (troops increased+ bombing)
• The goals were:
o Control North Vietnam advance
o Bloc Hô Chi Minh Trail along the border
o Put pressure on N. V., especially Hanoi
o Boost Southerners’ morale
o Protect America Air bases

At this point, it was no longer possible for the U.S to withdraw because too many forces
were involved, making it a matter of credibility. They “had” to maintain their status as first
military force in the world.

• Period of intense war lasted about 5 years. The U.S. did not manage to get rid of the
Viet-cong guerrilla.
• January 30, 1968: the Tet Offensive
o Viet-cong and North Viet. forces struck South Vietnam.
• The war became more and more unpopular. It could not be won; Johnson’s
presidency was destructed.
• March 31, 1968: television address announcing a halt to most of the bombing, asked
Hanoi to negotiate, president withdraw from presidential race.
o His presidency had become a war casualty.
• In 1968, Nixon and his vice pres. Kissinger made a plan to end the war without
totally leaving the country. “end the war and win the peace.”
• 1st step to withdrawal was reduction of troops and Vietnamization.
• To pressure Viet-cong to sign peace treaty, U.S. intensified bombing in N.V, as well
as in supply depots in Cambodia.
• Secret bombing in neutral Cambodia started March 1969 and lasted 14 months.
(illegal and unconstitutional)

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 • April 1970: S.V. and U.S. forces invaded Cambodia because N.V. refused to buckle.
• Nixon publicly announced that he would not allow “the world’s most powerful
nation” to act “like a pitiful, helpless giant.”
• Anti-war movement emerged.
o May 4: Kent State University, Ohio
o Same month: Jackson State University, Mississippi
• Summer 1969: peace negotiations between Kissinger and Le Duc Tho, but no
solution was found.
• January 27, 1973: cease-fire agreement signed. Nixon compelled Thieu to accept by
threatening to cut off U.S. aid.
• Truce: removal of U.S. troops within 60 days, N.V troops can stay in South,
coalition gvt would be formed in the South.
• Aftermath: April 29, 1975, the S.V. gvt collapsed; Vietnam reunified under a
communist government in Hanoi.

CHAPTER 2: The cultural revolution

- The first impetus: The Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)

• In 1962, the founding members of the SDS drafted their “Port Huron Statement”,
condemning racism, poverty in the midst of plenty, and the Cold War.
• This “New Left” rejected liberalism. Called for “participatory democracy”, seeking
to wrest power from corporations, the military, and politicians, and return it to “the
people”.
• They strongly criticized their society and denounced paradoxes.
• Nixon’s gvt presented the students as too young and inexperienced which revolted
them even more.
• Believed in a democratic alternative and wanted people to have the control of their
own destiny.
• Going to uni was a way for upper and middle classes students to not be sent to war.
• They challenged traditional values, lifestyle and conveyed a message of peace, love
and the end of wars.
• Building of a counter-culture: youth movement that promoted drugs, free love, and
an alternative way of life opposing what it saw as the materialism and conformity of
American mainstream society.

- The main aspects of cultural revolution

• Fall of 1964: beginning of 2 months turmoil on campuses with regular police

intervention.
• Faculty members soon joined the movement.
• Students asked to be part of the decision-making process in their unis.
• Protested against the doctrine of loco parentis (uni legally “in the place of parents”)
• March 1965: students protested, gave speeches, organized by SDS.
• October 1967: 100.000 of them protested in front of the White House, against the
Vietnam War.
• March 31st,1968: end of the war. Personal victory for students.

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 • Until 1964, all protests were rather peaceful gatherings.
• Only 4 Black political organizations, the “Big Four”
o SNCC (1960-1976)
o NAACP (1909-today)
o SCLC (1957-today)
o CORE (1942-today)
• Black community became more frustrated, especially since 1964 Civil Rights Act.
• In 1965, Malcolm X was murdered by members of the Nation of Islam who felt
betrayed when he started his own, more racially tolerant organization.
• A year later, this event was turned into a symbol of black defiance and self-respect.
• Carmichael (SNCC chairman) denounced “the betrayal of black dreams by white
AmericaI”. The movement became more radical.
• Following year, the Black Panther Party was created in Oakland, CA.
• Other ethnic groups had demands and organized actions in order to get
representation and rights.
• The Ethnic Heritage Studies Act (1973) was introduced in Congress, to improve
opportunity in schools to study cultural heritages of various ethnic groups in the U.S
• Creation of the Food and Drug Administration (1906).
• In early 60s, very few women worked. After the war they got sent back home.
• In 1963, the popularity of Betty Friedan’s The Feminine Mystique signalled fuel for
a revived women’s movement.
• 1963: Equal Pay Act.
• 1973: legalization of abortion.

- The end of the Vietnam War

• More people joined the cultural revolution.

• April 4th 1968: assassination of Dr Martin Luther King.
• Increase of the opposition towards Nixon’s administration due to bombings in V.
• He didn’t take into account the protests and said that he was supported by the “silent
majority”.
• The Pentagon Paper case refers to a study of 7.000 classified docs (supposed to be
kept secret) on Am. policy from WWII to V.W.
• June 1971: publication in the N.Y. Times by former Pentagon employee Daniel
Ellsbergs.
• Nixon tried to sue but Supreme Court (June 30) allowed further publication because
of constitutional guarantees of a free press.
• The Watergate affair is a series of scandals involving the administration of Nixon.
• On June 17, 1972, the police apprehended five men attempting to break into and
wiretape Democratic Party offices. Spy to help re-elect Nixon.
• In August, Nixon denied being linked to them, but his image was already
deteriorated.
• Yet he was re-elected in November 1972.
• In January 1973, seven men were trialled: 5 of them pled guilty for conspiracy,
burglary and illegal wiretapping, but remained silent about Nixon’s involvement.
• Senate decided to investigate and it became clear that Nixon bought the 5 burglars’
silence.

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 • In May, the U.S. Senate Watergate Committee began court hearings led by
Archibald Cox. John Dean.
• After a year, three articles of impeachment were drafted: obstruction of justice,
abuse of power and contempt of Congress.
• Nixon resigned on August 9th 1974 and avoided his trial.
• Huge mistrust continued because of scandals, the war, etc.
• Oil crisis in 1973, 1974 and 1975 contributed to this atmosphere of mistrust.

Chapter 3: The U.S. and the world in the 1970s.

In the late 60s and early 70s, the U.S.’ position in the world was in decline. The presidential
power was also in decline and was restricted by Congress.
- The U.S. and the world in the 1970s.

• Peace with Vietnam signed on January 29, 1973.

• President Gerald Ford asked $1.4 million in military aid, Congress agreed to half the
amount. Bad news because it was not enough to help Viet-cong.
• End 1974: North Vietnam attacks intensified.
• April 1975: North Vietnam invaded Saigon.
• Vietnam became Communist. (cf. chap1)
• No troubles in home policies at the time.
• China was Communist in the 60s.
• U.S. did not recognize Asian countries, except Taiwan.
• The U.S. sought improved relations with China, and took dramatic steps to end two
decades of Sino-American hostility.
• Summer 1971: Kissinger sent on a secret visit to Red China in order to prepare for
the presidential visit a year later.
• During this trip, Chinese leader and Nixon disagreed on many things but one: the
Soviet Union should not be permitted to make gains in Asia.
• Sino-American relations improved slightly, and official diplomatic recognition
came in 1979.
• New trade relations and a liaison office, relaxed trade embargo against China. A
diplomatic recess and success.
• 1967: Israel invaded neighbouring Arab countries: Egypt, Syria, Jordan and the city
of Jerusalem.
• They allied and were supported by the U.S.S.R.
• 1973: Egypt fought back Israel.
• The U.S. wanted to stay neutral but end up acting for “mediation”.
• Kissinger wanted to stop Israel but the country did not care.
• U.S.S.R. threatened to intervene military (nuclear threat), to what the U.S.
responded the same thing.
• March 1974: ceasefire. Israel agreed to partially withdraw if Egypt signed a non-
aggression treaty.
• U.S. replaces U.S.S.R. as mediator bc of home problems (in U.S.S.R.).
• November 1977: Anwar al-Sadat (Egy pres) went to Jerusalem to discuss. Real
peace process began.
• March 1979: Khmer Rouge seized an Am. freighter.

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 • Panama: Carter signed two treaties in 1977.
o Return of the Canal Zone to Panama in 2000.
o Guaranteed U.S. the right to defend it after that time.
• May 1972: talks between States and Union.
o SALT I, ICBM, ABMs
• 1973: Brezhnev visits the U.S.
• 1979: SALT II
• January 1979: end of the rapprochement and non-aggression treaties regarding the
Cold War.
• Cold War resumed bc of the Afghan situation.
o 1978: revolution put communist regime in power, supported by U.S.S.R.
• U.S.S.R. invaded Kabul.
• Withdrawal of SALT II. (U.S.S.R. boycott)
• U.S. support of Iran (dictatorship).
• In 1979, the shah was forced to leave office and Islamic revolutionaries put
Ayatollah Khomeini in power.
• In November, w/ the exiled shah in the U.S., mobs stormed the U.S. embassy of
Teheran. Iran Hostage Crisis.
• Carter isolated Iran economically to try get hostages back.
• In April 1980, diplomatic relations were broken and rescue mission was ordered.
• Not freed until January 1981.

- Domestic impacts of the U.S. international relations in the 1970s.

• In response to the Israeli-Arab conflict, Arab countries used oil as a tool against the
West and Israel.
• In October 1973: the Arab members if the OPEC imposed an embargo on oil
shipments on the U.S. and other Israeli allies, as well as a price hike, in retaliation
against U.S. support of Israel in the two-week-old Yom Kippur War.
• In December 1973, the 5 Arab countries, joined by Iran, raised prices again, almost
a fourfold increase from early October.
• At the time, 1/3 of U.S.’ oil supplies were imported from OPEC.
• Worldwide oil shortage.
• U.S. subsidized oil importation and underwent periodic recession.
• Kissinger arranged a ceasefire, but OPEC didn’t lift the embargo until March 1974.
• In 1979: end of the Iran’s oil production due to Iranian revolution.
o Temporary stop of oil exports
o Price increase from OPEC countries.
• Did not last long (2nd crisis).
• Harsh: growing inflation, shorter money supplies, higher interest rates.
• Recession.
Some international affairs were “rightly” handled by the U.S. (Panama, China), but at the
end of the decade, there was a trend of reversal (OPEC in control). 1980s were a call for
change.

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Chapter 4: Republicans in power (1980-1992)
After Carter’s term, will of change but voted for a Republican pres.: Ronald Reagan. They
wanted U.S.’ strength and power back and boost the economy.
- Reagan’s domestic policies.

• In the early 1980s, the U.S. economy was faltering.

• Instead of focusing on the global issue, Reagan argued that the root of the problem
was the gvt itself.
• He and his staff sought a massive tax cut, arguing that Am. corporations and
individuals would invest.
• Decentralization.
• The pres. mainly relied on free-market and hands-off policies.
• Policy not working well, big part of the pop. did not benefit of the economic growth
and gvt spending increased again.
• Increase of the defence budget: Star War Program.
• Larger federal budget deficit: from $207 billion in 1983, to $255 billion in 1988.
• Trade deficit from $31 billion in 1981 to $171 billion in 1988. Devaluation of the
dollar in 1985.
• More foreign investments, less Am. investments abroad.
• Led to economic inflation and decline of Reagan’s popularity.

- Reagan’s foreign policies.

• In the 1980’s, USA still anti-communist and Reagan was strongly opposed to
previous foreign policies.
• 1983: announced his desire for a space-based defence shield SDI
• 1986: meeting between Reagan and Gorbachev. Came close to a major reduction
agreement but SDI stood in the way.
• 1987: signed the INF, banning all land-based intermediate-range nuclear missiles in
Europe.
• Cold War coming to an end.
• 1989: fall of the Berlin Wall
• 1979 Camp David accords raised hopes of lasting settlement involving self-gvt for
the Palestinian Arabs living under the Israeli-occupied Gaza strip and West Bank.
• Reagan thought he could create a safe independent territory, but Israel and PLO
remained at odds.
• June 1982: Israeli troops invaded Lebanon. Reagan sent Marines to Lebanon.
• February 1984: U.S withdrawal. Failure for foreign diplomacy.
• 1979: Reagan’s administration meddled in the Nicaraguan Civil War.
• Nicaragua seen as a ‘Soviet client’ because they bought Soviet weapons.
• 1981: CIA began to train and direct more than ten thousand counterrevolutionaries
(contras) to overthrow the Nicaraguan government.
• 1984: Congress voted to stop U.S. military aid to the contras (didn’t want another
Vietnam)
• Reagan admin secretly bypassed Congress and in 1985 he imposed an economic
embargo against Nicaragua.

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 • Rejection of plan from Costa Rican president in 1987 to obtain ceasefire in Central
America.
• Reagan left office 3 years later and after a decade of civil war, Nicaragua was one of
the poorest countries in the hemisphere.
• Provided military and economic assistance to El Salvador.
• By the late 1980s, more than $6 billion sent in a counter-insurgency war.
• January 1992: U.N.-sponsored peace treaty signed by right-wing gvt and opposition.
• Since 1979, concern on the situation in Grenada because of the development of
close relationship with Cuba.
• 1983: assassination of Bishop (in power) and another Marxist, Coard, took control
which led to violence.
• To establish order, Reagan sent a total of 8.000 troops. Faced opposition.
• After a gradual withdrawal of peacekeeping forces, a centrist coalition won a
parliamentary majority in 1984.
• In November 1986 some people in Reagan’s administration sold weapons to Iran in
an attempt to win the release of American hostages by Islamic fundamentalist
groups in the Middle East.
• At the same time, Washington condemned Iran as a terrorist nation and demanded
that allies cease trade there.
• The whole operation to save the hostages was illegal and trade papers were
destroyed to keep the operation clandestine.
• 1987: disarmament talks resumed with the USSR.
• Soviet Union more open to foreign relations.
• August 1988: end of the Iran-Iraq War after 8 years.
• USSR ended the war and withdrew from Afghanistan.

- George H. W. Bush’s domestic accomplishments.

• Bush decided to deregulate American retirement plans.

• More private investments, higher taxes, higher national debt.
• Failure because of corruption, companies collapsed and debt tripled.
• Huge social crisis, spread of HIV…
• September 5th 1989: speech to declare the escalation of the War on Drugs.
• September 1987: U.S senate passed resolution urging Panama to re-establish a
civilian gvt, as Panama protests alleged U.S violation of the Torrijos-Carter Treaties
• February 1988: Noriega is indicted on drug related charges and a month later U.S
forces begin planning operations and providing additional security to their Panama
instalments. Noriega was still on the U.S.’s side several times.
• 1988: Noriega was indicted in a U.S. federal court on drug-trafficking charges and
accused by his country of rigging the 1989 elections.
• Mid-December 1989: Bush launched an invasion. Noriega sought refuge in Vatican
and surrendered January 3d 1990.
• U.S. occupation in Panama ended in January 1994.
• August 2nd: Operation Desert Shield launched.
• 29th November 1990: U.N. passed Resolution 678 which gave Iraq until January 15,
1991 to withdraw from Kuwait.

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 •1 day after the deadline massive air campaign called Operation Desert Strom is
launched. Priority to destroy Iraq’s Air Force and anti-aircraft facilities.
• Highway of Death: main Iraq-Kuwait highway which was bombed.
• February 28,1991: Bush declared ceasefire and Kuwait was liberated.
• Iraq accepted ceasefire agreement in April.
Foreign interventions resulted in U.S. victories but there were no improvements for their
home issues.

Chapter 5: A democrat in power -Clinton (1993-2001)

- Social Strains and New Political Directions (Clinton’s Presidency: 1993-2001)

• 1992: racial tensions in the South-Central neighbourhood of L.A. Almost 1/3 of the
S.-C. residents lived in poverty.
• Increase of social tensions after a new wave of migration in the neighbourhood.
• Bush vulnerable during the 1992 elections because the U.S. economy suffered.
• Clinton won the election.
• Clinton is a ‘New Democrat’. Emphasized private sector development.
• September 1994: 300 Republicans endorsed the ‘Contract of America’. It promised
the end of the ‘Republican Revolution’.
• Winter 1995-1996: government forced to suspend all non-essential action due to
internal conflict.
• Clinton re-elected in 1996.
• He made life easier for American families with the Family and Medical leave Act.
• Report with grounds of impeachment against Clinton after scandal by political right.
• April 19, 1995: 170 people killed by a bomb placed by a white American veteran
who was part of a religious sect, which led to the discovery of the existence of
extreme right politics.

- Clinton and foreign issues.

• The demise of the Soviet Union had created a one-superpower world.

• Clinton was deeply suspicious of foreign military involvement.
• Growing importance of humanitarianism.
• Administration officials argued for using U.S.’s power to contain ethnic hatred,
support human rights, and promote democracy worldwide.
• Balkan Crisis: series of ethnic wars.
• In late 1995: U.S. diplomats brokered a fragile peace.
• Conflict did not stop and Clinton was forced to intervene until 1999.
• In the Middle-East, Clinton tried to bring the PLO and Israel together to settle their
differences.
• In 1993: agreement of self-ruled reached, but radical Palestinians still continued
terrorist attacks.
• Early 1997: Israel agree to withdraw its forces.
• Urged to sign the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, but never submitted it for ratification due to
opposition.
• Concerns about the rise of Al Qaeda.

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 - Globalization and prosperity.

• 1990s: period of peace and prosperity.

• Advent of IT had a big impact on the economy.
• Clinton administration focused on reducing the budget deficit. It was a success.
• Boom of globalization.
• 1993: North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) with Canada and Mexico.
• 1994: concluded the Uruguay Round of the General Agreement on Tariffs and
Trade (GATT).
• 1995: endorsed the creation of the World Trade Organization (WTO).
• Creation of the “New International division of Labour” by many multinational
companies.
• Average real wages for U.S. workers declined steadily after 1973.
• Fall 1999: anti-globalization fervour reached a peak.
• From 1996 (for 6 years): protests all over the world against big corporations,
especially McDonald’s.
• Many believed that 2000 presidency candidate Al Gore should have won, but votes
in Florida tempered with. Bush was re-elected.

Chapter 6: Bush and World Terrorism (2001-2010)

- 9/11

• Bush withdrew the U.S. from the 1972 Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with Russia to
develop a National Missile Defence System.
• September 11, 2001: World Trade Centre and Pentagon were attacked.
• Quick response from Bush with large-scale military force, gearing up to attack
Afghanistan, where Al Qaeda was.
• October: U.S. launched a bombing campaign. It was a success but terrorist threats
were not over.
• October 26, 2001: Patriot Act passed. Makes it easier for law enforcement to
conduct searches, wiretap telephones and obtain electronic records on individuals.
• Before 9/11: dot-com businesses collapsed.
• Slow economic growth.
• After 9/11: stock prices plummeted.
• Other countries stood by the U.S. after 9/11.
• Attitudes changed after a year. Bush’ radical response was unveiled.
• Iraq was implicated in the war against terrorism, despite no connection with AL
Qaeda.

- The War in Iraq

• 2002: Bush challenged the U.N. to enforce its resolutions against Iraq, or the U.S.
would act on its own.
• Said Saddam Hussein was a major threat for the U.S. and its allies.
• Also wanted to reshape Iraq on the U.S.’ image and prevent it from being armed.
• U.N. Security Council eventually approved a less radical version of the Resolution.

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 • New rigorous arms inspections imposed on Iraq, although in 2003 this was not
properly enforced.
• U.S. and Britain sent troop to Iraq.
• After attempting to impose an ultimatum on Iraq, Bush ordered Hussein to leave or
face war.
• March 17: U.S. and Britain launched an attack.
• April 9: fall of Baghdad.
• Rise of anti-war sentiment.
• Re-election of Bush in 2004.
• The war with Iraq was still unsolved when Bush left office.

- Domestic Politics in post-9/11 America.

• Bush focused on the “global war on terrorism” and achieved the largest tax cut in
U.S. history.
• Advocated economic deregulation.
• Tried to privatise the Social Security System.
• Increased federal involvement in education with “No Child Left Behind”.
• After hurricane Katrina in 2005, people realized that poverty was still linked to race.
• The ‘housing bubble’ was on the verge of bursting.
• Financial institutions began experimenting with the “subprime” mortgage.
• Collapse of financial institutions.
• Bush tried to prevent it with the Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) in
September 2008.
• Obama became president.
• He was challenged by his inheritance of two unsolved wars, a massive federal
deficit and a major recession.
• 2009: improvement if economy but still high unemployment.
• March 2010: Congress passed a healthcare bill.

- Americans in the First Decade of the New Millennium

• U.S. has now over 30 million people.

• Increase of minority groups, more diversity.
• More couples live together unmarried, having children out of wedlock.
• The median age is much higher.
• Higher life expectancy.
• Rate of obesity shot up very quickly.
• Smoking on the decline and banned from public spaces.
• The field of biogenetics is expanding.
• Environmental degradation.

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