PALAWAN STATE UNIVERSITY

College of Sciences

BIO 109/L
DEVELOPMENTAL
BIOLOGY

GAMETOGENESIS
AND HORMONES IN
REPRODUCTION AND
DEVELOPMENT

MODULE 2
 Table of Contents

Content Page

Learning Objectives …………..………………….…….…3

Overview …….………………………..……………..…….4
Initial Activity …………………….…………………...……5
Definition of Gametogenesis ……………………………..6
Meiosis: The Basis of Sexual Reproduction…….………7
Learning Check ………………………………………..….13
Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis ………………………14
Hormonal Control of Reproduction …………………......19
Learning Check ……………………………………….…. 23
Supplementary Materials …………………………..….…24
Evaluation …………………….…….……….…………….25
Reflection ………………………………...….……....…….26
Rubric ………………………………………………………27
References …………………………………………………29

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 Learning Objectives

After going through in this module, you should be able to:

✓ Define gametogenesis

✓ Explain why meiosis is significant in sexual reproduction

✓ Compare and contrast spermatogenesis and oogenesis in terms of

processes and hormonal regulation

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 Overview

Welcome to Module 2 of Developmental Biology! In your previous

lesson, you’ve learned the different phases of ontogenetic development, the cell
cycle, and how the genome influences the development of organisms.

Are you ready to learn our new topic? In this module, you’re going to
discover how the process of sex cells’ formation in male and female individuals or
also known as gametogenesis and its hormonal regulation work. It has two major
forms: spermatogenesis and oogenesis. The production of haploid sperm cells within
the testes of a male is called spermatogenesis. The production of haploid ova within
the ovaries of a female is called oogenesis. Moreover, both mitosis and meiosis are
involved in the production of gametes.

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 Initial Activity

Directions: Think about the terms that can be associated with “Gametogenesis”.
Write your answers in circles around the main topic.

GAMETOGENESIS

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 Discussion

DEFINITION OF GAMETOGENESIS

Are you excited to find out how the sex cells are formed? Let’s begin by
defining gametogenesis. What exactly is gametogenesis?

Gametogenesis, the production of sperm and eggs, involves the

process of meiosis. During meiosis, two nuclear divisions separate the paired
chromosomes in the nucleus and then separate the chromatids that were made
during an earlier stage of the cell’s life cycle. Meiosis and its associated cell divisions
produces haploid cells with half of each pair of chromosomes normally found in
diploid cells. The production of sperm is called spermatogenesis and the production
of eggs is called oogenesis (Fowler, Roush, & Wise, 2013).

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 Discussion

MEIOSIS: THE BASIS OF SEXUAL REPRODUCTION

Gametogenesis is an interesting topic, right? Now, let’s delve further

and learn more about it in detail. From this section of this module, we will deal with
the process of meiosis which plays a critical role during gametogenesis. Let’s get
started!

Sexual reproduction requires a genetic contribution from two different

sex cells. Egg and sperm cells are specialized sex cells called gametes. In animals, a
male gamete (sperm) unites with a female gamete (egg) during fertilization to form a
single cell called a zygote. The zygote is the first cell of the new animal. The fusion of
nuclei within the zygote brings together genetic information from the two parents, and
each parent contributes half of the genetic information to the zygote (Miller & Harley,
2016).

To maintain a constant number of chromosomes in the next generation,

organisms like animals that reproduce sexually must produce gametes with half the
chromosome number of their ordinary body cells (called somatic cells). All of the cells
in the bodies of most animals, except for the egg and sperm cells, have the diploid
(2N) number of chromosomes. Gametes are produced by cells set aside for that
purpose early in development. These cells are called germ-line cells and eventually
undergo a type of cell division called meiosis. Meiosis occurs in germ-line cells of the
ovaries and testes and reduces the number of chromosomes to the haploid (1N)
number. The nuclei of the two gametes combine during fertilization and restore the
diploid number (Miller & Harley, 2016).

Meiosis begins after the G2 phase in the cell cycle—after DNA

replication. Two successive nuclear divisions, designated meiosis I and meiosis II,
take place. The two nuclear divisions of meiosis result in four daughter cells, each
with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell. Moreover, these daughter
cells are not genetically identical. Like mitosis, meiosis is a continuous process, and
biologists divide it into the phases that follow only for convenience (Miller & Harley,
2016).

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 Discussion

THE FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

In prophase I, chromatin folds and chromosomes become visible under

a light microscope (figure 1a). Because a cell has a copy of each type of
chromosome from each original parent cell, it contains the diploid number of
chromosomes. Homologous chromosomes carry genes for the same traits, are the
same length, and have a similar staining pattern, making them identifiable as
matching pairs. During prophase I, homologous chromosomes line up side-by-side in
a process called synapsis, forming a tetrad of chromatids (also called a bivalent). The
tetrad thus contains the two homologous chromosomes, one is maternal in origin and
one is paternal in origin (figure 2). An elaborate network of protein is laid down
between the two homologous chromosomes. This network holds the homologous
chromosomes in a precise union so that corresponding genetic regions of the
homologous chromosomes are exactly aligned (Miller & Harley, 2016).

Synapsis also initiates a series of events called crossing over, whereby

the nonsister chromatids of the two homologous chromosomes in a tetrad exchange
DNA segments (figure 2). This process effectively redistributes genetic information
among the paired homologous chromosomes and produces new combinations of
genes on the various chromatids in homologous pairs. Thus, each chromatid ends up
with new combinations of instructions for a variety of traits. Crossing-over is a form of
genetic recombination and is a major source of genetic variation in a population of a
given species (Miller & Harley, 2016).

In metaphase I, the microtubules form a spindle apparatus just as in

mitosis. However, unlike mitosis, where homologous chromosomes do not pair, each
pair of homologues lines up in the center of the cell, with centromeres on each side of
the spindle equator (Miller & Harley, 2016).

Anaphase I begins when homologous chromosomes separate and

begin to move toward each pole. Because the orientation of each pair of homologous
chromosomes in the center of the cell is random, the specific chromosomes that
each pole receives from each pair of homologues are also random. This random
distribution of members of each homologous pair to the poles of the cell, along with
the genetic recombination between homologous chromosomes that occurs during
crossing - over (prophase I), means that no two daughter cells produced by meiotic
cell division will be identical (Miller & Harley, 2016).

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 Discussion

THE FIRST MEIOTIC DIVISION

Meiotic telophase I is similar to mitotic telophase. The transition to the

second nuclear division is called interkinesis. Cells proceeding through interkinesis
do not replicate their DNA. After a varying time period, meiosis II occurs (Miller &
Harley, 2016).

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 Discussion

THE SECOND MEIOTIC DIVISION

The second meiotic division (meiosis II) resembles an ordinary mitotic

division (see figure 1b), except that the number of chromosomes has been reduced
by half. The phases are prophase II, metaphase II, anaphase II, and telophase II. At
the end of telophase II and cytokinesis, the final products of these two divisions of
meiosis are four new “division products.” In most animals, each of these “division
products” is haploid and may function directly as a gamete (sex cell) (Miller & Harley,
2016).

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 Discussion

Figure 1: Meiosis and Cytokinesis. (a) Stages in the first meiotic division. Chromosomes of
maternal origin are shown in red. Chromosomes of paternal origin are shown in blue.
Homologous pairs of chromosomes are indicated by differences in size. (b) Stages in the
second meiotic division. One of the two daughter cells from the first division is followed
through the second division.

Source: Miller & Harley 2016

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 Discussion

Figure 2: Synapsis and Crossing-Over. Synapsis is the very tight gene-to-gene

pairing of homologous chromosomes during prophase I of meiosis. Molecular
interactions between homologous chromosomes result in the snipping and rejoining
of nonsister chromatids and the exchange of regions of nonsister arms. This
exchange of chromatid arms is called crossing-over.

Source: Miller & Harley 2016

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 Learning Check

MEIOSIS

Directions: Indicate whether each claim is true or false.

1. The production of sperm and eggs involves the process of mitosis.

2. During prophase I, homologous chromosomes line up side-by-side in a process

called synapsis, forming a tetrad of chromatids.

3. Meiosis occurs in germ-line cells of the male and female gonads and increases
the number of chromosomes to the diploid (2N) number.

4. During crossing over, the non-sister chromatids of the two homologous

chromosomes in a tetrad exchange DNA segments.

5. The second meiotic division completely resembles an ordinary mitotic division.

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 Discussion

SPERMATOGENESIS AND OOGENESIS

You’ve already learned the mechanism of meiosis. Thus, you can easily
grasp our next lessons. Beginning from this section of this module, let’s take a look
and study how spermatogenesis and oogenesis work in human males and females
respectively and how these processes are regulated by different hormones.

The result of meiosis in most animals is the formation of sperm and egg
cells. Spermatogenesis produces mature sperm cells and follows the sequence
previously described. All four products of meiosis often acquire a flagellum for
locomotion and a caplike structure that aids in the penetration of the egg. Oogenesis
produces a mature ovum or egg. It differs from spermatogenesis in that only one of
the four meiotic products develops into the functional gamete. The other products of
meiosis are called polar bodies and eventually disintegrate. In some animals the
mature egg is the product of the first meiotic division and only completes meiosis if it
is fertilized by a sperm cell (Miller & Harley, 2016).

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 Discussion

SPERMATOGENESIS

Spermatogenesis occurs in the wall of the seminiferous tubules, with

the most primitive cells at the periphery of the tube and the most mature sperm at the
lumen of the tube (Figure 1). Immediately under the capsule of the tubule are diploid,
undifferentiated cells. These stem cells, each called a spermatogonium (pl.
spermatogonia), go through mitosis to produce one cell that remains as a stem cell
and a second cell called a primary spermatocyte that will undergo meiosis to produce
sperm (Fowler, Roush, & Wise, 2013).

The diploid primary spermatocyte goes through meiosis I to produce

two haploid cells called secondary spermatocytes. Each secondary spermatocyte
divides after meiosis II to produce two cells called spermatids. The spermatids
eventually reach the lumen of the tubule and grow a flagellum, becoming sperm cells.
Four sperm result from each primary spermatocyte that goes through meiosis
(Fowler, Roush, & Wise, 2013).

Figure 3: During spermatogenesis, four sperm result from each primary spermatocyte. The
process also maps onto the physical structure of the wall of the seminiferous tubule, with the
spermatogonia on the outer side of the tubule, and the sperm with their developing tails extended
into the lumen of the tubule.

Source: https://opentextbc.ca/conceptsofbiologyopenstax/chapter/human-reproduction/ 15
 Discussion

SPERMATOGENESIS

Figure 4: Spermatogenesis is the origin and development of the sperm cells within the male
reproductive organs, the testes. Sperm cells are produced within the testes in structures
called seminiferous tubules. Once the sperm has matured, it is transported through the long
seminiferous tubules and stored in the epididymis of the testes until it is ready to leave the
male body.
Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/spermatogenesis

Figure 5: Human sperm cells (magnified 1,000 times)

Source: https://www.britannica.com/science/spermatogenesis
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 Discussion

OOGENESIS

Oogenesis occurs in the outermost layers of the ovaries. As with sperm

production, oogenesis starts with a germ cell. In oogenesis, this germ cell is called an
oogonium and forms during the embryological development of the individual. The
oogonium undergoes mitosis to produce about one to two million oocytes by the time
of birth (Fowler, Roush, & Wise, 2013).

Figure 6: The process of oogenesis occurs in the ovary’s outermost layer.

Source: moodle2.rockyview.ab.ca

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 Discussion

OOGENESIS

The primary oocytes begin meiosis before birth (Figure 6). However,
the meiotic division is arrested in its progress in the first prophase stage. At the time
of birth, all future eggs are in prophase I. This situation is in contrast with the male
reproductive system in which sperm are produced continuously throughout the life of
the individual. Starting at adolescence, anterior pituitary hormones cause the
development of a few follicles in an ovary each month. This results in a primary
oocyte finishing the first meiotic division. The cell divides unequally, with most of the
cytoplasm and organelles going to one cell, called a secondary oocyte, and only one
set of chromosomes and a small amount of cytoplasm going to the other cell. This
second cell is called a polar body and usually dies. Cell division is again arrested, this
time at metaphase II. At ovulation, this secondary oocyte is released and travels
toward the uterus through the oviduct. If the secondary oocyte is fertilized, the cell
continues through meiosis II, producing a second polar body and haploid egg, which
fuses with the haploid sperm to form a fertilized egg (zygote) containing all 46
chromosomes (Fowler, Roush, & Wise, 2013).

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 Discussion

HORMONAL CONTROL OF REPRODUCTION

The human male and female reproductive cycles are controlled by the
interaction of hormones from the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary with hormones
from reproductive tissues and organs. In both sexes, the hypothalamus monitors and
causes the release of hormones from the anterior pituitary gland. When the
reproductive hormone is required, the hypothalamus sends a gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH) to the anterior pituitary. This causes the release of follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) from the anterior pituitary
into the blood. Although these hormones are named after their functions in female
reproduction, they are produced in both sexes and play important roles in controlling
reproduction. Other hormones have specific functions in the male and female
reproductive systems (Fowler, Roush, & Wise, 2013).

Figure 7: The hypothalamus and pituitary gland of the human brain.

Source: https://www.thebehaviorhub.com/blog/2020/11/17/the-hypothalamus

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 Discussion

MALE HORMONES

At the onset of puberty, the hypothalamus causes the release of FSH

and LH into the male system for the first time. FSH enters the testes and stimulates
the Sertoli cells located in the walls of the seminiferous tubules to begin promoting
spermatogenesis (Figure 8). LH also enters the testes and stimulates the interstitial
cells of Leydig, located in between the walls of the seminiferous tubules, to make and
release testosterone into the testes and the blood (Fowler, Roush, & Wise, 2013).

Testosterone stimulates spermatogenesis. This hormone is also

responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics that develop in the male during
adolescence. The secondary sex characteristics in males include a deepening of the
voice, the growth of facial, axillary, and pubic hair, an increase in muscle bulk, and
the beginnings of the sex drive (Fowler, Roush, & Wise, 2013).

Figure 8: Hormones control sperm production in a negative feedback system.

Source: Fowler, Roush, & Wise 2013

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 Discussion

MALE HORMONES

A negative feedback system occurs in the male with rising levels of

testosterone acting on the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary to inhibit the release of
GnRH, FSH, and LH. In addition, the Sertoli cells produce the hormone inhibin, which
is released into the blood when the sperm count is too high. This inhibits the release
of GnRH and FSH, which will cause spermatogenesis to slow down. If the sperm
count reaches a low of 20 million/mL, the Sertoli cells cease the release of inhibin,
and the sperm count increases (Fowler, Roush, & Wise, 2013).

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 Discussion

FEMALE HORMONES

The control of reproduction in females is more complex. The female

reproductive cycle is divided into the ovarian cycle and the menstrual cycle. The
ovarian cycle governs the preparation of endocrine tissues and release of eggs, while
the menstrual cycle governs the preparation and maintenance of the uterine lining.
These cycles are coordinated over a 22–32 day cycle, with an average length of 28
days (Fowler, Roush, & Wise, 2013).

As with the male, the GnRH from the hypothalamus causes the release
of the hormones FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary. In addition, estrogen and
progesterone are released from the developing follicles. As with testosterone in
males, estrogen is responsible for the secondary sexual characteristics of females.
These include breast development, flaring of the hips, and a shorter period for bone
growth (Fowler, Roush, & Wise, 2013).

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 Learning Check

Direction: Choose the letter of the correct answer.

1. Which among the following has 23 chromosomes?

a. Zygote
b. Spermatogonia
c. Secondary oocyte
d. Oogonia

2. When a female ovulates, in what phase of division is the oocyte?

a. Prophase II
b. Metaphase II
c. Anaphase II
d.Telophase II

3. During oogenesis, each diploid cell produces:

a. Four functional eggs
b. Two functional eggs and two polar bodies
c. One functional egg and three polar bodies
d. Four functional polar bodies

4. The correct sequence of spermatogenesis stages leading to the formation of

sperms in a mature human testis is:
a. Spermatogonia – spermatid – spermatocyte – sperms
b. Spermatocyte – spermatogonia – spermatid – sperms
c. Spermatogonia – spermatocyte – spermatid – sperms
d. Spermatid – spermatocyte – spermatogonia – sperms

5. How are mature human sperm and ova similar?

a. They are approximately the same size
b. They are formed before birth
c. They each have a flagellum that provides motility
d. They both have the same number of chromosomes

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 Supplementary Materials

To further understand our topics, watch the lectures on meiosis I and II,
spermatogenesis, and oogenesis available in the following links:
1. (Meiosis I) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZBqEtIoQmQY

2. (Meiosis II) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9gQS-FnwmxI

3. (Oogenesis) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y6s3obXg8Gs
4. (Spermatogenesis) https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d5cQreR9h20

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 Evaluation

Instructions: In your own words, answer the questions as required.

1. How do you define gametogenesis?

2. What could be the consequence if meiosis would not take place during
gametogenesis? Why is it considered a highly risky cell division? Justify your
answers.

3. How does meiosis contribute to the genetic variation in a population of a given

species? Cite the specific process and explain its mechanism.

4. Compare and contrast spermatogenesis and oogenesis in terms of:

a. location;
b. germ line epithelium;
c. process of meiotic divisions (Meiosis I and II);
d. number and size of gametes produced;
e. timing (duration, onset, release, end); and
f. hormonal regulation.

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 Reflection

WHAT HAVE YOU LEARNED?

Write an essay, comprised of at least 100 words, of what you have

learned from this module that you do think useful for you.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________

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 Rubric
Illustration Rubric
Adopted from rubistar.4teachers.org
Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory Unsatisfactory
CATEGORY (9-10) (7-8) (5-6) (3-4) (1-2)
Time / Effort Student took his time Student showed a lot Student showed a Student showed effort, Student worked
and showed full effort. of time and effort. good amount of effort. but could have put quickly and carelessly.
more effort and time
into the project.
Creativity Student worked hard Student showed good Student showed Student showed some Student did not show
and showed excellent amount of creativity in creativity in certain creativity. creativity and rushed
creativity through many aspects of his aspects of project. through project.
entire process. work.
Following Directions Student worked Student had followed Student followed most Student followed some Student did not follow
dilligently to follow many directions. directions. directions. directions.
directions.
Neatness Work was extremely Work was very neat. Overall work was neat Work was somewhat Work was very slopy.
neat and carefully but some aspects neat.
completed. needed some work.

Use of Materials Student worked Student worked well to Student showed Student needed some Student did not seem
extremely well with create their work. knowledge in working improvement with use to use the materials
materials in order to with materials but of the material used. correctly in creating
create neat and artistic could have improved drawing aspects.
drawings. in some aspects.
Experimentation of Student worked hard Student showed goof Student showed Student showed little Student did not show
Media in experimenting with evidence of evidence of experimentation with any aspect of
different ideas for the experimenting with experimenting with different ideas for the experimentation.
project as well as use different ideas for the different ideas for the project as well as use
of the media. project as well as use project as well as use of the media.
of the media. of the media.
Proper Research Done Student has done Student has adequate Student has done Student has done little Student did not bring
more than adequate research in finding some research in research in finding in any items or photos.
research in finding different photos and finding different photos different photos and
different photos and objects to use as and objects to use as objects to use as
objects to use as references for the references for the references for the
references for the project. project. project.
project.
Drawing / Skill Student skill exceeds Student skill is very Student skill is good. Student skill is Student skills in need
what may be good. satisfactory. of practice and effort.
expected.
Completeness Project is extremely Project has most Project has some Project has little Project not handed in /
complete and consists required aspects. required aspects. required aspects. incomplete.
of all aspects required.

Critique Student participation in Student showed very Student showed a Student did participate, Student did not
critique offered good, good participation in good amount of but went off topic quite participate.
solid opinions based critique. participation in critique. often.
on subject matter and
great constructive
criticism.

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Rubric

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 References

Britannica, T. Editors of Encyclopaedia (2020, May 27). Spermatogenesis.

Encyclopedia Britannica. Retrieved from
https://www.britannica.com/science/spermatogenesis

Fowler, S., Roush, R., and Wise, J. (2013). Concepts of Biology. Retrieved from
https://opentextbc.ca/conceptsofbiologyopenstax/chapter/human-
reproduction/

Miller, S.A. & Harley, J.P. (2016). Zoology, Tenth Edition. McGraw-Hill Education.

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