Unit 1

The LCP were put together by the American Psychological Association. The
following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the earning
process.
The 14 principles are divided into those referring to:
– Cognitive and metacognitive
– Motivational and affective
– Developmental and social
– Individual difference factors
COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTOR
1. Nature of Learning Process
the learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an international
process of constructing meaning from information and experience.
2. Goals of the Learning Process
the successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can
create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge.
3. Construction of Knowledge
the successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in
meaningful ways.
Knowledge widens and deepens as students continue to build links between new
information and experiences and their existing knowledge base.
4. Strategic Thinking
the successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning
strategies to achieve complex learning goals.
Successful learners use in their approach to learning reasoning, problem solving,
and concept learning.
5. Thinking about thinking
Successful learners can reflect on how they think and learn, set reasonable
learning or performances goals, select potentially appropriate learning strategies
or methods, and monitor their progress towards these goals.
6. Context of Learning
Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology and
instructional practices.
MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTOR
7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning
the rich internal world of thoughts, beliefs, goals, and expectation for success or
failure can enhance or interfere with the learner’s quality of thinking and
information processing.
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn
Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty,
relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control.
9. Effects of motivation on effort
Effort is another major indicator of motivation to learn. The acquisition of
complex knowledge and skills demands the investment of considerable learner
energy and strategic effort, along with persistence over time.
DRVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTOR
10. Developmental influences on learning
learning is most effective when differential developmental within and across
physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account.
Individuals learn best when material is appropriate to their developmental level
and is presented in an enjoyable and interesting way.
11. Social influences on learning
Learning can be enhanced when the learner has an opportunity to interact and to
collaborate with others on instructional tasks.
INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTOR
12. Individual differences in learning
Individuals are born with and develop their own capabilities and talents.
Educators need to help students examine their learning preferences and expand
or modify them, if necessary.
13. Learning and diversity
the same basic principles of learning, motivation, and effective instruction apply
to all learners.
14. Standards and assessment
Assessment provides important information to both the learner and teacher at all
stages of the learning process.
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of the 14 principles and distilled them
into five areas:
1. The knowledge base
One’s knowledge serves as the foundation of all future learning.
2. Strategic processing and control
Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate their thoughts and behaviors in
order to learn more effectively.
3. Motivation and affect
Factors such as intrinsic motivation, reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals
and enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the learning process.
4. Development and Individual Differences
Learning is a unique journey for each person because each learner has his own
unique combination of genetic and environmental factors that influence him.
5. Situation or context
Learning happens in the context of a society as well as within an individual.
My reflection:
I have learned in this topic the 14 important learner-centered principle that we ca
use or apply when we are teaching. I have realized that every topic in this subject
is very important, so that we need to study hard for it for us to make our job in
the future not so hard.
As a future educator I need to apply this 14 learner-centered principle to make
my teaching strategy effective and my students will learn many things from me.

A. Definitions of Child and Adolescent Learners

1. UNESCO
Early childhood care and education

Early childhood, defined as the period from birth to eight years old, is a time of
remarkable growth with brain development at its peak. During this stage, children are highly
influenced by the environment and the people that surround them.

Early childhood care and education (ECCE) is more than preparation for primary school.
It aims at the holistic development of a child’s social, emotional, cognitive and physical needs in
order to build a solid and broad foundation for lifelong learning and wellbeing. ECCE has the
possibility to nurture caring, capable and responsible future citizens.

In this way ECCE is one of the best investments a country can make to promote human
resource development, gender equality and social cohesion, and to reduce the costs for later
remedial programmes. For disadvantaged children, ECCE plays an important role in
compensating for the disadvantages in the family and combating educational inequalities.
 UNESCO’s approach is reinforced in the Education 2030 agenda and in particular in
target 4.2 of Sustainable Development Goal 4 which aims to ‘By 2030, ensure that all girls and
boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and pre-primary education so that
they are ready for primary education.’

2. UNICEF

Adolescent development and participation

The second decade of life is a time of transformation.

During adolescence (ages 10–19), girls and boys begin to interact with the world in new
ways – taking chances, learning skills and experiencing unfamiliar emotions.

They venture beyond their families to form powerful connections with peers. They search
for ways to stand out and belong, to find their place in society and make a difference in their
world.

Today’s generation of young people is larger than ever before. But far too many are not
getting what they need to realize their full range of rights. Poverty and deprivation, gender
inequality and other forms of discrimination intersect with climate change, economic upheaval,
conflict and displacement to threaten adolescents’ well-being.

And through it all, adolescents are too often ignored by policymakers – or worse, viewed
as problems or threats.

Key facts

 There are 1.2 billion adolescents worldwide – the largest cohort ever, and the most educated and
urbanized.
 90 per cent of adolescents live in low- and middle-income countries, and 125 million live in areas
affected by armed conflict.
 Sub-Saharan Africa’s growing adolescent population, expected to reach 500 million by 2050, has
the potential to fuel powerful change – if Governments invest in and engage it.
 1 in 4 of the poorest adolescents has never attended school, and more than 200 million
adolescents of secondary school age are out of school.
 Adolescents are the only age group among whom AIDS-related deaths are not decreasing.

A window of opportunity

The rapid physical and cognitive development that marks adolescence creates a critical window
of opportunity.

The adolescent brain develops at a rate unseen since early childhood – making girls and boys
hypersensitive to influences in their environments. Adolescents’ inclination to try new things can
spark innovation and achievement, but it can also leave them vulnerable.
These are the years when gender roles may be solidified – with girls bearing the brunt of gender
inequality.

Adolescents’ prospects depend on the quality of their environments, relationships and

experiences. The care and support they receive, the services they can access, the social norms
that guide their communities, and the extent to which they can influence decisions that affect
them all make a difference.

3. WHO
Age groups and populations

The following definitions for adults, adolescents, children and infants are used to ensure
consistency within these consolidated guidelines, as well as with other WHO guidelines. It is
recognized that other agencies may use different definitions.

An adult is a person older than 19 years of age unless national law defines a person as
being an adult at an earlier age.

An adolescent is a person aged 10 to 19 years inclusive.

A child is a person 19 years or younger unless national law defines a person to be an

adult at an earlier age. However, in these guidelines when a person falls into the 10 to 19 age
category they are referred to as an adolescent (see adolescent definition).

An infant is a child younger than one year of age.

These guidelines define key populations to include both vulnerable and most-at-risk
populations. They are important to the dynamics of HIV transmission in a given setting and are
essential partners in an effective response to the epidemic. People living with HIV are considered
a key population in all epidemic contexts.

These guidelines define most-at-risk populations as men who have sex with men,
transgender people, people who inject drugs and sex workers. Most-at-risk populations are
disproportionately affected by HIV in most, if not all, epidemic contexts.

Vulnerable populations are groups of people who are particularly vulnerable to HIV
infection in certain situations or contexts, such as adolescents (particularly adolescent girls),
orphans, street children, people in closed settings (such as prisons or detention centres), people
with disabilities and migrant and mobile workers. Each country should define the specific
populations that are particularly vulnerable and key to their epidemic and response based on the
epidemiological and social context.

Serodiscordant couples are couples in which one partner is living with HIV and the other
is HIV-negative. A couple refers to two people in an ongoing sexual relationship; each of these is
referred to as a partner in the relationship. How individuals define their relationships varies
considerably according to cultural and social context.
 B. Growth and Development: Nature or Nurture?
Nature vs. Nurture
Developmental psychology seeks to understand the influence of genetics (nature) and environment
(nurture) on human development.
LEARNING OBJECTIVE

 Evaluate the reciprocal impacts between genes and the environment and the nature vs. nurture
debate

KEY POINTS

o A significant issue in developmental psychology has been the relationship between the
innateness of an attribute (whether it is part of our nature) and the environmental effects
on that attribute (whether it is derived from or influenced by our environment, or
nurture).
o Today, developmental psychologists rarely take polarized positions with regard to most
aspects of development; instead, they investigate the relationship between innate and
environmental influences.
o The biopsychosocial model states that biological, psychological, and social factors all
play a significant role in human development.
o Environmental inputs can affect the expression of genes, a relationship called gene-
environment interaction. An individual’s genes and their environment work together,
communicating back and forth to create traits.
o The diathesis–stress model serves to explore how biological or genetic traits (diatheses)
interact with environmental influences (stressors) to produce disorders, such as
depression, anxiety, or schizophrenia.

TERMS

 genotype That part (DNA sequence) of the genetic makeup of a cell, and therefore of an organism
or individual, which determines a specific characteristic (phenotype) of that
cell/organism/individual.
 heritability The ratio of the genetic variance of a population to its phenotypic variance; i.e., the
proportion of variability that is genetic in origin.
 gene A unit of heredity; a segment of DNA or RNA that is transmitted from one generation to the
next and carries genetic information such as the sequence of amino acids for a protein.
 trait An identifying characteristic, habit, or trend.
 innate Inborn; native; natural.

Developmental Psychology
Developmental psychology is the scientific study of changes that occur in human beings
over the course of their lives. This field examines change and development across a broad range
of topics, such as motor skills and other psycho-physiological
processes; cognitive development involving areas like problem solving, moral and conceptual
understanding; language acquisition; social, personality, and emotional development; and self-
concept and identity formation. Developmental psychology explores the extent to which
development is a result of gradual accumulation of knowledge or stage-like development, as well
as the extent to which children are born with innate mental structures as opposed to learning
through experience.

Nature Versus Nurture

A significant issue in developmental psychology is the relationship between the innateness of an
attribute (whether it is part of our nature) and the environmental effects on that attribute
(whether it is influenced by our environment, or nurture). This is often referred to as the nature
vs. nurture debate, or nativism vs. empiricism. 

 A nativist (“nature”) account of development would argue that the processes in question are
innate and influenced by an organism’s genes. Natural human behavior is seen as the result of
already-present biological factors, such as genetic code.
 An empiricist (“nurture”) perspective would argue that these processes are acquired through
interaction with the environment. Nurtured human behavior is seen as the result of environmental
interaction, which can provoke changes in brain structure and chemistry. For example, situations
of extreme stress can cause problems like depression.

The nature vs. nurture debate seeks to understand how our personalities and traits are
produced by our genetic makeup and biological factors, and how they are shaped by our
environment, including our parents, peers, and culture. For instance, why do biological children
sometimes act like their parents? Is it because of genetic similarity, or the result of the early
childhood environment and what children learn from their parents?
 C. Periods of Development

Prenatal Development
Conception occurs and development begins. All of the major
structures of the body are forming and the health of the
mother is of primary concern. Understanding nutrition,
teratogens (or environmental factors that can lead to birth
defects), and labor and delivery are primary concerns.

Infancy and Toddlerhood

The first year and a half to two years of life are ones of
dramatic growth and change. A newborn, with a keen sense
of hearing but very poor vision is transformed into a
walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of
time. Caregivers are also transformed from someone who
manages feeding and sleep schedules to a constantly
moving guide and safety inspector for a mobile, energetic
child.

Early Childhood

Early childhood is also referred to as the preschool years

consisting of the years which follow toddlerhood and
precede formal schooling. As a three to five-year-old, the
child is busy learning language, is gaining a sense of self
and greater independence, and is beginning to learn the
workings of the physical world. This knowledge does not
come quickly, however, and preschoolers may have
initially have interesting conceptions of size, time, space
and distance such as fearing that they may go down the
drain if they sit at the front of the bathtub or by
demonstrating how long something will take by holding
out their two index fingers several inches apart. A
toddler’s fierce determination to do something may give
way to a four-year-old’s sense of guilt for doing
something that brings the disapproval of others.

Middle Childhood
The ages of six through eleven comprise middle
childhood and much of what children experience at this
age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one
of learning and testing new academic skills and by assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments
by making comparisons between self and others. Schools compare students and make these
comparisons public through team sports, test scores, and other forms of recognition. Growth
rates slow down and children are able to refine their motor skills at this point in life. And
children begin to learn about social relationships beyond the family through interaction with
friends and fellow students.

Adolescence

Adolescence is a period of dramatic physical change

marked by an overall physical growth spurt and sexual
maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of
cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of
new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such
as love, fear, and freedom. Ironically, adolescents have
a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of
dying from accidents or contracting sexually transmitted
infections that can have lifelong consequences.

Early Adulthood

The twenties and thirties are often thought of as early

adulthood. (Students who are in their mid 30s tend to love
to hear that they are a young adult!). It is a time when
we are at our physiological peak but are most at risk for
involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse. It is a
time of focusing on the future and putting a lot of energy into
making choices that will help one earn the status of a full
adult in the eyes of others. Love and work are primary
concerns at this stage of life.

Middle Adulthood
The late thirties through the mid-sixties is referred to as middle adulthood. This is a period in
which aging, that began earlier, becomes more noticeable and a period at which many people are
at their peak of productivity in love and work. It may be a period of gaining expertise in certain
fields and being able to understand problems and find solutions with greater efficiency than
before. It can also be a time of becoming more realistic about possibilities in life previously
considered; of recognizing the difference between what is possible and what is likely. This is
also the age group hardest hit by the AIDS epidemic in Africa resulting in a substantial decrease
in the number of workers in those economies (Weitz, 2007).

Late Adulthood
This period of the life span has increased in the last 100 years,
particularly in industrialized countries. Late adulthood is
sometimes subdivided into two or three categories such as the
“young old” and “old old” or the “young old”, “old old”, and
“oldest old”. We will follow the former categorization and
make the distinction between the “young old” who are people
between 65 and 79 and the “old old” or those who are 80 and
older. One of the primary differences between these groups is
that the young old are very similar to midlife adults; still
working, still relatively healthy, and still interested in being
productive and active. The “old old” remain productive and
active and the majority continues to live independently, but
risks of the diseases of old age such as arteriosclerosis, cancer,
and cerebral vascular disease increases substantially for this
age group. Issues of housing, healthcare, and extending active
life expectancy are only a few of the topics of concern for this
age group.  A better way to appreciate the diversity of people
in late adulthood is to go beyond chronological age and examine whether a person is
experiencing optimal aging (like the gentleman pictured above who is in very good health for his age and
continues to have an active, stimulating life), normal aging (in which the changes are similar to most of
those of the same age), or impaired aging (referring to someone who has more physical challenge and
disease than others of the same age).

Death and Dying

This topic is seldom given the amount of coverage it

deserves. Of course, there is a certain discomfort in thinking
about death but there is also a certain confidence and acceptance
that can come from studying death and dying. We will be
examining the physical, psychological and social aspects of
death, exploring grief or bereavement, and addressing ways in
which helping professionals work in death and dying. And we
will discuss cultural variations in mourning, burial, and grief.
 D. Developmental Tasks and Education (Havighurst)

Havighurst’s Developmental Task Theory

About Robert J. Havighurst 

Havighurst was an American psychologist who developed his theory on Developmental

Tasks between 1948 and 1953. His work came after the work of Sigmund Freud and Jean Piaget,
but before that of Erik Erikson. Each of these psychologists also proposed stages of development
as it relates to an individual’s cognitive, sexual, or social development. If you are familiar with
these theories, you may see some similarities in Havighurst’s theory. If not, it may be useful to
learn more about them. 

Havighurst is also known for popularizing the phrase “teachable moments” in his 1952
book Human Development and Education. He says: 

“A developmental task is a task which is learned at a specific point and which makes
achievement of succeeding tasks possible. When the timing is right, the ability to learn a
particular task will be possible. This is referred to as a 'teachable moment.' It is important to keep
in mind that unless the time is right, learning will not occur. Hence, it is important to repeat
important points whenever possible so that when a student's teachable moment occurs, s/he can
benefit from the knowledge."

Developmental Task Theory 

Havighurst’s Theory defined developmental stages and tasks pertaining to each stage. Those
stages were separated by age: 

 Infancy and early childhood (0-6 years old)

 Later childhood (6–13 years old)
 Adolescence (13–18 years old)
 Early Adulthood (19–30 years old)
 Middle Age (30–60 years old)
 Later maturity (60 years old and over)

Within each stage are a list of tasks that the individual feels that they must complete. If they
complete these tasks, they will feel happy and accepted by society. Failing to complete these
tasks will make the individual unhappy and out of place in society. 
While societal rules and customs certainly influence the tasks within each stage of development,
other factors are also at play here. Havighurst also defined a list of what influences the tasks an
individual strives to complete at each stage of development: 

Social Influences (Pressures of Society)

These are the rules of society and other cultural ideas that influence an individual’s
developmental tasks. Havighurst lists “Achieving a masculine or feminine social role” multiple
times as a developmental task. That is going to look different in every culture (and will look
depending on the individual’s age.) In cultures where masculine and feminine roles are not
strictly defined, it may not be considered a task at all. As time progresses and societies change
their ideas of gender, these tasks may look different or become less important to complete. 

Psychological Influences (Personal Values)

These tasks do not just come from external forces. An individual’s personality and
interests will also influence the tasks required to develop successfully. Someone who is more
motivated by money and riches may face different developmental tasks than someone who puts
more value into personal relationships or dedicating themselves to a noble cause. Psychological
influences may also lead an individual to prioritize some developmental tasks over others. 

Biological Influences (Physical Maturation)

Biology is also at play here. Certain tasks are reserved for childhood or adulthood simply
because the body can or cannot take on those tasks. On one end of a person’s life is infancy and
early adulthood, where developmental tasks include “learning to walk.” On the other end is later
maturity, where developmental tasks include “adjusting to decreasing physical strength and
health.” 

If someone is seriously injured or develops a debilitating condition later in life, their

developmental tasks may change. 

Examples of Developmental Tasks 

All of these tasks are subject to change due to biological, psychological, and social
influences. But Havighurst provided an example list of tasks that go with each stage of life. I’m
just going to include a handful of tasks for each stage, although Havighurst listed many more in
his work. 

Developmental Tasks in the stage of Infancy and Early Childhood (0-6 years old) include:

 Learning to walk
 Learning to talk
 Toilet training
  Learning the foundations of reading 

Developmental Tasks in the stage of Middle Childhood (6-12 years old) include :

 Learning physical skills necessary for ordinary games

 Learning to get along and play with children of the same age 
 Learning an appropriate masculine or feminine social role
 Achieving personal independence 

Developmental Tasks in the stage of Adolescence (13-18 years old) include:

 Accepting one’s physical body as it goes through changes 

 Preparing for marriage and family life 
 Preparing for an economic career
 Acquiring a set of values and an ethical system as a guide to behavior; developing an ideology

Developmental Tasks in the stage of Early Adulthood (19-30 years old) include:

 Finding a marriage partner (and learning to cohabitate with them) 

 Achieving a masculine or feminine social role
 Managing a home and starting a family
 Beginning a career 
 Taking on civic responsibility 

Developmental Tasks in the stage of Middle Age (31-60 years old) include:

 Achieving adult civic and social responsibility

 Assisting teenage children to become responsible and happy adults
 Developing adult leisure-time activities
 Accepting and adjusting to the physiologic changes or middle age

Developmental Tasks in the stage of Later Maturity (61-death) include:

 Adjusting to decreasing physical strength and health

 Adjusting to retirement
 Meeting social and civil obligations

Again, these tasks may look different for every individual. Civic and social responsibility, for
example, may look different for every person, or may not be a priority at the age that Havighurst
proposes. These tasks may serve as a guideline or a jumping-off point if you are thinking about
your larger goals, but remember that they are influenced by different factors, including personal
values.

E. Domains of Development
Human development is comprised of four major domains: physical development, cognitive
development, social-emotional development, and language development. Each domain, while
unique in it's own, has much overlap with all other domains. It is important to understand these
concepts, because everything related to human development can be traced back to these four
domains.

Physical Development

Physical development is defined as the biological changes that occur in the body and
brain, including changes in size and strength, integration of sensory and motor activities, and
development of fine and gross motor skills.

Physical development in children follows a directional pattern. Muscles in the body's

core, legs and arms develop before those in the fingers and hands. Children learn how to perform
gross (or large) motor skills such as walking before they learn to perform fine (or small) motor
skills such as drawing. Muscles located at the core of the body become stronger and develop
sooner than those in the feet and hands. Physical development goes from the head to the toes. 

As kids enter the preschool years, their diets become much more similar to that of adults.
Eating a variety of foods is also important to ensure that kids get the nutrients that they need for
healthy physical development. Instead of allowing children to fill up on juice and milk, experts
recommend limiting the intake of such drinks. If a child is filling up on juice and milk, then they
are probably missing out on eating other foods.

Cognitive Development

Cognitive development is defined as the changes in the way we think, understand, and
reason about the world.

As mentioned under the Roles of the Theorists tab Jean Piaget developed great theories
regarding the cognitive development of children. Piaget's stages of cognitive development
illustrates a child's growth.
 Stages of Cognitive Development
 The Sensorimotor Stage: A period of time between birth and age two during which
an infant's knowledge of the world is limited to his or her sensory perceptions and
motor activities. Behaviors are limited to simple motor responses caused by sensory
stimuli.

 The Preoperational Stage: A period between ages two and six during which a child
learns to use language. During this stage, children do not yet understand concrete
logic, cannot mentally manipulate information and are unable to take the point of
view of other people.

 The Concrete Operational Stage: A period between ages seven and eleven during
which children gain a better understanding of mental operations. Children begin
thinking logically about concrete events, but have difficulty understanding abstract or
hypothetical concepts.

 The Formal Operational Stage: A period between age twelve to adulthood when
people develop the ability to think about abstract concepts. Skills such as logical
thought, deductive reasoning and systematic planning also emerge during this stage.

For even more information on Piaget's cognitive development theories go to the

"Roles of Theorists" tab above.

Social-emotional Development

Social-emotional development is defined as the changes in the ways we connect to other

individuals and express and understand emotions.

The core features of emotional development include the ability of a child to identify and
understand their own feelings, to accurately read and comprehend emotional states of others, to
manage strong emotions and their expression in a beneficial manner, to regulate their own
behavior, to develop empathy for others, and to establish and maintain relationships. 

Healthy social-emotional development for infants and toddlers develops in an

interpersonal context, specifically that of positive ongoing relationships with familiar and
nurturing adults. Emotion and cognition work together, informing the child’s impressions of
situations and influencing behavior.
 Children will experience a range of emotional and cognitive development related to
interactions and relationships with adults and peers, identity of self, recognition of ability,
emotional expression, emotional control, impulse control, and social understanding.

F. Context and Development

How culture influences children’s development

From educational toys to governmental guidelines and detailed nursery progress reports,
there are lots of resources available to help parents track and facilitate their children’s
development. But while there are tricks we can use to teach children to talk, count, draw or
respect others, a surprisingly big part of how they develop is determined by the culture they grow
up in.

Child development is a dynamic, interactive process. Every child is unique in interacting

with the world around them, and what they invoke and receive from others and the environment
also shapes how they think and behave. Children growing up in different cultures receive
specific inputs from their environment. For that reason, there’s a vast array of cultural
differences in children’s beliefs and behaviour.

Language is one of the many ways through which culture affects development. We know
from research on adults that languages forge how people think and reason. Moreover, the content
and focus of what people talk about in their conversations also vary across cultures. As early as
infancy, mothers from different cultures talk to their babies differently. German mothers tend to
focus on their infants’ needs, wishes or them as a person. Mothers of the African tribal group
Nso, on the other hand, focus more on social context. This can include the child’s interactions
with other people and the rules surrounding it.

This early exposure affects the way children attend to themselves or to their relationship
with others – forming their self image and identity. For example, in Western European and North
American countries, children tend to describe themselves around their unique characteristics –
such as “I am smart” or “I am good at drawing”. In Asian, African, Southern European and
South American countries, however, children describe themselves more often around their
relationship with others and social roles. Examples of this include “I am my parents’ child” or “I
am a good student”.

Because children in different cultures differ in how they think about themselves and
relate to others, they also memorise events differently. For example, when preschoolers were
asked to describe a recent special personal experience, European-American children provided
more detailed descriptions, recalled more specific events and stressed their preferences, feelings
and opinions about it more than Chinese and Korean children. The Asian children instead
focused more on the people they had met and how they related to themselves.
Cultural effects of parenting

Parents in different cultures also play an important role in moulding children’s behaviour
and thinking patterns. Typically, parents are the ones who prepare the children to interact with
wider society. Children’s interaction with their parents often acts as the archetype of how to
behave around others – learning a variety of socio-cultural rules, expectations and taboos. For
example, young children typically develop a conversational style resembling their parents’ – and
that often depends on culture.

European-American children frequently provide long, elaborative, self-focused narratives

emphasising personal preferences and autonomy. Their interaction style also tends to be
reciprocal, taking turns in talking. In contrast, Korean and Chinese children’s accounts are
usually brief, relation-oriented, and show a great concern with authority. They often take a more
passive role in the conversations. The same cultural variations in interaction are also evident
when children talk with an independent interviewer.

Cultural differences in interactions between adults and children also influence how a
child behaves socially. For instance, in Chinese culture, where parents assume much
responsibility and authority over children, parents interact with children in a more authoritative
manner and demand obedience from their children. Children growing up in such environments
are more likely to comply with their parents’ requests, even when they are reluctant to do so.

By contrast, Chinese immigrant children growing up in England behave more similarly to

English children, who are less likely to follow parental demands if unwilling.

G. Development and Pedagogy: Theory and Research

1. Theories and hypotheses

A hypothesis is either a suggested explanation for an observable phenomenon, or a

reasoned prediction of a possible causal correlation among multiple phenomena. In science, a
theory is a tested, well-substantiated, unifying explanation for a set of verified, proven factors. A
theory is always backed by evidence; a hypothesis is only a suggested possible outcome, and is
testable and falsifiable.

Comparison chart
Hypothesis versus Theory comparison chart

Hypothesis Theory

A suggested explanation for an

In science, a theory is a well-substantiated,
observable phenomenon or prediction
Definition unifying explanation for a set of verified,
of a possible causal correlation among
proven hypotheses.
multiple phenomena.

Based on Suggestion, possibility, projection or Evidence, verification, repeated testing,

Hypothesis versus Theory comparison chart

Hypothesis Theory

prediction, but the result is uncertain. wide scientific consensus

Testable Yes Yes

Falsifiable Yes Yes

Is well-
No Yes
substantiated?

Is well-tested? No Yes

Based on a very wide set of data tested under

Data Usually based on very limited data
various circumstances.

General: A theory is the establishment of a

Specific: Hypothesis is usually based on
general principle through multiple tests and
Instance a very specific observation and is
experiments, and this principle may apply to
limited to that instance.
various specific instances.

To present an uncertain possibility that

To explain why a large set of observations are
Purpose can be explored further through
consistently made.
experiments and observations.

Examples of Theory and Hypothesis

"No amount of experimentation can ever prove me right; a single experiment can prove me wrong." —
Albert Einstein

Theory: Einstein's theory of relativity is a theory because it has been tested and verified
innumerable times, with results consistently verifying Einstein's conclusion. However, simply
because Einstein's conclusion has become a theory does not mean testing of this theory has
stopped; all science is ongoing. See also the Big Bang theory, germ theory, and climate change.

Hypothesis: One might think that a prisoner who learns a work skill while in prison will be less
likely to commit a crime when released. This is a hypothesis, an "educated guess." The scientific
method can be used to test this hypothesis, to either prove it is false or prove that it warrants
further study. (Note: Simply because a hypothesis is not found to be false does not mean it is true
all or even most of the time. If it is consistently true after considerable time and research, it may
be on its way to becoming a theory.)

2. Methodology

Research methodology involves the researcher providing an alternative hypothesis, a

research hypothesis, as an alternate way to explain the phenomenon.
The researcher tests the hypothesis to disprove the null hypothesis, not because he/she loves the
research hypothesis, but because it would mean coming closer to finding an answer to a specific
problem. The research hypothesis is often based on observations that evoke suspicion that the
null hypothesis is not always correct.

Research methodology is the science of systematically solving a research problem.

Often recognized as how a research is to be done scientifically, research methodology involves
the learning of the various techniques we can use in the conduct of research such as the conduct
of tests, experiments, surveys and critical studies. These methods have been properly tested and
utilized and, therefore, each one has a logic behind them. Research methodology aims at the
employment of the correct procedures to find out solutions and paves the way for research
methods to be conducted properly. Research methodology is the guidebook of research and is a
science in itself.

Unit 2 – Biological Development

 Biological beginnings

Genetic Foundations

“All children have a set of genetic instructions that influence their characteristics at birth and emerging
physical features as the grow.” Some characteristics awaken during sensitive periods   which are age
ranges in which environmental experiences are necessary for the child’s development. Other
characteristics are controlled by genetics, this is known as canalization. Skills that are canalized include
motor skills such as crawling and sitting. Skills that are not canalized are those that children are taught in
school such as reading and writing. The environment continues to play a huge role in the genetic
expression at different times throughout development. Nature and nurture are powerful and they are
concepts that not only teachers, but also parents  need to be aware of. Being the adults in a child’s life.
Genetic predispositions may be altered by environmental factors such as schooling,  social interactions,
and physical experiences.

 
 Fetus
Prenatal Development        

There are three phases of prenatal development: development of the zygote, development of the embryo,
and development of the fetus.

A zygote is a one-celled being. It divided over and over until it becomes a ball of cells that attaches itself
to the uterus wall. Then the zygote splits into two parts, one will become and embryo and the other one
will become the placenta. The zygote then releases hormones for menstruation to stop and further
development has begun. An embryo is between the period from 2 to 8 weeks where major body parts
begin to develop.  The embryo develops from top to bottom and from the outside in. The fetus is then
from 9 weeks until birth. At this stage, the baby finalizes the development of the limbs and the internal
organs. Expectant mothers must care for themselves to increase the chances of bringing a healthy baby
into the world.

Birth of the Baby

This is the stage of pregnancy where the mother and the family become the most anxious. Preparing for
birth is highly recommended and important. Parents-to be should take classes to learn the most recent way
of doing infant CPR, feeding, bathing, changing and other things that they will be doing every day with
their baby. Preparing the suitcase for the hospital about 1 or 2 months in advance is necessary since
babies sometimes come sooner than expected. Learning breathing and relaxation techniques to use
through the birthing process come in handy. The health and medical needs a baby needs all depends on
the birth weight and size, and any genetic vulnerabilities. Family educators can support infants directly by
teaching the caregivers how to watch and care for the baby’s needs.  

B. Physical and Motor Development

Early Childhood Physical Development: Gross and Fine Motor Development

The term "gross motor" development refers to physical skills that use large body
movements, normally involving the entire body.

Between ages 2 and 3 years, young children stop "toddling," or using the awkward, wide-
legged robot-like stance that is the hallmark of new walkers. As they develop a smoother gait,
they also develop the ability to run, jump, and hop. Children of this age can participate in
throwing and catching games with larger balls. They can also push themselves around with their
feet while sitting on a riding toy.

Children who are 3 to 4 years old can climb up stairs using a method of bringing both feet
together on each step before proceeding to the next step (in contrast, adults place one foot on
each step in sequence). However, young children may still need some "back-up" assistance to
prevent falls in case they become unsteady in this new skill. Children of this age will also be
stumped when it's time to go back down the stairs; they tend to turn around and scoot down the
stairs backwards. 3 to 4 year olds can jump and hop higher as their leg muscles grow stronger.
Many can even hop on one foot for short periods of time.

Also at this age (3 to 4 years), children develop better upper body mobility. As a result,
their catching and throwing abilities improve in speed and accuracy. In addition, they can
typically hit a stationary ball from a tee with a bat. As whole body coordination improves,
children of this age can now peddle and steer a tricycle. They can also kick a larger ball placed
directly in front of their bodies.

By ages 4 to 5, children can go up and down the stairs alone in the adult fashion (i.e.,
taking one step at a time). Their running continues to smooth out and increase in speed. Children
of this age can also skip and add spin to their throws. They also have more control when riding
their tricycles (or bicycles), and can drive them faster.

During ages 5 to 6, young children continue to refine earlier skills. They're running even
faster and can start to ride bicycles with training wheels for added stability. In addition, they can
step sideways. Children of this age begin mastering new forms of physical play such as the
jungle gym, and begin to use the see-saw, slide, and swing on their own. They often start
jumping rope, skating, hitting balls with bats, and so on. Many children of this age enjoy learning
to play organized sports such as soccer, basketball, t-ball or swimming. In addition, 5 to 6 year
olds often like to participate in physical extracurricular activities such as karate, gymnastics, or
dance. Children continue to refine and improve their gross motor skills through age 7 and
beyond.

Physical Development: Fine Motor Skills

Fine motor skills are necessary to engage in smaller, more precise movements, normally
using the hands and fingers. Fine motor skills are different than gross motor skills which require
less precision to perform.

By ages 2 to 3 years, children can create things with their hands. They can build towers
out of blocks, mold clay into rough shapes, and scribble with a crayon or pen. Children of this
age can also insert objects into matching spaces, such as placing round pegs into round holes. 2
to 3 year-olds often begin showing a preference for using one hand more often than the other,
which is the beginning of becoming left or right-handed.

Around ages 3 to 4 years, children start to manipulate clothing fasteners, like zippers and
snaps, and continue to gain independence in dressing and undressing themselves. Before they
enter school, most children will gain the ability to completely dress and undress themselves
(even though they may take a long time to finish the task). At this age, children can also begin
using scissors to cut paper. Caregivers should be sure to give children blunt, round-edged "kid"
scissors for safety reasons!
3 to 4 year- olds continue to refine their eating skills and can use utensils like forks and spoons.
Young children at this age can also use larger writing instruments, like fat crayons, in a writing
hold rather than just grasping them with their fist. They can also use a twisting motion with their
hands, useful for opening door knobs or twisting lids off containers. Because children can now
open containers with lids, caregivers should make certain that harmful substances such as
cleaners and medications are stored out of reach in a locked area to prevent accidental
poisonings.

During ages 4 to 5 years, children continue to refine fine motor skills and build upon earlier
skills. For instance, they can now button and unbutton their clothes by themselves. Their artistic
skills improve, and they can draw simple stick figures and copy shapes such as circles, squares,
and large letters. Drawing more complex shapes, however, may take longer.

5-7 year-olds begin to show the skills necessary for starting or succeeding in school, such as
printing letters and numbers and creating shapes such as triangles. They are able to use paints,
pencils and crayons with better control. Children can also complete other self-care tasks beyond
dressing and undressing, such as brushing their teeth and combing their hair. Children of this age
can also independently feed themselves without an adult's immediate supervision or help.

C. Neuroscience and Brain development

Neuroscience For Kids

Brain Development

The brain grows at an amazing rate during development. At times during brain
development, 250,000 neurons are added every minute! At birth, a person's brain will have
almost all the neurons that it will ever have. The brain continues to grow for a few years after a
person is born and by the age of 2 years old, the brain is about 80% of the adult size.

You may wonder, "How does the brain continue to grow, if the brain has most of the neurons it
will get when you are born?". The answer is in glial cells. Glia continues to divide and multiply.
Glia carries out many important functions for normal brain function including insulating nerve
cells with myelin. The neurons in the brain also make many new connections after birth.

The Brain During Development

The nervous system develops from embryonic tissue called the ectoderm. The first sign
of the developing nervous system is the neural plate that can be seen at about the 16th day of
development. Over the next few days, a "trench" is formed in the neural plate - this creates a
neural groove. By the 21st day of development, a neural tube is formed when the edges of the
neural groove meet. The rostral (front) part of the neural tubes goes on to develop into the brain
and the rest of the neural tube develops into the spinal cord. Neural crest cells become the
peripheral nervous system.
 At the front end of the
neural tube, three major brain areas are formed: the prosencephalon (forebrain), mesencepalon
(midbrain) and rhombencephalon (hindbrain). By the 7th week of development, these three areas
divide again. This process is called encephalization.

D. Factors Affecting Biological/ Physical

Development

The emotional, mental, and physical development of the child depends greatly on his or
her surroundings and the environment. Children imbibe ideas and concepts easily which makes
various types of stimulations crucial, for balanced development.

This means, there are various factors at play; the four main factors that shape the child’s
development are early environments and experiences, the environmental factors, biological
factors, and interpersonal relationships.
Early environments and experiences

The earliest memory a child can have will be of the primary caregiver who is mostly the
mother. Even before the child is born, there will be prenatal development, which is easily
affected by the chemical imbalances in the mother’s body, like using certain medicated drugs or
substances like alcohol and tobacco. 

Postnatal environments will include sight, touch, smell, hearing, and taste. The smell of
the mother, the sound of her voice and familiarity and love are crucial. Children who are exposed
to high-stress situations can experience developmental delays, emotionally, physically, and
mentally. The opposite is also true; balanced family dynamics and educational gifts for kids
and babies impact them development positively with the right simulations. 

Biological factors

The biological factors that impact the child’s development significantly are, gender,
physical health, mental health, and health practice. The gender of the child, while in the
developed countries, does not impact as much as it does in developing countries. By stating this,
it had to be understood that a boy and girls develop differently. Also, family dynamics play a big
role, as often, gender stereotyping is common and obvious by the choice of clothes and possibly
gendered toys which can clearly emphasize the partial behaviour to the child.

Health factors, physical, mental and practices at home will also define the behaviour.
Genetic traits and illnesses can be affected from a very young age, although often not diagnosed
until much later. Chronic diseases and the mother’s prenatal and postnatal health directly impact
the child’s development through the first few years. 

Health practices such as proper diet and nutrition, whether the child is breastfed,
structured or unstructured physical activities are all vital to the child’s well-being. 

Environmental factors

The main determinants in this section are the income brackets, the housing conditions,
parental employment, and educational standards. The political situation is also extremely
significant in the child’s upbringing and development. The political and financial situation of the
country will determine the amount of support available for the parents. For instance, support for
disabilities, or any other detrimental physical or mental challenges that the household may face.

Interpersonal development

Biological and some of the environmental factors are impossible to change; however,
interpersonal relationships have the power to build the child up positively, no matter the
situation, although they are crucial determinants. Relationships are extremely important for a
child’s development and emotional well being.
 Interpersonal relations will be affected by the parenting style followed, social support
networks like extended families and friends, forming positive attachments. Postpartum
depression is extremely common and can affect the child and the mother’s bond detrimentally. 

Keeping these factors in mind, it is easy to see how many factors can affect the child’s
upbringing. Despite challenges and obstacles, numerous children still excel in other areas of their
lives.

Therapy through educational and other toys

Educational and interactive toys focus on certain types of development, through various
stages of the child’s early life; whether it is for the cognitive development with the right kind of
educational toys and a science kit or for gross motor skill development, children fare well in
group sessions and socially interactive games and activities. 

Providing the right kind of stimulation is imperative for the balanced outlook; children
from difficult and damaged homes fair well when therapy is provided through play. Unlike
adults, children do not respond well to normal therapy where they are required to talk; instead,
toys and props for imaginative play, art, and other mediums provide the right circumstances for
them to express their fear, anger, joy and other emotions.

Therefore, when choosing the right stimulations for the child, it is crucial to consider the
circumstances and environment that they are exposed to daily, but with an educational toy or
science kits or interactive sessions, the child will be able to overcome negative influences at
home. 

E. Theories
1. Developmental Milestones (Gesell)

Prior to the early twentieth century, scientific observations of children were not
common.  Arnold Gesell was one of the first psychologists to systematically describe children’s
physical, social, and emotional achievements through a quantitative study of human
development from birth through adolescence. He focused his research on the extensive study
of a small number of children. He began with pre-school children and later extended his work to
ages 5 to 10 and 10 to 16. From his findings, Gesell concluded that mental and physical
development in infants, children, and adolescents are comparable and parallel orderly processes.

The results of his research were utilized in creating the Gesell Development Schedules,
which can be used with children between four weeks and six years of age. The test measures
responses to standardized materials and situations both qualitatively and quantitatively. Areas
emphasized include motor and language development, adaptive behavior, and personal-social
behavior. The results of the test are expressed first as developmental age (DA), which is then
converted into developmental quotient (DQ), representing “the portion of normal development
that is present at any age.” A separate developmental quotient may be obtained for each of the
functions on which the scale is built.

Gesell’s observations of children allowed him to describe developmental milestones in

ten major areas: motor characteristics, personal hygiene, emotional expression, fears and
dreams, self and sex, interpersonal relations, play and pastimes, school life, ethical sense,
and philosophic outlook. His training in physiology and his focus on developmental milestones
led Gesell to be a strong proponent of the “maturational” perspective of child development. That
is, he believed that child development occurs according to a predetermined, naturally unfolding
plan of growth.  Gesell’s most notable achievement was his contribution to the “normative”
approach to studying children. In this approach, psychologists observed large numbers of
children of various ages and determined the typical age, or “norms,” for which most children
achieved various developmental milestones.

2. Ecological Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner)

Ecological system theory is also called Human Ecological Theory, Bronfenbrenner’s ecological
systems theory. Ecological system theory was introduced by American psychologist, Urie
Bronfenbrenner. He claimed that the child development is affected by their surrounding
environment.

Child development can be divided into many areas of physical, mental, cognitive, moral and social.   The
environment, in which the child influences, is called ecological system.

Basically, Ecological system theory is based on observation. In this theory, Urie Bronfenbrenner
understands and explained the child’s development. He went to the children’s daily lives, home,
schools for studying their behaviours and actions. He was also taking part in their friend’s club
and groups.
Environmental effect on child’s development

According to Urie Bronfenbrenner, child’s development is influenced by the different

environmental systems. The ecological system theory describes the difference in behaviour of
the child in different environments and how the environment influences their development and
grows up the child into an adult. Bronfenbrenner divides the environment into 5 different levels.

1. Microsystem
2. Mesosystem
3. Exosystem
4. Macrosystem
5. Chronosystem

Microsystem

The first level of Bronfenbrenner is Microsystem. The microsystem is one of the most influential
levels of the ecological systems theory. In the Microsystem, the child has direct contact system
or closest proximity to home, school, daycare, peer group, community environment of the child.

Interactions within the Microsystem, the child involves a personal relationship with family
members, teacher, play area friends, classmate, and caregivers.
Now the point is that how the children affected by surroundings?

Bronfenbrenner explained that how these individuals or groups interact with a child will
definitely affect how the child grows. Likewise, how the child reacts to the people will affect
how they treat the child in return. Physical development starts in the Microsystem like practicing
pencil grip. Language development, in which vocabulary growth will increase. Social
development and self-esteem, which develop in playgroup.

Mesosystem:

Mesosystem is the next ecological system, in which the mesosystem consists of the interactions
between the different parts of microsystem of person.

Interconnections between the microsystems, the interaction between parent and child’s peer, the
interaction between family and teacher. These interactions have a positive impact on child’s
development because many elements of microsystem are working together and the elements have
an indirect impact on the child’s development. And these interactions also influence upon one
another.
For example, if family dislikes his/her child’s peer, claimed it openly and criticize them every
time. Moreover, parents neglect their child; they may have low chance to develop their positive
attitude toward others. The child may experience conflicting emotions.

Similarly, if parents like their child’s peer and invite them at home spent some time. The child
will develop a positive attitude.

Exosystem

Exosystem is the third model of the ecological system theory. Involves link between a social
setting in which the individual does not involve as an active participant but still affect them
indirectly like parent’s workplace and school management. For example:

If a child is more attached to his/her father. And his/her father has promotion and need to move
another city. a child being affected by a parent receiving a promotion at work or losing their job.
In the scene of promotion, the child may be anxious when can’t see his father every night and
may be facing some conflict due to less attachment to mother. The child anxiety has an effect on
his development in other areas, even though he has no interaction with his father’s work.

Macrosystem:

This system involves the culture in which individual lives. It contains the child’s culture and
values. Macrosystem is the largest distant group of people and place to the child that still work a
significant influence on the child. poverty, cultural values, the role of women in society, a wealth
of the country, the role of religion in society, socioeconomic status, all of these are the cultural
factors that influence the development.

For example: If a child lives in a country that does not value education for girls. Girls can’t get
the education, can’t do the job, can’t go outside, can’t do any social work. In this situation, the
child can’t solve problems; her cognitive development will be affected. If the society doesn’t
permit the child (girl) to play outside with her own age children, then social development may be
negatively affected. Culture is also the part of our environment so it also affects the child’s
development.

Chronosystem

The chronosystem adds the useful element of time, which indicates the influence of both change
and constancy in the child’s environment. The chronosystem may include a change in family
structure, parent’s employment status, address and other factors that influence the child
development.
By the study of a different factor that may influence a child, the Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
Theory is able to introduce the many interrelated influences on the child’s development.

For example, divorces are one factor, divorce affects the couple relationship but also affect the
behaviour of the child. In the first year after the divorce, the child affects negatively. The child
may feel the insecurity that affects a child’s development.

F. Current Research and Pedagogical Applications

1.) Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences

 What he’s known for: Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences

 Educational Application: All Learning Stages
 When: 1980s- present

Howard Gardner theorized that there was more than meets the I(Q) test when discussing
“intelligence.” He argued that the IQ test was far too narrow- focusing primarily on linguistic
and mathematical abilities and ignoring other areas of the child’s intelligence. In 1983 Gardner
wrote his flagship book Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences. When wiring this
important work, Gardner had exceptional learners in mind including people who were than
termed “savants” as well other exceptional individuals. He proposed eight abilities (Gardner
added naturalistic in the 90s) and later suggested a ninth. Though the original 7 and then 8 are as
follows:

 1.Musical-Rhythmic
 2. Visual-Spatial
 3. Verbal-Linguistic
 4. Logical-Mathematical
 5. Bodily-Kinesthetic
 6. Interpersonal
 7. Intrapersonal
 8. Naturalistic

The ninth proposed intelligence is Existential-Moral. We wonder if intuition should be

included for an even 10. Let’s digress, and take a closer look at the essential 8 components from
Gardner’s original theory.

Musical-Rhythmic and Harmonic Intelligence

Musical-Rhythmic and Harmonic Intelligence is described as a type of intelligence that is

highly musical with sensitivity to sound, and rhythm. This individual may have relative or
perfect pitch, easily create melody, can sing, play multiple instruments, and has a sensitivity to
timbre or how something sounds. You may hear someone say “She just has a natural ear!” They
are referring to musical-rhythmic and harmonic intelligence.

Visual-Spatial Intelligence

The person with Visual-Spatial intelligence is that person who can see for example a geometric
shape and then, turn it, flip it, spin it and more all within their mind’s eye. Have you ever seen
There is an entire branch of psychology known as “Spatial Intelligence Psychology” that
discusses this type of intelligence in depth.

Verbal-Linguistic Intelligence

Those with high levels of Verbal-Linguistic intelligence will be great with words, phenomenal
story-tellers, and great readers and writers.

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence

Logical-Mathematical Intelligence involves problem solving through reason. Those with high
levels of this type of intelligence may be epistemologists, or mathematicians. A Vulcan is said to
have high levels of logical-mathematical intelligence. Well, it is only logical, after all.

Bodily-Kinesthetic Intelligence

When you think of bodily-kinesthetic intelligence you probably instantly think of an Olympic
athlete among the top of the list, and you would be correct! Actors, builders, and dancers all have
a sense of timing and awareness of their body and learn best potentially just “going through the
motions.”

INTERpersonal Intelligence

The persons with high levels of Interpersonal Intelligence can readily empathize with others’
emotions and motivations. A good teacher often has high levels of interpersonal intelligence and
can empathize with what a student may experience. It’s a high-level of perspective taking and
understanding. Do you remember that teacher that seemed to be able to read your mind? She
most-likely was using her interpersonal intelligence.

INTRApersonal Intelligence

γνῶθι σεαυτόν or “know thyself” is a Greek phrase that captures intrapersonal intelligence. The
type of person who really knows about themselves probably seems like a sage. This person know
all about their inner states, as well as their carnal needs. In Ancient Egypt those entered the
external temple only when ready to learn more and acquire insights. Have you ever seen a person
who just seems to know when to speed up, slow down, and “just be?” That person most likely
has honed their intrapersonal intelligence. It may come as no surprise the study of self was a core
topic for the ancient Greek philosophers.

Naturalistic Intelligence

Gardner added Naturalistic Intelligence a decade later in the 1990s. As is implied, a personal
with high levels of naturalistic intelligence is “tuned in” with nature. Once burnt at the stake, the
“witches” of ancient Europe are perfect examples of women with high levels of natural
intelligence. These women were botanists in their own right, and could more than just identify
plants but also could wield them for healing. Many herbalists living today talk about walking
among the plants and listening to them talk before picking them and using them in home
remedies- always thanking the plants for their help in the process.

3.) David H. Rose:Founder of CAST: Defined the Universal Design for Learning (UDL)

 What he’s known for: the Center for Applied Special Technology (CAST)
 Educational Application: Special Education; Educational Technology
 When: 1980s-present

David H. Rose is the co-founder of CAST who in the mid-80’s worked to improve education for
all types of learners through technology. His work lead to the Universal Design for Learning
(UDL) which influenced education policy throughout the US including the reauthorization of
IDEA in 2004. The UDL framework calls for these three general principles when designing a
classroom curriculum:

 “Multiple means of representation to give learners various ways of acquiring information and
knowledge”
 “Multiple means of expression to provide learners alternatives for demonstrating what they
know”
  Multiple means of engagement to tap into learners’ interests, challenge them appropriately, and
motivate them to learn

3.) Carol Dweck: Mindset/ Implicit Theories of Intelligence

 What she’s known for: the Mindset psychological trait

 Educational Application: All Learners of All Ages
 When: 1970s-present

Carol Dweck is best known for her research and contributions to Implicit Theories of
Intelligence and Mindset. If we were to select just one word that is the essence of her work we
would pick change. Dweck argues that as learners and creators, we are more malleable that we
may give ourselves credit. Even trees that are rooted deep in the earth grow, talk to each other,
and continue to change. Though as years pass and we look at that same tree do we see its growth
or do we see it as a fixed entity planted firmly to the earth? Dweck encourages us to see the
growth no matter what the age. She encourages her audience to believe in change, and to love the
process. Incremental theory deals with a growth mindset- our belief that we can achieve our own
greatness through hard work and perseverance. As opposed to a fixed mindset where students
essentially plateau and withdraw from change. Change can expose weakness, change can mean
making mistakes.

Change can take time, and change doesn’t always happen quickly. Students who engage
with a fixed mindset are often afraid to fail, and what happens when they stagnate? Well, if we
are using that tree analogy- a tree that isn’t growing and changing is dead. Students who remain
in a fixed mindset essentially kill off or stop the learning process. That’s pretty heavy, right?
Well, the second word we would pick when describing Dweck’s body of work is hope. Dweck’s
findings rekindle a sense of “YES I CAN!” We like that. We like to think that our state of mind
is not permanent and that, when up to a challenge, we too can achieve our biggest dreams.

“The growth mindset was intended to help close achievement gaps, not hide them. It is about
telling the truth about a student’s current achievement and then, together, doing something about
it, helping him or her become smarter.”

Unit 3- Cognitive Development

1.) Jean Piaget’s Theory of Cognitive Development

 What he’s known for: Piaget’s theory of cognitive development

 Educational Application: Early Childhood Education
 When: 1920s
 Jean Piaget became a psychologist circa 1918, and is known for his research in child
psychology. Initially, Piaget theorized that child development was more than just biological
development and in fact was also intellectual. From his early research, Piaget developed the four
stages of his theory of cognitive development. The four stages move chronologically through a
child’s life, and are:

1. Sensorimotor Stage

The Sensorimotor Stage is the earliest stage from birth to age two. Here Piaget states that the
infant to baby is experiencing the world through their senses and through their movement
including their…

 simple reflexes like sucking

 forming habits and primary circular reactions like thumb sucking
 coordinating circular reactions- a more behaviors, and an understanding of object permanence
 novelty and curiosity- an exploratory stage that happens from 12 months to 18 months old.
 the baby creates a “blueprint” of its patterns and findings from 18 months to year two

2. Preoperational Stage

The Preoperational Stage lasts from when the child begins to speak (typically around age 2)
through to age 7. During this phase you will see an increase in physical play and imaginative
play. Children will still have some difficulty seeing things from different points of view, so be
careful with “how do you think I feel?” expectations. This stage is subdivided as such:

 Symbolic FunctionFrom ages 2-4 children use symbols to help identify and make sense of the
world around them. An example of this is the common drawing of the family members as big as a
house.
 Intuitive ThoughtFrom ages 4-7 children begin asking a number of questions. Children begin to
reason and therefore want to know more. Conversations begin to form.

3. Concrete Operational Stage

The Concrete Operational Stage takes place from ages 7-11. Children can now take on the
perspectives of others, and are much more aware of logic, will converse with other about novel
topics, and begin to problem solve.

4. Formal Operational Stage

The Formal Operational Stage takes place from ages 11-16. We think this could also be called
the “Little Plato” stage as children and teens begin to understand abstract thought, and
metacognition (AKA “thinking about thinking; knowing about knowing”). Children and teens
can problem solve across multiple steps. The formal operational stages carries on beyond ages
16.

2. Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Theory of Cognitive Development

 Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) was a Russian psychologist who argued that culture has a major
impact on a child’s cognitive development. Piaget and Gesell believed development stemmed directly
from the child, and although Vygotsky acknowledged intrinsic development, he argued that it is the
language, writings, and concepts arising from the culture that elicit the highest level of cognitive thinking
(Crain, 2005). He believed that the social interactions with adults and more learned peers can facilitate a
child’s potential for learning. Without this interpersonal instruction, he believed children’s minds would
not advance very far as their knowledge would be based only on their own discoveries. Let’s review some
of Vygotsky’s key concepts.
Zone of Proximal Development and Scaffolding: Vygotsky’s best known concept is the Zone of
Proximal Development (ZPD). Vygotsky stated that children should be taught in the ZPD, which occurs
when they can almost perform a task, but not quite on their own without assistance. With the right kind of
teaching, however, they can accomplish it successfully. A good teacher identifies a child’s ZPD and helps
the child stretch beyond it. Then the adult (teacher) gradually withdraws support until the child can then
perform the task unaided. Researchers have applied the metaphor of scaffolds (the temporary platforms
on which construction workers stand) to this way of teaching. Scaffolding is the temporary support that
parents or teachers give a child to do a task.
Private Speech: Do you ever talk to yourself? Why? Chances are, this occurs when you are
struggling with a problem, trying to remember something, or feel very emotional about a situation.
Children talk to themselves too. Piaget interpreted this as Egocentric Speech or a practice engaged in
because of a child’s inability to see things from another’s point of view. Vygotsky, however, believed
that children talk to themselves in order to solve problems or clarify thoughts. As children learn to think
in words, they do so aloud before eventually closing their lips and engaging in Private Speech or inner
speech.
Thinking out loud eventually becomes thought accompanied by internal speech, and talking to
oneself becomes a practice only engaged in when we are trying to learn something or remember
something. This inner speech is not as elaborate as the speech we use when communicating with others
(Vygotsky, 1962).
Contrast with Piaget: Piaget was highly critical of teacher-directed instruction believing that
teachers who take control of the child’s learning place the child into a passive role (Crain, 2005). Further,
teachers may present abstract ideas without the child’s true understanding, and instead they just repeat
back what they heard. Piaget believed children must be given opportunities to discover concepts on their
own. As previously stated, Vygotsky did not believe children could reach a higher cognitive level without
instruction from more learned individuals. Who is correct? Both theories certainly contribute to our
understanding of how children learn.

B. Intelligence and Individual Differences

Alfred Binet and the Simon-Binet Intelligence Scale

Alfred Binet was a French psychologist best-remembered for developing the first widely used
intelligence test. The test originated after the French government commissioned Binet to develop an
instrument that could identify school kids that needed remedial studies. With his collaborator Theodore
Simon, they created the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale.1
 Lewis Terman later revised the scale and standardized the test with subjects drawn from an
American sample and the test became known as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. The test is still in
use today and remains one of the most widely used intelligence tests.2

Best Known For

 Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale1

 Stanford-Binet IQ Test

Early Life

Alfred Binet was born Alfredo Binetti on July 8, 1857, in Nice, France. His father, a physician,
and his mother, an artist, divorced when he was young and Binet then moved to Paris with his mother.

After graduating from law school in 1878, Binet initially planned to follow in his father's
footsteps and enroll in medical school. He began to study science at Sorbonne but soon began educating
himself in psychology by reading works by individuals such as Charles Darwin and John Stuart Mill.

Binet's Intelligence Test

Binet and colleague Theodore Simon developed a series of tests designed to assess mental
abilities. Rather than focus on learned information such as math and reading, Binet instead concentrated
on other mental abilities such as attention and memory. The scale they developed became known as the
Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale.

The test was later revised by psychologist Lewis Terman and became known as the Stanford-
Binet. While Binet's original intent was to use the test to identify children who needed additional
academic assistance, the test soon became a means to identify those deemed "feeble-minded" by the
eugenics movement. 

Eugenics was the now debunked belief that the human population could be genetically improved
by controlling who was allowed to have children. By doing this, the eugenicists believed they could
produce more desirable inherited characteristics.

This shift in how the test was used is notable since Binet himself believed that the intelligence
test he had designed had limitations. He believed that intelligence was complex and could not be fully
captured by a single quantitative measure. He also believed that intelligence was not fixed.

Perhaps most importantly, Binet also felt that such measures of intelligence were not always
generalizable and could only apply to children with similar backgrounds and experiences.

Alfred Binet's Contributions to Psychology

Today, Alfred Binet is often cited as one of the most influential psychologists in history. While
his intelligence scale serves as the basis for modern intelligence tests, Binet himself did not believe that
his test measured a permanent or inborn degree of intelligence. According to Binet, an individual's score
can vary. He also suggested that factors such as motivation and other variables can play a role in test
scores.
Spearman and the Theory of General Intelligence

The early 1900s saw Charles Spearman using a mathematical approach to the question of

measuring human intelligence. Using statistical factor analysis Spearman identified g, a single underlying

intelligence factor he believed accounted for the variety of observable abilities.

Spearman noticed that children’s grades across all school subjects tended to be highly correlated.
If a child did well in one subject, they generally also did well in another subject, and vice versa. What did
this say about the nature of intelligence?

He devised factor analysis to measure the relationships between seemingly varied cognitive
abilities and account for the correlations he saw between scores on different tests.

The result was Spearman’s two-factor theory which attempted to show that all cognitive
performance can be explained by two variables: one general ability (g) and the many specific abilities (s)
it gave rise to. Later, however, further analysis showed that g alone was enough to explain the
correlations between different tests. When people talk about IQ or intelligence, it’s usually this general
mental ability that they are referring to.
Psychometrically, g as a construct refers to the overall mental capacity behind a person’s
performance on any number of cognitive tasks.
Statistically, g is a way to account for variance. This single factor has been shown to explain
40 - 50% of the variance in individual performance on IQ tests. This is why a composite score of many
different tests is assumed to give an estimation of g.
Today, almost all IQ tests are factor models inspired by Spearman’s work on g. As an example,
consider the Stanford-Binet test, which measures different areas of performance that contribute to general
intelligence, like working memory and visual-spatial reasoning.
Today intelligence is usually understood as a hierarchy: smaller factors manifest in the ability to do
highly specific tasks, but those factors can be arranged into broader intermediary categories which in turn
are encompassed within the most general factor, g.
Alternatives and Criticisms
The existence of a single quantifiable factor for human intelligence has been hotly debated ever
since Spearman proposed it.

Criticism came from one of Spearman’s own students, Raymond Cattell, who thought that
intelligence could be understood as two main capacities: “fluid" (Gf) and “crystallized" (Gc).
Cattell thought that crystallized intelligence was a kind of cemented knowledge bank acquired over time,
representing all those abilities that were already familiar from previous learning. On the other hand, fluid
intelligence was the ability to acquire that knowledge in the first place, i.e. to learn in the moment. He
saw g as more accurately Gc, and that tests focusing only on g would omit an important developmental
factor in human intelligence.

Others were similarly critical for the reductive nature of g, including psychologist L.L. Thurstone
and J. P Guilford. Both believed that there were several, irreducible and independent domains of
intelligence, however many have since found correlations between their tests which strongly suggest a
general factor.
Still more criticism came from Howard Gardener who proposed nine domains of intelligence, including
some decidedly non-cognitive ones like musical, existential and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence. Almost
everyone can think of a person who performed poorly at school but excelled in sport or dance, perhaps, or
a person with musical genius that didn’t translate to any other area in their life.

Gardner argued that the academic environment over-emphasized verbal and logical skill while
ignoring these other forms of intelligence. However, his critics have responded that we think of
something like athletic skill as just that – a skill and not strictly intelligence.
Currently, the g factor theory of intelligence is largely undisputed and has been established through
experimental cognitive research, brain anatomy and molecular genetics – where it has also been shown to
have a strong heritable component. Though it is taken as true that there is a high correlation between
performance on different skills tests, research is still underway to determine what causes that correlation
and how.

Primary Mental Abilities

Psychologist  Louis L. Thurstone (1887-1955) offered a theory of intelligence, instead of viewing

intelligence as a single, general ability, his theory focused on seven different primary mental abilities
 These 7 factors, or primary mental abilities, are word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial
visualization, number facility, associative memory, reasoning, and perceptual speed. Some intelligence
tests, such as the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), have sections that test for these 7 factors

•               Verbal comprehension--the ability to define and understand words

•               Word fluency--the ability to produce words rapidly

•               Number--the ability to solve arithmetic problems 

•               Space--the ability to visualize relationships 

•               Memory--the ability to memorize and recall

•               Perception--the ability to see differences and similarities among objects

•               Reasoning--the ability to find rules

After deciding that these seven factors made up intelligence, Thurstone rearranged the existing
subtests and devised some new ones. He referred to these sets as: "Tests of Primary Mental Abilities,"
which he used to investigate the question as to whether there was such a thing as "general" intelligence.  

His Tests of Primary Mental Abilities were administered to a large group of children, and
correlations were computed between scores on the various tests. If there were no such thing as general
intelligence, each factor would be independent. However, there were positive correlations among all the
tests, with some more highly correlated than others, which indicated that primary mental abilities share
some common factor. 

Thurstone concluded that each primary factor is composed of an Independent primary factor and
a general factor (G) that is shared by all of the primary factors; in other words, intelligence consists of
both general ability and a number of specific abilities.

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence was a revolutionary approach to human intelligence

which took into account much more than empirical data.

Robert Sternberg developed his Triarchic Theory of Intelligence in the 1980s as an attempt to
understand human intelligent in terms of components rather than ability.

Contrary to the beliefs of the time, Sternberg rejected the idea that only one thing guided human
intelligence. Sternberg considered intelligence to be made of many different factors, each of which
could be tested individually.

Sternberg believed that intelligence was more complicated than this. He considered human
intelligence to be a product of environment and an individuals adaptation to their environment. He,
therefore, took a cognitive approach to intelligence theory as opposed to the traditional behaviouristic
approach.
 Sternberg rejected the idea that creativity should be ignored, making it a key aspect in his own
theory. He explored different aspects of the human experience which could influence a person’s
intelligence and collated them in his theory.

As suggested by the name, Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence established three

components:

1. Componential intelligence is considered to be the ability to:

 Analyze
 Critique
 Judge
 Compare and Contrast
 Assess
 Evaluate

Analytical intelligence is often referred to as being book smart and is more in line with traditional IQ
tests and academic achievement.

Due to its analytical nature, a person with good componential skills is naturally better at problem-
solving. They may not be considered to be skilled in abstract thinking, but they will be naturally gifted in
standardized tests.

Analytical intelligence can be tested through the ability to analyze technical problems or by viewing a
record of academic achievement.

2. Experiential  intelligence is considered to be the ability to:

 Create
 Invent
 Discover
 Imagine if…
 Suppose that…
 Predict

Experiential intelligence is the ability to form new ideas and solutions when dealing with unfamiliar
situations. This form of thinking is highly creative and uses associations made from previous experiences
to produce new solutions.  These skills can be tested through problem-solving and immediate response to
a problem.

Experiential intelligence was an area focused on in Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. It

can be further split into two categories: novelty and automation.

Novelty creative intelligence explores the ability to deal with a problem for the first time. Automation
creative intelligence explores the ability to perform repeated tasks.

3. Practical  intelligence is considered to be the ability to:

 Apply
  Use
 Put into practice
 Implement
 Employ
 Render practical

Practical intelligence is usually associated with street smarts. It is the ability to adapt within an
environment or change the situation as and when is needed.

Also known as common sense, practical intelligence was not considered in intellectual theory before
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence. Practical intelligence is assessed by an individual’s ability to
cope with everyday tasks.

As well as its three components, Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence had three sub-theories:

Contextual sub theory: intelligence is interlinked with a person’s environment. This includes a persons
ability to adapt to their environment, or pick the best one for them, as well as shape an environment to
suit them better.

Experiential sub theory: there is a timeframe of experiences, from novel to automated, to which

intelligence can be applied. This is reflected in the experiential intelligence component.

Componential sub theory: There are different mental processes. Meta-components allow us to be able

to monitor, control and evaluate our mental processing to make decisions and solve problems.

Performance components allow us to take action on our plans and decisions. Knowledge-acquisition

components allow us to learn new information to carry out our plans.

Altogether, Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence creates a more heuristic view of

intelligence. It paints a much wider and more complex picture of the origins of human intelligence and
where it comes from.

Sternberg’s theory paved the way for new and more complex intelligence theories since its
creation. Psychologists now accept that intelligence is not something that can be measured by one aspect
of personality.

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Stage Theory

In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin developed the stage theory model. The model was later modified
by other researchers but the basic outline of stage theory continues to be a cornerstone of information
processing theory. The model concerns how information is stored in memory and presents a sequence of
three stages, as follows:

Sensory Memory — Sensory memory involves whatever we take in through our senses. This kind of
memory is exceedingly brief, only lasting up to 3 seconds. In order for something to enter sensory
memory, the individual has to pay attention to it. Sensory memory can’t attend to every piece of
information in the environment, so it filters out what it deems irrelevant and only sends what seems
important to the next stage, short-term memory. The information that’s most likely to reach the next stage
is either interesting or familiar.

Short-Term Memory/Working Memory — Once information reaches short-term memory, which is

also called working memory, it is filtered further. Once again, this kind of memory doesn’t last long, only
about 15 to 20 seconds. However, if information is repeated, which is referred to as maintenance
rehearsal, it can be stored for up to 20 minutes. As observed by Miller, working memory’s capacity is
limited so it can only process a certain number of pieces of information at a time. How many pieces is not
agreed on, although many still point to Miller to identify the number as five to nine.

There are several factors that will impact what and how much information will be processed in
working memory. Cognitive load capacity varies from person to person and from moment to moment
based on an individual’s cognitive abilities, the amount of information being processed, and one's ability
to focus and pay attention. Also, information that is familiar and has often been repeated doesn’t require
as much cognitive capacity and, therefore, will be easier to process. For example, riding a bike or driving
a car take minimal cognitive load if you’ve performed these tasks numerous times. Finally, people will
pay more attention to information they believe is important, so that information is more likely to be
processed. For example, if a student is preparing for a test, they are more likely to attend to information
that will be on the test and forget about information they don’t believe they will be asked about.

Long-Term Memory — Although short-term memory has a limited capacity, the capacity of long-term
memory is thought to be limitless. Several different types of information are encoded and organized in
long-term memory: declarative information, which is information that can be discussed such as facts,
concepts, and ideas (semantic memory) and personal experiences (episodic memory); procedural
information, which is information about how to do something like drive a car or brush your teeth; and
imagery, which are mental pictures.

Unit 4 – Social and Emotional Development

A. Socio-emotional Development
Socio-emotional development is critical during the preschool and kindergarten years. It has been
linked to healthy intellectual growth and is thought to be a foundation for future school achievement. Poor
socio-emotional development can lead to disruptive behavioral problems that studies have found to be
extremely stable across childhood and adolescence. Recent societal changes have increased the emphasis
on cultivating these skills in young children.

Socio-emotional development is a combination of social and emotional intelligence. It

specifically refers to a child’s capacity for self-confidence, trust, and empathy. It also includes
being able to use language as a means of expression and cognitive curiosity. Socio-emotional
development is influenced by three central factors: biology, including genetics and temperament,
environment, including socioeconomic status and support, and relationships. Biology involves
factors such as genetics and temperament.
Fostering Socio-emotional Development

Positive socio-emotional development comes as a result of child curiosity, temperament,

parental involvement, and positive interactions. Caregivers are integral to the development of
socio-emotional skills and are encouraged to foster several skills to ensure appropropriate
development in this area. These steps include fostering your child’s:

1. Confidence : By means of confidence, children can learn to trust their feelings and participate in
child directed activities.
2. Curiosity : Children should be encouraged to take interest in the world and things outside of
themselves.
3. Self-Control : We should provide children with incentive to do things like sit calmly, listen to
stories, and provide feedback.
4. Relatedness : Leading by example, caregivers should model empathy by showing concern for
others, displaying emotions, and accepting emotions. They should also provide their children with
opportunities to provide empathy and reward them for doing so.
5. Communication : Teaching children to work through their conflicts can foster effective
communication. Children she be encouraged to talk about how they feel as well as listen to the
thoughts of others.
6. Cooperation : Cooperation and interdependence are pivotal to socio-emotional development. It
mimics the realities of the real world, fosters empathy, and helps children to communicate
effectively.

From what has been studied, we can confidently state that children with socio-emotional
intelligence have a greater likelihood of achieving success in school and in life. Therefore time
should be taken to ensure the socio-emotional development of your child is on track so that they
have what is needed to succeed.

1. Psychoanalytic Theory (Freud)

According to Freud’s psychoanalytic theory of personality development, there are two

basic factors which drive an individual and help in shaping his/her personality. These two basic
drivers are love and aggression which have a direct impact on what an individual does and
thinks. According to Freud, love and aggression have a direct control on our minds and
thoughts.

Freud referred to Love and Aggression as “Eros” and “Thanatos” respectively.

“Eros” refers to intimate and passionate love between two partners. It is often defined as a kind
of madness which one experiences for his/her partner.

“Thanatos” was a figure in Greek mythology, though he never really existed as a person.
Thanatos symbolizes death.
 Freud believed that Eros represents an individual’s instinct to survive. Eros refers to an
individual’s determination to live, where sex is the major driving force.

Thanatos on the other hand represents aggression which ultimately leads to death.

Structure of Personality

According to Freud, an individual’s mind has a fixed amount of desire towards

sexual activity, often called as libido. No two individuals would have similar desire for sexual
activity and the same would vary as per an individual’s situation, circumstance at the moment.

An adult personality generally has three determinants: Id, Ego and Super Ego

The outcome of the combination of all the three determinants shapes an adult personality.
Freud believed than an individual’s personality has three parts and thus is often called as
tripartite personality.

 Id
 Ego
 Superego

Id - refers to irrational needs and demands, something which has nothing to do with the reality of
the situation. Freud believed that Individuals seek immediate pleasure in order to satisfy their
biological and physiological needs without taking into consideration the reality.Id gives
immediate pleasure to individuals and is often irrational.

Ego - Ego develops when individuals start interacting with people around. Ego helps in the
fulfillment of id, taking into consideration the reality of the situation.

Super Ego - Super ego is often the third stage which includes the moral constraints imposed on
an individual by his parents or family.

Defense Mechanisms

According to Freud’s theory, Repression is one of the most powerful defense

mechanisms which push irrational impulses into unconscious mind. Defense mechanisms play an
important role in pushing unrealistic thoughts out of awareness. Stressful thoughts which are
threatening to an individual’s survival should be pushed into unconscious mind to reduce anxiety
through repression.

Psychosexual Stages

Freud believed that a single organ or body part is more sensitive to sexual
stimulation at a particular stage in a child’s complete development cycle. These organs often
referred to as erogenous zones include mouth, genital regions and anus. An individual’s sexual
desires depend on erogenous zone for a particular age. Sometimes a child finds himself/herself
overindulged in sexual pleasures of a particular age and is reluctant to grow beyond that stage.
Frustration arises when sexual needs are not fulfilled. Overindulgence and Frustration
sometimes lead to fixation. Fixation refers to a state where an individual is reluctant to progress
beyond a particular stage and is often obsessed with a sexual attachment.

2. Psychosocial Theory (Erikson)

Erik Erikson was an ego psychologist who developed one of the most popular and influential
theories of development. While his theory was impacted by psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud's
work, Erikson's theory centered on psychosocial development rather than psychosexual
development.

The stages that make up his theory are as follows:1

 Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

 Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
 Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt
 Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority
 Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion
 Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation
 Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation
 Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes
referred to as ego strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will
emerge with a sense of inadequacy in that aspect of development.

Psychosocial Stages: A Summary Chart

Age Conflict Important Events Outcome
Infancy (birth to 18 months) Trust vs. Mistrust  Feeding Hope
Autonomy vs. Shame and
Early Childhood (2 to 3 years) Toilet Training Will
Doubt
Preschool (3 to 5 years) Initiative vs. Guilt Exploration Purpose
School Age (6 to 11 years) Industry vs. Inferiority School Confidence
Adolescence (12 to 18 years) Identity vs. Role Confusion Social Relationships Fidelity
Young Adulthood (19 to 40
Intimacy vs. Isolation Relationships Love
years)
Middle Adulthood (40 to 65 Work and
Generativity vs. Stagnation Care
years) Parenthood
Maturity (65 to death) Ego Integrity vs. Despair Reflection on Life Wisdom
Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and 1 year
of age and is the most fundamental stage in life. Because an infant is utterly dependent,
developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's caregivers.

At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything
they need to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to
provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that they cannot trust or depend upon
the adults in their life.

Outcomes

If a child successfully develops trust, the child will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers
who are inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in
the children under their care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world
is inconsistent and unpredictable.

https://www.verywellmind.com/trust-versus-mistrust-2795741

Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early
childhood and is focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.

The Role of Independence

At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence. They are
starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they
prefer. By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help
children develop a sense of autonomy.

Potty Training

The essential theme of this stage is that children need to develop a sense of personal control over
physical skills and a sense of independence. Potty training plays an important role in helping
children develop this sense of autonomy.

Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However,
Erikson's reasoning was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to
control one's bodily functions leads to a feeling of control and a sense of independence. Other
important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing
selection.
Outcomes

Children who struggle and who are shamed for their accidents may be left without a sense of
personal control. Success during this stage of psychosocial development leads to feelings of
autonomy; failure results in feelings of shame and doubt.

Finding Balance

Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not
are left with a sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance
between autonomy and shame and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can
act with intention, within reason and limits.

https://www.verywellmind.com/autonomy-versus-shame-and-doubt-2795733

Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years. At this point
in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interactions.

Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to
acquire these skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.

Outcomes

The major theme of the third stage of psychosocial development is that children need to begin
asserting control and power over the environment. Success in this stage leads to a sense of
purpose. Children who try to exert too much power experience disapproval, resulting in a sense
of guilt.

https://www.verywellmind.com/initiative-versus-guilt-2795737

Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately ages
5 to 11. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their
accomplishments and abilities.

Children need to cope with new social and academic demands. Success leads to a sense of
competence, while failure results in feelings of inferiority.
Outcomes

Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of
competence and belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents,
teachers, or peers will doubt their abilities to be successful.

https://www.verywellmind.com/industry-versus-inferiority-2795736

Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage
plays an essential role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence
behavior and development for the rest of a person's life. Teens need to develop a sense of self
and personal identity. Success leads to an ability to stay true to yourself, while failure leads to
role confusion and a weak sense of self.

During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. Those who
receive proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from
this stage with a strong sense of self and feelings of independence and control. Those who
remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and confused about themselves and
the future.

What Is Identity?

When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values
that help shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads
to fidelity, which Erikson described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.

While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a
particular emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of
self that we develop through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity
versus confusion stage of psychosocial development.

According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and
information we acquire in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we
also take on challenges that can help or hinder the development of identity.

Why Identity Is Important

Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures
through our lives. Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions
with others, and it is this identity that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.

https://www.verywellmind.com/identity-versus-confusion-2795735
Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation

Young adults need to form intimate, loving relationships with other people. Success leads to
strong relationships, while failure results in loneliness and isolation. This stage covers the period
of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.

Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other
people. Those who are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and
secure.

Building On Earlier Stages

Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a
strong sense of personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies
have demonstrated that those with a poor sense of self tend to have less committed relationships
and are more likely to struggler with emotional isolation, loneliness, and depression.

https://www.verywellmind.com/intimacy-versus-isolation-2795739

Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Adults need to create or nurture things that will outlast them, often by having children or creating
a positive change that benefits other people. Success leads to feelings of usefulness and
accomplishment, while failure results in shallow involvement in the world.

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family. Those who
are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active
in their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and
uninvolved in the world.

https://www.verywellmind.com/generativity-versus-stagnation-2795734

Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life. At
this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are
happy with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.

Erikson's theory differed from many others because it addressed development throughout the
entire lifespan, including old age. Older adults need to look back on life and feel a sense of
fulfillment. Success at this stage leads to feelings of wisdom, while failure results in regret,
bitterness, and despair.
At this stage, people reflect back on the events of their lives and take stock. Those who look back
on a life they feel was well-lived will feel satisfied and ready to face the end of their lives with a
sense of peace. Those who look back and only feel regret will instead feel fearful that their lives
will end without accomplishing the things they feel they should have.

Outcomes

Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and may
experience many regrets. The person will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.

https://www.verywellmind.com/integrity-versus-despair-2795738

4. Social Learning Theory (Bandura)

Learning is a remarkably complex process that is influenced by a wide variety of factors.

As most parents are probably very much aware, observation can play a critical role in
determining how and what children learn.1 As the saying goes, kids are very much like sponges,
soaking up the experiences they have each and every day.

Because learning is so complex, there are many different psychological theories to explain how
and why people learn. A psychologist named Albert Bandura proposed a social learning theory
which suggests that observation and modeling play a primary role in this process.2

Bandura's theory moves beyond behavioral theories, which suggest that all behaviors are learned
through conditioning, and cognitive theories, which take into account psychological influences
such as attention and memory.

There are three core concepts at the heart of social learning theory. First is the idea that
people can learn through observation. Next is the notion that internal mental states are an
essential part of this process. Finally, this theory recognizes that just because something has been
learned, it does not mean that it will result in a change in behavior.

"Learning would be exceedingly laborious, not to mention hazardous, if people had to

rely solely on the effects of their own actions to inform them what to do," Bandura explained in
his 1977 book Social Learning Theory.4

Bandura goes on to explain that "Fortunately, most human behavior is learned

observationally through modeling: from observing others one forms an idea of how new
behaviors are performed, and on later occasions, this coded information serves as a guide for
action."
People Can Learn Through Observation

One of the best-known experiments in the history of psychology involved a doll named
Bobo. Bandura demonstrated that children learn and imitate behaviors they have observed in
other people.

The children in Bandura’s studies observed an adult acting violently toward a Bobo doll.
When the children were later allowed to play in a room with the Bobo doll, they began to imitate
the aggressive actions they had previously observed.5

Bandura identified three basic models of observational learning:

 A live model, which involves an actual individual demonstrating or acting out a behavior.
 A symbolic model, which involves real or fictional characters displaying behaviors in books,
films, television programs, or online media.
 A verbal instructional model, which involves descriptions and explanations of a behavior.

As you can see, observational learning does not even necessarily require watching another
person to engage in an activity. Hearing verbal instructions, such as listening to a podcast, can
lead to learning. We can also learn by reading, hearing, or watching the actions of characters in
books and films.6

It is this type of observational learning that has become a lightning rod for controversy as
parents and psychologists debate the impact that pop culture media has on kids. Many worry that
kids can learn bad behaviors such as aggression from violent video games, movies, television
programs, and online videos.

Mental States Are Important to Learning

Bandura noted that external, environmental reinforcement was not the only factor to

influence learning and behavior. And he realized that reinforcement does not always come from
outside sources.1Your own mental state and motivation play an important role in determining
whether a behavior is learned or not.

He described intrinsic reinforcement as a form of internal rewards, such as pride,

satisfaction, and a sense of accomplishment.7 This emphasis on internal thoughts and cognitions
helps connect learning theories to cognitive developmental theories. While many textbooks place
social learning theory with behavioral theories, Bandura himself describes his approach as a
'social cognitive theory.'

It is important to note that not all observed behaviors are effectively learned. Why not?
Factors involving both the model and the learner can play a role in whether social learning is
successful. Certain requirements and steps must also be followed.

The following steps are involved in the observational learning and modeling process:1
  Attention: In order to learn, you need to be paying attention. Anything that distracts your
attention is going to have a negative effect on observational learning. If the model is interesting or
there is a novel aspect of the situation, you are far more likely to dedicate your full attention to
learning.
 Retention: The ability to store information is also an important part of the learning process.
Retention can be affected by a number of factors, but the ability to pull up information later and
act on it is vital to observational learning.
 Reproduction: Once you have paid attention to the model and retained the information, it is time
to actually perform the behavior you observed. Further practice of the learned behavior leads to
improvement and skill advancement.
 Motivation: Finally, in order for observational learning to be successful, you have to be
motivated to imitate the behavior that has been modeled. Reinforcement and punishment play an
important role in motivation.
While experiencing these motivators can be highly effective, so can observing others
experiencing some type of reinforcement or punishment. For example, if you see another student
rewarded with extra credit for being to class on time, you might start to show up a few minutes
early each day.

Real World Applications

Social learning theory can have a number of real-world applications. For example, it can
be used to help researchers understand how aggression and violence might be transmitted
through observational learning. By studying media violence, researchers can gain a better
understanding of the factors that might lead children to act out the aggressive actions they see
portrayed on television and in the movies.

But social learning can also be utilized to teach people positive behaviors. Researchers
can use social learning theory to investigate and understand ways that positive role models can
be used to encourage desirable behaviors and to facilitate social change.

C. Development of Motivation and Self-Regulation

1. Content Theories

Hierarchy of Needs (Maslow)

Maslow's need-hierarchy theory argues that job satisfaction implies that an individual's
need in the job environment is based on a five-tier model of human needs, arranged in ascending
order of importance (physiological, safety, belonging, esteem, and self-actualization).

1. Physiological needs (food, water, shelter, sex, and other bodily needs) refer to salary and
working conditions.

2. Safety needs (security, protection from harm, stability) are related to job security, employment
benefits, and safe working conditions.
3. Social needs (affection, acceptance, feelings of belonging, friendship) refer to interpersonal
relationship with workers, supervisors, and subordinates.

4. Esteem needs (autonomy, self-respect, recognition) are related to titles, promotion, status, and
rank.

5. Self-actualization needs (personal growth, achievement of one's potential, advancement, self-

fulfillment) refer to career advancement and challenging work assignments.

According to Maslow (1954), the more basic needs must be satisfied in a gradual manner
as translated into the hierarchy before the ultimate needs, especially self-actualization needs, can
be fulfilled. Wahba and Bridwell (1976) conducted a review of research about Maslow's theory
and found no evidence of a human hierarchy of needs.

ERG Theory (Alderfer)

Maslow's hierarchy of needs and the Hertzberg two-factor theory inspired the
development of the existence relatedness growth theory (Alderfer, 1969). Similar to Maslow and
Hertzberg, Alderfer (1969) believes that employees do have needs that must be satisfied.
However, he argues that these needs must be understood through a continuum of

- Existence needs: Physiological and safety needs (salary, employment benefits, job security, and
work conditions)

- Relatedness needs: Social and esteem needs (interpersonal relationships with co-workers,
supervisors, subordinates, family members, friends, and other people)

Growth needs: Self-actualization needs (personal development, career advancement, and

fulfillment of one's potential)

Contrary to Maslow's argument that a lower-level need must be satisfied before the next-
level need in the hierarchy becomes operative, Alderfer (1969) argues that employee needs can
be satisfied simultaneously. Contrary to Maslow, Alderfer believes that a satisfied need can
remain a motivator for other job satisfaction needs. Schmidt, Gast-Rosenberg, and Hunter (1980)
found evidence that indicates the validity of Alderfer's theory. Wanous and Zwany (1977)
conducted a cross-sectional study that supports the existence of growth, relatedness, and
existence needs as classified by Alderfer. However, Wanous and Zwany (1977) found that
Alderfer's theory is not applicable to some organizations.

Theory of Needs (McClelland)

McClelland’s theory of needs is one such theory that explains this process of motivation
by breaking down what and how needs are and how they have to be approached. David
McClelland was an American Psychologist who developed his theory of needs or Achievement
Theory of Motivation which revolves around three important aspects, namely, Achievement,
Power And Affiliation.

Need For Achievement

The need for achievement as the name itself suggests is the urge to achieve something in
what you do. If you are a lawyer it is the need to win cases and be recognized, if you are a
painter it is the need to paint a famous painting. It is the need that drives a person to work and
even struggle for the objective that he wants to achieve. People who possess high achievement
needs are people who always work to excel by particularly avoiding low reward low-risk
situations and difficult to achieve high-risk situations.

Such people avoid low-risk situations because of the lack of a real challenge and their
understanding that such achievement is not genuine. They also avoid high-risk situations because
they perceive and understand it to be more about luck and chance and not about one’s own effort.
The more the achievements they make the higher their performance because of higher levels of
motivation.

Need For Power

The need for power is the desire within a person to hold control and authority over
another person and influence and change their decision in accordance with his own needs or
desires. The need to enhance their self-esteem and reputation drives these people and they desire
their views and ideas to be accepted and implemented over the views and ideas over others.

These people are strong leaders and can be best suited to leading positions. They either
belong to Personal or Institutional power motivator groups. If they are a personal power
motivator they would have the need to control others and an institutional power motivator seeks
to lead and coordinate a team towards an end.

Need For Affiliation

The need for affiliation is the urge of a person to have interpersonal and social
relationships with others or a particular set of people. They seek to work in groups by creating
friendly and lasting relationships and has the urge to be liked by others. They tend to like
collaborating with others to competing with them and usually avoids high-risk situations and
uncertainty

The individuals motivated by the need for affiliation prefer being part of a group. They
like spending their time socializing and maintaining relationships and possess a strong desire to
be loved and accepted. These individuals stick to basics and play by the books without feeling a
need to change things, primarily due to a fear of being rejected.
Two Factors Theory (Herzberg)

The two-factor theory is built on the foundations of Maslow's theory and aims to
understand the factors that determine job satisfaction. According to Herztberg (1959), job
satisfaction is inherent to the job itself, and is positioned in a double continuum composed of
motivator and hygiene factors. The motivators are "job satisfiers" that fulfill the psychological
growth of a worker, and include intrinsic factors, such as responsibility, recognition,
advancement, and opportunity for growth. The hygiene factors are "job satisfiers" associated
with the work environment and constitute needs that must be met to prevent dissatisfaction.
Hygiene factors encompass extrinsic variables, such as wages and salaries, work conditions,
supervision, organizational policies, relationships with peers, and personal life (Castillo & Cano,
2004).

Hertzberg's two-factor theory contributed to the advancement of research on job

satisfaction. This theory has introduced the use of double scales (satisfaction/dissatisfaction) to
measure job satisfaction. Basset-Jones and Lloyd (2005) argue that Hertzberg's theory challenges
the conventional assumption that money is the principal factor of employee satisfaction.
However, some argue that the motivation-hygiene theory is limited by its methodology
(Solomon & Corbit, 1973), ignores situational variables (House & Wigdor, 1967), and is based
on a nonevident relationship between satisfaction and productivity (House & Wigdor, 1967).

2. Process Theories

Reinforcement Theory (Skinner)

Operant conditioning is a method of learning that occurs through rewards and

punishments for behavior. Through operant conditioning, an individual makes an association
between a particular behavior and a consequence (Skinner, 1938).

By the 1920s, John B. Watson had left academic psychology, and other behaviorists were
becoming influential, proposing new forms of learning other than classical conditioning. Perhaps
the most important of these was Burrhus Frederic Skinner. Although, for obvious reasons, he is
more commonly known as B.F. Skinner.

Skinner's views were slightly less extreme than those of Watson (1913). Skinner believed
that we do have such a thing as a mind, but that it is simply more productive to study observable
behavior rather than internal mental events.

The work of Skinner was rooted in a view that classical conditioning was far too
simplistic to be a complete explanation of complex human behavior. He believed that the best
way to understand behavior is to look at the causes of an action and its consequences. He called
this approach operant conditioning.
BF Skinner: Operant Conditioning

Skinner is regarded as the father of Operant Conditioning, but his work was based on
Thorndike’s (1898) law of effect. According to this principle, behavior that is followed by
pleasant consequences is likely to be repeated, and behavior followed by unpleasant
consequences is less likely to be repeated.

Skinner introduced a new term into the Law of Effect - Reinforcement. behavior which is
reinforced tends to be repeated (i.e., strengthened); behavior which is not reinforced tends to die
out-or be extinguished (i.e., weakened).

Skinner (1948) studied operant conditioning by conducting experiments using animals

which he placed in a 'Skinner Box' which was similar to Thorndike’s puzzle box.

Skinner identified three types of responses, or operant, that can follow behavior.

• Neutral operants: responses from the environment that neither increase nor decrease the
probability of a behavior being repeated.

• Reinforcers: Responses from the environment that increase the probability of a behavior being
repeated. Reinforcers can be either positive or negative.

• Punishers: Responses from the environment that decrease the likelihood of a behavior being
repeated. Punishment weakens behavior.

We can all think of examples of how our own behavior has been affected by reinforcers
and punishers. As a child you probably tried out a number of behaviors and learned from their
consequences. 

For example, if when you were younger you tried smoking at school, and the chief
consequence was that you got in with the crowd you always wanted to hang out with, you would
have been positively reinforced (i.e., rewarded) and would be likely to repeat the behavior.

If, however, the main consequence was that you were caught, caned, suspended from
school and your parents became involved you would most certainly have been punished, and you
would consequently be much less likely to smoke now.

Positive Reinforcement

Skinner showed how positive reinforcement worked by placing a hungry rat in his
Skinner box. The box contained a lever on the side, and as the rat moved about the box, it would
accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so a food pellet would drop into a container next
to the lever.
 The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few times of being put in the
box. The consequence of receiving food if they pressed the lever ensured that they would repeat
the action again and again.

Positive reinforcement strengthens a behavior by providing a consequence an individual

finds rewarding. For example, if your teacher gives you £5 each time you complete your
homework (i.e., a reward) you will be more likely to repeat this behavior in the future, thus
strengthening the behavior of completing your homework.

Negative Reinforcement

The removal of an unpleasant reinforcer can also strengthen behavior. This is known as
negative reinforcement because it is the removal of an adverse stimulus which is ‘rewarding’ to
the animal or person. Negative reinforcement strengthens behavior because it stops or removes
an unpleasant experience.

For example, if you do not complete your homework, you give your teacher £5. You will
complete your homework to avoid paying £5, thus strengthening the behavior of completing your
homework.

Skinner showed how negative reinforcement worked by placing a rat in his Skinner box
and then subjecting it to an unpleasant electric current which caused it some discomfort. As the
rat moved about the box it would accidentally knock the lever. Immediately it did so the electric
current would be switched off. The rats quickly learned to go straight to the lever after a few
times of being put in the box. The consequence of escaping the electric current ensured that they
would repeat the action again and again.

In fact Skinner even taught the rats to avoid the electric current by turning on a light just
before the electric current came on. The rats soon learned to press the lever when the light came
on because they knew that this would stop the electric current being switched on.

These two learned responses are known as Escape Learning and Avoidance Learning.

Punishment (weakens behavior)

Punishment is defined as the opposite of reinforcement since it is designed to weaken or

eliminate a response rather than increase it. It is an aversive event that decreases the behavior
that it follows.

Like reinforcement, punishment can work either by directly applying an unpleasant

stimulus like a shock after a response or by removing a potentially rewarding stimulus, for
instance, deducting someone’s pocket money to punish undesirable behavior.

Note: It is not always easy to distinguish between punishment and negative

reinforcement.
There are many problems with using punishment, such as:

 Punished behavior is not forgotten, it's suppressed - behavior returns when punishment is no
longer present.
 Causes increased aggression - shows that aggression is a way to cope with problems.
 Creates fear that can generalize to undesirable behaviors, e.g., fear of school.
 Does not necessarily guide toward desired behavior - reinforcement tells you what to do,
punishment only tells you what not to do.

Expectancy Theory (Vroom)

What is Vroom’s Expectancy Theory?

In 1964, Canadian professor of psychology Victor Vroom developed the Expectancy

Theory. In it, he studied people’s motivation and concluded it depends on three factors:
Expectancy, instrumentality and valence. Abraham Maslow and Frederick Herzberg also
researched the relation between people’s needs and the efforts they make. Vroom distinguishes
between the effort people put in, their performance and the final result. His theory primarily
relates to motivation within a work environment. When employees can make choices in their
work, Victor Vroom argues that they will mostly choose that what motivates them the most.

What are the 3 components of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory : Motivational force formula

Victor Vroom uses a formula to calculate the motivational force:

Motivational force = Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence

Expectancy

This is about what employees expect from their own efforts and the relation to good
performance. Part of this expectation is the level of difficulty he experiences. An organisation
can respond to that by finding out which factors can motivate the employee to deliver his best
possible performance. Those factors can be facilities, training or support from a supervisor who
builds his employees’ confidence. Victor Vroom indicates that, in general, more effort leads to
better performance. Employees can be stimulated to make an effort by offering them a juicy
carrot if they complete their task properly and quickly. Of course, it’s also important that they
have the right resources at their disposal, that the employees have the necessary skills and that
management provides the right level of support.

Instrumentality

Each employee is a cog in the machine and an instrument that contributes to the business results.
From that perspective, instrumentality isn’t difficult to grasp. It’s about the employee’s
performance being good enough to achieve the desired result. An organisation can stimulate this
by actually making good on promises of additional rewards such as bonuses or promotion. The
employee has to believe that if he performs well, appreciation will be shown for the results.
Transparency throughout the reward process is an important condition for instrumentality.

Valence

The final result that employees achieve is valued differently by each individual. This value is
based on their own basic needs. As such, it’s a good idea for an organisation to find out what an
individual employee values and what his personal needs are. One might value money, while
another values more days off.

Vroom’s Expectancy Theory : Individual factors

According to Victor Vroom, behaviour is the result of a conscious choice from alternatives.
Employees have a preference for getting the most possible joy from their work with little effort.
Individual factors play a large role in the goals that have to be achieved and the behaviour of
employees. For instance, think of an employee’s personality, his knowledge and skills, and the
expectations he has of his own abilities. Together, these form a motivating force that makes the
employee act in a certain way. The individual effort, performance and motivation are always
interconnected. To properly motivate employees, Vroom argues that it’s essential that there is a
positive correlation between effort and performance.

Perception

Perception is an important factor in Vroom’s Expectancy Theory. An organisation might

perceive that it, as an employer, offers its employees everything they need to sufficiently
motivate them. For instance, a salary that’s 10% above industry average, 10 extra days off,
training programmes, or career opportunities. But not all employees will be sufficiently
motivated by that; each individual has a different perception. There might be employees who
would appreciate more support from their supervisor. If an organisation fails in that respect,
chances are the employees will be less motivated. Vroom’s Expectancy Theory of motivation is
not always about employee’s personal interest in rewards. It’s also about the associations
employees have regarding their performance and the result it will yield.

Application of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory

According to Vroom’s Expectancy Theory, you can expect employees will increase their efforts
at work when the reward has more personal value to them. They’ll be more aware of the fact that
there is a link between their effort and the results. It means that both the organisation and the
employee have to be aware of the following three processes:

1. Increased efforts will improve work performance

2. Increased performance will lead to bigger rewards
3. The offered reward will be appreciated by the employee

If one of these conditions is not met, it’s hard to motivate the employee. Particularly the last part
can become an issue. An organisation therefore has to find out – together with its employees –
which rewards individual employees value; which rewards motivate them. Organisations often
consider financial bonuses to be the best way to motivate employees, even though the
Expectancy Theory shows that this is by no means always the most important factor to
employees. That’s why there has to be a proper balance between offering a financial bonus and
setting a clear performance standard, tailored to individual employees.

Goal Setting Theory (Locke)

Locke’s primary revelation was around the power of setting specific and measurable
goals, rather than keeping outcomes general. With his theory he demonstrated how targets like
“increase sales by 20%” or “reach a customer NPS of 50” are much more effective than vague
direction such as “complete your work to a higher standard”. This might seem obvious to those
of us who have sat down to work out our KPIs, but this really was Locke’s brainchild. He gave
us the foundation for modern goal-setting which had momentous practical implications for
managers.

Locke also demonstrated that the best way to feel motivated is to push yourself to do
something that you’re not 100% certain you can achieve. Tackling challenging goals headfirst
allows you to work hard, develop your skills and reap the rewards in terms of positive feedback
and a sense of personal achievement. Speaking directly to Locke ourselves, he noted that
managers can also use “impossible” goals to promote creativity – employees just need to be
assured that there’s no punishment for not meeting ambitious targets.

Locke and Latham’s five principles of effective goal setting

1. Clarity. A goal must be specific and clear.

2. Challenge. An easy or tedious goal is demotivating. But keep a realistic balance: don’t expect
anyone on your team to spin straw into gold.
3. Commitment. Your employees have to understand and buy in to the goal from the outset.
4. Feedback. Provide regular feedback throughout the whole process. This helps to keep the goal on
track.
5. Task complexity. Think about realistic timescales, and break down the process into sub-goals
with regular reviews.

Applying Locke’s Goal Setting Theory in the workplace

A few years after its publication, Dr. Gary Latham started studying Locke’s theory in
practice, and soon confirmed that the link between goal-setting and performance was both real,
and crucial. Later, in the 1990s, Locke and Latham collaborated and published A Theory of Goal
Setting & Task Performance, which expanded on 1968’s Goal-Setting Theory, and became a key
manual for employee engagement.

In A Theory of Goal Setting, Locke and Latham broke down goals into two main
characteristics: Content and Intensity. Content is the outcome of the task, and Intensity is the
resource required to achieve it – which can be both mental and physical. The theory highlighted
the importance of considering the whole journey of completing a goal and not just the outcome.
Involving employees in directing the route taken to complete a task was shown to increase their
motivation to reach the target.

Understanding how Locke’s Goal Setting Theory impacts employee engagement

The beauty of Locke’s work is that it doesn’t just apply to Goal-Setting, but can also be
thought of in terms of other employee engagement drivers.

The concept of Intensity, and the importance of consulting employees on the approach to
a goal, highlights a crucial need for Autonomy in the workplace. In order for employees to feel
intrinsically motivated to complete a task, Locke showed that they need to be involved in its
conception, and afforded a degree of freedom in how they tackle it.

Similarly, the value Locke places on setting hard-to-reach goals can be considered as a
way to promote a sense of Accomplishment. By pushing employees outside of their comfort
zone, they are more likely to achieve that overwhelming sense of pride you get when you
outperform your own expectations.

One final word from Edwin Locke himself: it is vital to first make sure that employees
have the task-based knowledge and essential skills to succeed (think Maslow’s basic needs). As
soon as they are equipped to start tackling their targets, managers can maximise their employees’
potential by following the key principles of goal-setting.

Self-determination Theory (Deci & Ryan)

Self-Determination Theory (SDT) is an important theory of motivation that addresses issues of

extrinsic and intrinsic motivation[1][2][3]. People have innate psychological needs:

 Competence
 Relatedness
 Autonomy

If these universal needs are met, the theory argues that people will function and grow optimally. 
To actualize their inherent potential, the social environment needs to nurture these needs.

Competence
Seek to control the outcome and experience mastery.

Relatedness
Is the universal want to interact, be connected to, and experience caring for others.
Autonomy
Is the universal urge to be causal agents of one’s own life and act in harmony with one’s
integrated self; however, Deci and Vansteenkiste note this does not mean to be independent of
others[4].

Motivation has often been grouped into two main types: extrinsic and intrinsic.  With extrinsic
motivation, a person tends to do a task or activity mainly because doing so will yield some kind
of reward or benefit upon completion.  Intrinsic motivation, in contrast, is characterized by doing
something purely because of enjoyment or fun.

Deci, Lens and Vansteenkiste (2006) conducted a study that demonstrated intrinsic goal framing
(compared to to extrinsic goal framing and no-goal framing) produced deeper engagement in
learning activities, better conceptual learning, and higher persistence at learning activities

D. Moral Development Theories

1. Piaget

Piaget (1932) was principally interested not in what children do (i.e., in whether they break rules
or not) but in what they think. In other words he was interested in children’s moral reasoning.

Piaget was interested in three main aspects of children’s understanding of moral issues. They
were

Children’s understanding of rules. This leads to questions like

• Where do rules come from?

• Can rules be changed?

• Who makes rules?

Children’s understanding of moral responsibility. This leads to questions like

• Who is to blame for “bad” things?

• Is it the outcome of behavior that makes an action “bad”?

• Is there a difference between accidental and deliberate wrongdoing?

Children’s understanding of justice. This leads to questions like

• Should the punishment fit the crime?

• Are the guilty always punished?

Piaget found that children’s ideas regarding rules, moral judgements and punishment tended to
change as they got older. In other words just as there were stages to children’s cognitive
development so there were also universal stages to their moral development.

Piaget (1932) suggested two main types of moral thinking:

1. Heteronomous morality (moral realism)

2. Autonomous morality (moral relativism)

Heteronomous Morality (5-9 yrs)

The stage of heteronomous morality is also known as moral realism – morality imposed from
the outside. Children regard morality as obeying other people's rules and laws, which cannot be
changed.

They accept that all rules are made by some authority figure (e.g. parents, teacher, God), and that
breaking the rules will lead to immediate and severe punishment (immanent justice).

The function of any punishment is to make the guilty suffer in that the severity of the punishment
should be related to severity of wrong-doing (expiatory punishment).

During this stage children consider rules as being absolute and unchanging, i.e. 'divine like'.
They think that rules cannot be changed and have always been the same as they are now.

behavior is judged as “bad” in terms of the observable consequences, regardless on the intentions
or reasons for that behavior. Therefore, a large amount of accidental damage is viewed as worse
than a small amount of deliberate damage.

Autonomous Morality (9-10 yrs)

The stage of autonomous morality is also known as moral relativism – morality based on your
own rules. Children recognize there is no absolute right or wrong and that morality depends on
intentions not consequences.

Piaget believed that around the age of 9-10 children’s understanding of moral issues underwent a
fundamental reorganisation. By now they are beginning to overcome the egocentrism of middle
childhood and have developed the ability to see moral rules from other people’s point of view.

A child who can decentre to take other people’s intentions and circumstances into account can
move to making the more independent moral judgements of the second stage. As a result
children’s ideas on the nature of rules themselves, on moral responsibility and on punishment
and justice all change and their thinking becomes more like that of adults.
Children now understand that rules do not come from some mystical “divine-like” source.
People make rules and people can change them – they are not inscribed on tablets of stone. With
regard to the “rules of the game” older children recognise that rules are needed to prevent
quarrelling and to ensure fair play.

Indeed sometimes they even become quite fascinated with the whole issue and will for example
discuss the rules of board games (like chess, Monopoly, cards) or sport (the off-side rule) with all
the interest of a lawyer. They also recognise that rules can be changed if circumstances dictate
(e.g. “You’ve got one player less so we will give you a three goal start”) and if everybody
agrees.

With regard to issues of blame and moral responsibility older children don’t just take the
consequences into account they also consider motives. Children begin to realize that if they
behave in ways that appear to be wrong, but have good intentions, they are not necessarily going
to be punished. Thus for them a well-intentioned act that turned out badly is less blameworthy
than a malicious act that did no harm.

2. Kohlberg

The Heinz Dilemma

Kohlberg based his theory on a series of moral dilemmas presented to his study subjects.
Participants were also interviewed to determine the reasoning behind their judgments of each
scenario.4

One example was "Heinz Steals the Drug." In this scenario, a woman has cancer and her doctors
believe only one drug might save her. This drug had been discovered by a local pharmacist and
he was able to make it for $200 per dose and sell it for $2,000 per dose. The woman's husband,
Heinz, could only raise $1,000 to buy the drug.

He tried to negotiate with the pharmacist for a lower price or to be extended credit to pay for it
over time. But the pharmacist refused to sell it for any less or to accept partial payments.
Rebuffed, Heinz instead broke into the pharmacy and stole the drug to save his wife. Kohlberg
asked, "Should the husband have done that?"

Kohlberg was not interested so much in the answer to whether Heinz was wrong or right but in
the reasoning for each participant's decision. He then classified their reasoning into the stages of
his theory of moral development.5

Level 1. Preconventional Morality

The earliest stages of moral development, obedience and punishment, are especially common in
young children, but adults are also capable of expressing this type of reasoning. At this stage,
Kohlberg says, people see rules as fixed and absolute.6 Obeying the rules is important because it
is a means to avoid punishment.

At the individualism and exchange stage of moral development, children account for individual
points of view and judge actions based on how they serve individual needs. In the Heinz
dilemma, children argued that the best course of action was the choice that best served Heinz’s
needs. Reciprocity is possible at this point in moral development, but only if it serves one's own
interests.

Level 2. Conventional Morality

Often referred to as the "good boy-good girl" orientation, the stage of the interpersonal
relationship of moral development is focused on living up to social expectations and roles.6
There is an emphasis on conformity, being "nice," and consideration of how choices influence
relationships.

This stage is focused on maintaining social order. At this stage of moral development, people
begin to consider society as a whole when making judgments. The focus is on maintaining law
and order by following the rules, doing one’s duty, and respecting authority.

Level 3. Postconventional Morality

The ideas of a social contract and individual rights cause people in the next stage to begin to
account for the differing values, opinions, and beliefs of other people.6 Rules of law are
important for maintaining a society, but members of the society should agree upon these
standards.

Kohlberg’s final level of moral reasoning is based on universal ethical principles and abstract
reasoning. At this stage, people follow these internalized principles of justice, even if they
conflict with laws and rules.

3. Turiel

Elliot Turiel notes that individuals can tell the difference between rules that are moral and
rues that are social-conventional, is that children are not born to differentiate from a level of
reasoning that is individualized into a level that is social-conventional into a level that has
universal moral ideals, as Kohlberg said. Rather these individuals identify individual, social-
conventional, and moral issues as operating as three different domains. Basically, individuals see
things such as prudential issues, authority issues, and issues of harm as three different
things. Prudential issues are small issues such as what to have breakfast. Authority issues are
issue such as should I eat this cookie even though Mom said not to. Finally, issues of harm are
self-explanatory, to which they are basically hitting or causing harm to others.
 Social-conventional rules are culturally dependent and cover the issues of social etiquette.
These rules are also authority dependent and context specific. Essentially meaning that these
rules are only rules because someone who has authority over the individual said it was a rule.
Moral rules focus on issues of welfare, justice, and harm. These rules are authority independent
and are used across contexts, even ones that the individual has not experienced yet. Children
however, do not need to be told that this is a rules and it only holds when there is an authority
figure in the premise.

Moral Emotions
Moral emotions allows us to be able to know how our behavior will be seen from the
public point of view. Moral emotions such as shame, guilt, pride, and gratitude are some just to
name a few. Shame and guilt are called negative moral emotions. Shame means to have a
negative evaluation of one's self and it is also the feeling of feeling worthless. Guilt means to
have a negative evaluation of one's actions, and it also is the feeling of feeling remorse. Pride and
gratitude are considered to be positive moral emotions. Pride is the individual response to a
moral standard and it is also the feeling of being proud. Gratitude on the other hand, is the
response to another person's behavior via moral standard and is also the feeling of feeling
thankful.

4. Gilligan

Carol Gilligan created a moral development theory that was used as an approach to
reasoning. When researching morality and human development, Gilligan discovered that women
tended to score lower on the scales of morality compared to men. Not agreeing with the idea that
women were morally inferior to men, she began a process of interviewing women while they had
to make difficult decisions in their lives.

This led her to assert that women were different, not inferior, to men and that previous
development theories were based on definitions that would apply only to men with accuracy.
Women, Gilligan asserted, would focus on connections with people instead of separation, driven
by an ethic of care for people instead of an ethic for justice.

This process led her to develop a moral development theory that would be more closely
associated with women instead of men.

The Three Stages of Gilligan’s Moral Development Theory

Gilligan produced a theory that had three stages that would lead to the ethic of care that
would form the foundation of moral development.

1. The Pre-conventional Stage: In this stage, the goal of a woman is to survive. She is focused
on individuality and making sure that her basic needs have been met. The ability to meet
personal needs takes a priority over the ability to meet the person needs of others. If it is either
her or them, she will choose herself every time in this stage of moral development.
2. The Conventional Stage: In this stage, a woman recognizes that self-sacrifice can be a source
of “goodness” in her life. She recognizes the need to help other people and finds moral
satisfaction in being able to meet those needs. Instead of focusing on her own self-survival, she is
focused on helping others to survive in the best way possible.

3. The Post-conventional Stage: In this stage, a woman recognizes that the “ends no longer
justify the means” to have needs met. Whether she is focused on her survival or the survival of
others, there is a principle of non-violence that applies to every decision that she makes. She
does not wish to hurt herself or hurt others, looking for alternative methods to have needs met so
that everyone can progress forward with their care.

Gilligan suggests that there are two transitions that occur during the stages of the ethic of
care as well. The first transition, which occurs between the pre-conventional and conventional
stages, moves a woman’s moral ethics from one that is selfish to one that shares a responsibility
to care for others.

The second transition, which occurs between the conventional and post-conventional
stages, is a transition that moves a woman from being focused on “good” to being focused on
“truth.” Instead of looking for ways to survive for herself and for others, she begins to look for
options that are fueled by a need to stay true to certain moral constants.

Gilligan proposes that there is no approximate age for a woman to reach each stage. She
even suggests that some women may never reach the post-conventional stage. What she does
suggest is that movement through the stages is based more on cognitive capability and changes
to a woman’s sense of self rather than built-up experiences.

Unit 5 – Behavioral Learning Theories and Approaches to Learning

A. What is Learning?

Learning is often defined as a relatively lasting change in behavior that is the result of
experience. When you think of learning, it might be easy to fall into the trap of only considering
formal education that takes place during childhood and early adulthood: but learning is
realistically an ongoing process taking place throughout all of life.

B. Approaches to Learning
1. Behavioral

In the classroom, the behavioral learning theory is key in understanding how to

motivate and help students. Information is transferred from teachers to learners from a response
to the right stimulus. Students are a passive participant in behavioral learning—teachers are
giving them the information as an element of stimulus-response. Teachers use behaviorism to
 show students how they should react and respond to certain stimuli. This needs to be done in a
repetitive way, to regularly remind students what behavior a teacher is looking for. 

Positive reinforcement is key in the behavioral learning theory. Without positive

reinforcement, students will quickly abandon their responses because they don’t appear to be
working. For example, if students are supposed to get a sticker every time they get an A on a test,
and then teachers stop giving that positive reinforcement, less students may get A’s on their tests,
because the behavior isn’t connected to a reward for them. 

Repetition and positive reinforcement go hand-in-hand with the behavioral learning

theory. Teachers often work to strike the right balance of repeating the situation and having the
positive reinforcement come to show students why they should continue that behavior. 

Motivation plays an important role in behavioral learning. Positive and negative

reinforcement can be motivators for students. For example, a student who receives praise for a
good test score is much more likely to learn the answers effectively than a student who receives
no praise for a good test score. The student who receives no praise is experiencing negative
reinforcement—their brain tells them that though they got a good grade, it didn’t really matter,
so the material of the test becomes unimportant to them. Conversely students who receive
positive reinforcement see a direct correlation to continuing excellence, completely based on that
response to a positive stimulus.  

2. Social Cognitive

A major component of social cognitive theory is observational learning. Bandura’s ideas

about learning stood in contrast to those of behaviorists like B.F. Skinner. According to Skinner,
learning could only be achieved by taking individual action. However, Bandura claimed that
observational learning, through which people observe and imitate models they encounter in their
environment, enables people to acquire information much more quickly.

Observational learning occurs through a sequence of four processes:

1. Attentional processes account for the information that is selected for observation in the
environment. People might select to observe real-life models or models they encounter via media.
2. Retention processes involve remembering the observed information so it can be successfully
recalled and reconstructed later.
3. Production processes reconstruct the memories of the observations so what was learned can be
applied in appropriate situations. In many cases, this doesn’t mean the observer will replicate the
observed action exactly, but that they will modify the behavior to produce a variation that fits the
context.
4. Motivational processes determine whether or not an observed behavior is performed based on
whether that behavior was observed to result in desired or adverse outcomes for the model. If an
observed behavior was rewarded, the observer will be more motivated to reproduce it later.
However, if a behavior was punished in some way, the observer would be less motivated to
reproduce it. Thus, social cognitive theory cautions that people don’t perform every behavior they
learn through modeling.
Self-Efficacy

In addition to the information models can convey during observational learning, models
can also increase or decrease the observer’s belief in their self-efficacy to enact observed
behaviors and bring about desired outcomes from those behaviors. When people see others like
them succeed, they also believe they can be capable of succeeding. Thus, models are a source of
motivation and inspiration.

Perceptions of self-efficacy influence people’s choices and beliefs in themselves,

including the goals they choose to pursue and the effort they put into them, how long they’re
willing to persevere in the face of obstacles and setbacks, and the outcomes they expect. Thus,
self-efficacy influences one’s motivations to perform various actions and one's belief in their
ability to do so.

Such beliefs can impact personal growth and change. For example, research has shown
that enhancing self-efficacy beliefs is more likely to result in the improvement of health habits
than the use of fear-based communication. Belief in one’s self-efficacy can be the difference
between whether or not an individual even considers making positive changes in their life.

Modeling Media

The prosocial potential of media models has been demonstrated through serial dramas
that were produced for developing communities on issues such as literacy, family planning, and
the status of women. These dramas have been successful in bringing about positive social
change, while demonstrating the relevance and applicability of social cognitive theory to media.

For example, a television show in India was produced to raise women’s status and
promote smaller families by embedding these ideas in the show. The show championed gender
equality by including characters that positively modeled women’s equality. In addition, there
were other characters that modeled subservient women’s roles and some that transitioned
between subservience and equality. The show was popular, and despite its melodramatic
narrative, viewers understood the messages it modeled. These viewers learned that women
should have equal rights, should have the freedom to choose how they live their lives, and be
able to limit the size of their families. In this example and others, the tenets of social cognitive
theory have been utilized to make a positive impact through fictional media models.

3. Information processing

During the first half of the twentieth century, American psychology was dominated by
behaviorism. Behaviorists only studied behaviors that could be directly observed. This made the
inner-workings of the mind seem like an unknowable “black box.” Around the 1950s, however,
computers came into existence, giving psychologists a metaphor to explain how the human mind
functioned. The metaphor helped psychologists explain the different processes the brain engages
in, including attention and perception, which could be compared to inputting information into a
computer, and memory, which could be compared to a computer’s storage space.

This was referred to as the information processing approach and is still fundamental to
cognitive psychology today. Information processing is especially interested in how people select,
store and retrieve memories. In 1956, psychologist George A. Miller developed the theory and
also contributed the idea that one can only hold a limited number of pieces of information in
short-term memory. Miller specified this number as seven plus or minus two (or five to nine
chunks of information), but more recently other scholars have suggested the number may be
smaller.

Atkinson and Shiffrin’s Stage Theory

In 1968, Atkinson and Shiffrin developed the stage theory model. The model was later
modified by other researchers but the basic outline of stage theory continues to be a cornerstone
of information processing theory. The model concerns how information is stored in memory and
presents a sequence of three stages, as follows:

Sensory Memory — Sensory memory involves whatever we take in through our senses. This
kind of memory is exceedingly brief, only lasting up to 3 seconds. In order for something to
enter sensory memory, the individual has to pay attention to it. Sensory memory can’t attend to
every piece of information in the environment, so it filters out what it deems irrelevant and only
sends what seems important to the next stage, short-term memory. The information that’s most
likely to reach the next stage is either interesting or familiar.

Short-Term Memory/Working Memory — Once information reaches short-term memory,

which is also called working memory, it is filtered further. Once again, this kind of memory
doesn’t last long, only about 15 to 20 seconds. However, if information is repeated, which is
referred to as maintenance rehearsal, it can be stored for up to 20 minutes. As observed by
Miller, working memory’s capacity is limited so it can only process a certain number of pieces of
information at a time. How many pieces is not agreed on, although many still point to Miller to
identify the number as five to nine.

Long-Term Memory — Although short-term memory has a limited capacity, the capacity of long-term
memory is thought to be limitless. Several different types of information are encoded and organized in
long-term memory: declarative information, which is information that can be discussed such as facts,
concepts, and ideas (semantic memory) and personal experiences (episodic memory); procedural
information, which is information about how to do something like drive a car or brush your teeth; and
imagery, which are mental pictures.

4. Cognitive constructivist

Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to existing
knowledge, as well as enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their existing intellectual
framework to accommodate that information.
View of Knowledge

While behaviorists maintain that knowledge is a passively absorbed behavioral repertoire,

cognitive constructivists argue instead that knowledge is actively constructed by learners and that
any account of knowledge makes essential references to cognitive structures. Knowledge
comprises active systems of intentional mental representations derived from past learning
experiences. Each learner interprets experiences and information in the light of their extant
knowledge, their stage of cognitive development, their cultural background, their personal
history, and so forth. Learners use these factors to organize their experience and to select and
transform new information. Knowledge is therefore actively constructed by the learner rather
than passively absorbed; it is essentially dependent on the standpoint from which the learner
approaches it.

View of Learning

Because knowledge is actively constructed, learning is presented as a process of active

discovery. The role of the instructor is not to drill knowledge into students through consistent
repetition, or to goad them into learning through carefully employed rewards and punishments.
Rather, the role of the teacher is to facilitate discovery by providing the necessary resources and
by guiding learners as they attempt to assimilate new knowledge to old and to modify the old to
accommodate the new. Teachers must thus take into account the knowledge that the learner
currently possesses when deciding how to construct the curriculum and how to present,
sequence, and structure new material.

View of Motivation

Unlike behaviorist learning theory, where learners are thought to be motivated by

extrinsic factors such as rewards and punishment, cognitive learning theory sees motivation as
largely intrinsic. Because it involves significant restructuring of existing cognitive structures,
successful learning requires a major personal investment on the part of the learner (Perry 1999,
54). Learners must face up to the limitations of their existing knowledge and accept the need to
modify or abandon existing beliefs. Without some kind of internal drive on the part of the learner
to do so, external rewards and punishments such as grades are unlikely to be sufficient.

Implications for Teaching

Cognitivist teaching methods aim to assist students in assimilating new information to

existing knowledge, and enabling them to make the appropriate modifications to their existing
intellectual framework to accommodate that information. Thus, while cognitivists allow for the
use of “skill and drill” exercises in the memorization of facts, formulae, and lists, they place
greater importance on strategies that help students to actively assimilate and accommodate new
material. For instance, asking students to explain new material in their own words can assist
them in assimilating it by forcing them to re-express the new ideas in their existing vocabulary.
Likewise, providing students with sets of questions to structure their reading makes it easier for
them to relate it to previous material by highlighting certain parts and to accommodate the new
material by providing a clear organizational structure. Because learning is largely self-motivated
in the cognitivist framework, cognitivists such as A. L. Brown and J. D. Ferrara have also
suggested methods which require students to monitor their own learning. For instance, the use of
ungraded tests and study questions enables students to monitor their own understanding of the
material. Other methods that have been suggested include the use of learning journals by
students to monitor progress, to highlight any recurring difficulties, and to analyze study habits.

C. Connectionism (Edward Thorndike)

The learning theory of Thorndike represents the original S-R framework of behavioral
psychology: Learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses. Such
associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-
R pairings. The paradigm for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses
come to dominate others due to rewards. The hallmark of connectionism (like all behavioral
theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without refering to any unobservable
internal states.

Thorndike’s theory consists of three primary laws: (1) law of effect – responses to a
situation which are followed by a rewarding state of affairs will be strengthened and become
habitual responses to that situation, (2) law of readiness – a series of responses can be chained
together to satisfy some goal which will result in annoyance if blocked, and (3) law of exercise –
connections become strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is discontinued. A
corollary of the law of effect was that responses that reduce the likelihood of achieving a
rewarding state (i.e., punishments, failures) will decrease in strength.

The theory suggests that transfer of learning depends upon the presence of identical
elements in the original and new learning situations; i.e., transfer is always specific, never
general. In later versions of the theory, the concept of “belongingness” was introduced;
connections are more readily established if the person perceives that stimuli or responses go
together (c.f. Gestalt principles). Another concept introduced was “polarity” which specifies that
connections occur more easily in the direction in which they were originally formed than the
opposite. Thorndike also introduced the “spread of effect” idea, i.e., rewards affect not only the
connection that produced them but temporally adjacent connections as well.

Application

Connectionism was meant to be a general theory of learning for animals and humans. Thorndike
was especially interested in the application of his theory to education including mathematics
(Thorndike, 1922), spelling and reading (Thorndike, 1921), measurement of intelligence
(Thorndike et al., 1927) and adult learning (Thorndike at al., 1928).

Example

The classic example of Thorndike’s S-R theory was a cat learning to escape from a “puzzle box”
by pressing a lever inside the box. After much trial and error behavior, the cat learns to associate
pressing the lever (S) with opening the door (R). This S-R connection is established because it
results in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the box). The law of exercise specifies that the
connection was established because the S-R pairing occurred many times (the law of effect) and
was rewarded (law of effect) as well as forming a single sequence (law of readiness).

Principles

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect /exercise)

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence
(law of readiness).
3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.
4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

D. Conditioning
1. Classical

Classical conditioning (also known as Pavlovian conditioning) is learning through

association and was discovered by Pavlov, a Russian physiologist. In simple terms, two stimuli
are linked together to produce a new learned response in a person or animal.

John Watson proposed that the process of classical conditioning (based on Pavlov’s
observations) was able to explain all aspects of human psychology.

Everything from speech to emotional responses was simply patterns of stimulus and
response. Watson denied completely the existence of the mind or consciousness. Watson
believed that all individual differences in behavior were due to different experiences of learning.
He famously said:

"Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own specified world to bring them up in
and I'll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to become any type of specialist I might select -
doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief and, yes, even beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents,
penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations and the race of his ancestors” (Watson, 1924, p. 104).

Classical Conditioning Examples

There are three stages of classical conditioning. At each stage the stimuli and responses
are given special scientific terms:

Stage 1: Before Conditioning:

In this stage, the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) in an
organism.
In basic terms, this means that a stimulus in the environment has produced a behavior / response
which is unlearned (i.e., unconditioned) and therefore is a natural response which has not been
taught. In this respect, no new behavior has been learned yet.

For example, a stomach virus (UCS) would produce a response of nausea (UCR). In another
example, a perfume (UCS) could create a response of happiness or desire (UCR).

This stage also involves another stimulus which has no effect on a person and is called the
neutral stimulus (NS). The NS could be a person, object, place, etc.

The neutral stimulus in classical conditioning does not produce a response until it is paired with
the unconditioned stimulus.

Stage 2: During Conditioning:

During this stage, a stimulus which produces no response (i.e., neutral) is associated with the
unconditioned stimulus at which point it now becomes known as the conditioned stimulus (CS).

For example, a stomach virus (UCS) might be associated with eating a certain food such as chocolate
(CS). Also, perfume (UCS) might be associated with a specific person (CS).

For classical conditioning to be effective, the conditioned stimulus should occur before the
unconditioned stimulus, rather than after it, or during the same time. Thus, the conditioned
stimulus acts as a type of signal or cue for the unconditioned stimulus.

Often during this stage, the UCS must be associated with the CS on a number of occasions, or
trials, for learning to take place. However, one trail learning can happen on certain occasions
when it is not necessary for an association to be strengthened over time (such as being sick after
food poisoning or drinking too much alcohol).

Stage 3: After Conditioning:

Now the conditioned stimulus (CS) has been associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS)
to create a new conditioned response (CR).

For example, a person (CS) who has been associated with nice perfume (UCS) is now found attractive
(CR). Also, chocolate (CS) which was eaten before a person was sick with a virus (UCS) now produces a
response of nausea (CR).

Classical Conditioning in the Classroom

The implications of classical conditioning in the classroom are less important than those of
operant conditioning, but there is a still need for teachers to try to make sure that students
associate positive emotional experiences with learning.
If a student associates negative emotional experiences with school, then this can obviously have
bad results, such as creating a school phobia.

For example, if a student is bullied at school they may learn to associate the school with fear. It
could also explain why some students show a particular dislike of certain subjects that continue
throughout their academic career. This could happen if a student is humiliated or punished in
class by a teacher.

Critical Evaluation

Classical conditioning emphasizes the importance of learning from the environment, and
supports nurture over nature. However, it is limiting to describe behavior solely in terms of either
nature or nurture, and attempts to do this underestimate the complexity of human behavior. It is
more likely that behavior is due to an interaction between nature (biology) and nurture
(environment).

A strength of classical conditioning theory is that it is scientific. This is because it's based on
empirical evidence carried out by controlled experiments. For example, Pavlov (1902) showed
how classical conditioning could be used to make a dog salivate to the sound of a bell.

Classical conditioning is also a reductionist explanation of behavior. This is because a complex

behavior is broken down into smaller stimulus-response units of behavior.

Supporters of a reductionist approach say that it is scientific. Breaking complicated behaviors

down to small parts means that they can be scientifically tested. However, some would argue that
the reductionist view lacks validity. Thus, while reductionism is useful, it can lead to incomplete
explanations.

A final criticism of classical conditioning theory is that it is deterministic. This means that it does
not allow for any degree of free will in the individual. Accordingly, a person has no control over
the reactions they have learned from classical conditioning, such as a phobia.

The deterministic approach also has important implications for psychology as a science.
Scientists are interested in discovering laws which can then be used to predict events. However,
by creating general laws of behavior, deterministic psychology underestimates the uniqueness of
human beings and their freedom to choose their own destiny.

Unit 7 – Safety and Security in the Learning Environment

A. UN Convention on the Rights of the Child and PD 603

Convention on the Rights of the Child: The children's version
1. Definition of a child

A child is any person under the age of 18.

2. No discrimination

All children have all these rights, no matter who they are, where they live, what language they
speak, what their religion is, what they think, what they look like, if they are a boy or girl, if they
have a disability, if they are rich or poor, and no matter who their parents or families are or what
their parents or families believe or do. No child should be treated unfairly for any reason.

3. Best interests of the child

When adults make decisions, they should think about how their decisions will affect children. All
adults should do what is best for children. Governments should make sure children are protected
and looked after by their parents, or by other people when this is needed. Governments should
make sure that people and places responsible for looking after children are doing a good job. 

4. Making rights real

Governments must do all they can to make sure that every child in their countries can enjoy all
the rights in this Convention.

5. Family guidance as children develop

Governments should let families and communities guide their children so that, as they grow up,
they learn to use their rights in the best way. The more children grow, the less guidance they will
need.

6. Life survival and development

Every child has the right to be alive. Governments must make sure that children survive and
develop in the best possible way.

7. Name and nationality

Children must be registered when they are born and given a name which is officially recognized
by the government. Children must have a nationality (belong to a country). Whenever possible,
children should know their parents and be looked after by them.
8. Identity

Children have the right to their own identity – an official record of who they are which includes
their name, nationality and family relations. No one should take this away from them, but if this
happens, governments must help children to quickly get their identity back.

9. Keeping families together

Children should not be separated from their parents unless they are not being properly looked
after – for example, if a parent hurts or does not take care of a child. Children whose parents
don’t live together should stay in contact with both parents unless this might harm the child. 

10. Contact with parents across countries

If a child lives in a different country than their parents, governments must let the child and
parents travel so that they can stay in contact and be together.

11. Protection from kidnapping

Governments must stop children being taken out of the country when this is against the law – for
example, being kidnapped by someone or held abroad by a parent when the other parent does not
agree.

12. Respect for children's views

Children have the right to give their opinions freely on issues that affect them. Adults should
listen and take children seriously.

13. Sharing thoughts freely

Children have the right to share freely with others what they learn, think and feel, by talking,
drawing, writing or in any other way unless it harms other people.

14. Freedom of thought and religion

Children can choose their own thoughts, opinions and religion, but this should not stop other
people from enjoying their rights. Parents can guide children so that as they grow up, they learn
to properly use this right.
15. Setting up or joining groups

Children can join or set up groups or organisations, and they can meet with others, as long as this
does not harm other people.

16. Protection of privacy

Every child has the right to privacy. The law must protect children’s privacy, family, home,
communications and reputation (or good name) from any attack.

17. Access to information

Children have the right to get information from the Internet, radio, television, newspapers, books
and other sources. Adults should make sure the information they are getting is not harmful.
Governments should encourage the media to share information from lots of different sources, in
languages that all children can understand. 

18. Responsibility of parents

Parents are the main people responsible for bringing up a child. When the child does not have
any parents, another adult will have this responsibility and they are called a “guardian”. Parents
and guardians should always consider what is best for that child. Governments should help them.
Where a child has both parents, both of them should be responsible for bringing up the child.

19. Protection from violence

Governments must protect children from violence, abuse and being neglected by anyone who
looks after them.

20. Children without families

Every child who cannot be looked after by their own family has the right to be looked after
properly by people who respect the child’s religion, culture, language and other aspects of their
life.
21. Children who are adopted

When children are adopted, the most important thing is to do what is best for them. If a child
cannot be properly looked after in their own country – for example by living with another family
– then they might be adopted in another country.

22. Refugee children

Children who move from their home country to another country as refugees (because it was not
safe for them to stay there) should get help and protection and have the same rights as children
born in that country.

23. Children with disabilities

Every child with a disability should enjoy the best possible life in society. Governments should
remove all obstacles for children with disabilities to become independent and to participate
actively in the community.

24. Health, water, food, environment

Children have the right to the best health care possible, clean water to drink, healthy food and a
clean and safe environment to live in. All adults and children should have information about how
to stay safe and healthy.

25. Review of a child's placement

Every child who has been placed somewhere away from home - for their care, protection or
health – should have their situation checked regularly to see if everything is going well and if
this is still the best place for the child to be.

26. Social and economic help

Governments should provide money or other support to help children from poor families.

27. Food, clothing, a safe home

Children have the right to food, clothing and a safe place to live so they can develop in the best
possible way. The government should help families and children who cannot afford this.
28. Access to education

Every child has the right to an education. Primary education should be free. Secondary and
higher education should be available to every child. Children should be encouraged to go to
school to the highest level possible. Discipline in schools should respect children’s rights and
never use violence.

29. Aims of education

Children’s education should help them fully develop their personalities, talents and abilities. It
should teach them to understand their own rights, and to respect other people’s rights, cultures
and differences. It should help them to live peacefully and protect the environment.

30. Minority culture, language and religion

Children have the right to use their own language, culture and religion - even if these are not
shared by most people in the country where they live.

31. Rest, play, culture, arts

Every child has the right to rest, relax, play and to take part in cultural and creative activities.

32. Protection from harmful work

Children have the right to be protected from doing work that is dangerous or bad for their
education, health or development. If children work, they have the right to be safe and paid fairly.

33. Protection from harmful drugs

Governments must protect children from taking, making, carrying or selling harmful drugs.

34. Protection from sexual abuse

The government should protect children from sexual exploitation (being taken advantage of) and
sexual abuse, including by people forcing children to have sex for money, or making sexual
pictures or films of them.
35. Prevention of sale and trafficking

Governments must make sure that children are not kidnapped or sold, or taken to other countries
or places to be exploited (taken advantage of).

36. Protection from exploitation

Children have the right to be protected from all other kinds of exploitation (being taken
advantage of), even if these are not specifically mentioned in this Convention.

37. Children in detention

Children who are accused of breaking the law should not be killed, tortured, treated cruelly, put
in prison forever, or put in prison with adults. Prison should always be the last choice and only
for the shortest possible time. Children in prison should have legal help and be able to stay in
contact with their family.

38. Protection in war

Children have the right to be protected during war. No child under 15 can join the army or take
part in war.

39. Recovery and reintegration

Children have the right to get help if they have been hurt, neglected, treated badly or affected by
war, so they can get back their health and dignity.

40. Children who break the law

Children accused of breaking the law have the right to legal help and fair treatment. There should
be lots of solutions to help these children become good members of their communities. Prison
should only be the last choice.

41. Best law for children applies

If the laws of a country protect children’s rights better than this Convention, then those laws
should be used.
42. Everyone must know children's rights

Governments should actively tell children and adults about this Convention so that everyone
knows about children’s rights. 

43 to 54. How the Convention works

These articles explain how governments, the United Nations – including the Committee on the
Rights of the Child and UNICEF - and other organisations work to make sure all children enjoy
all their rights.

PRESIDENTIAL DECREE NO. 603

THE CHILD AND YOUTH WELFARE CODE
https://familymatters.netlify.app/relevant%20laws/pd%20603%20child%20and
%20youth%20welfare%20code

B. Anti-Bullying Act of 2013 (Republic Act 10627)

https://www.officialgazette.gov.ph/2013/09/12/republic-act-no-10627/

C. Child Protection Policy

file:///C:/Users/Keil/Downloads/Documents/DO_s2012_40.pdf